Wars of Religion: 16th Century Europe

after Luther

Basic Developments in Europe: 1500’s France—time of conflicts:

Who will rule—regional aristocracies, oligarchic noble families, royal house, king?

Will French domains be Catholic, allow Protestantism, what kind of Protestantism?

Britain—time of development: Will Britain continue in the path of Protestantism or return to

Catholicism Will Britain “get respect” as a major iimperial power in the face of

Spanish competition Spain

Will Spain hang on to its role as dominant world power? What is the role of Spain in religious conflicts?

HRE Will the HRE be torn apart by foreign monarchs as the major war

between Protestants and Catholics rages in German speaking lands Russia

Russia struggles for nationhood against powerful neighbors Who will rule—fights between nobles and ruler

France Beginning of Absolutism: monarch is supreme; can

exercise full and complete power over nation and subjects without any check of law

Huguenots: people who do not accept the Catholic church—general term for French protestants, whether Calvinist or one of the other groups

Background: Charles VII (1422-61) Presided over French recovery from 100 Years’ War Expelled English definitively from France 1st professional royal army recruited, paid,

commanded by the state, not feudal lords Pragmatic Sanction

declared the supremacy of council decisions over pope suppressed payment of annates or “first fruits” (Catholic

church’s/pope’s right to half of the first year’s salary of any appointed church official) The pope also got 1/10 of the official’s salary after that first year.

Charles VIII (ruled 1483-98) Valois family/son of Louis XI; 13 at

succession; sister regent, married to a Bourbon

Regarded as pleasant and foolish, with bad health

At 21 married heiress (resulting in 4 children, who all died young) and declared self independent

French/Italian Wars Claim to Naples through maternal grandma Sforza convinces him to invade N Italy, help

him in Milan vs his son Triumphal through N Italy Alliance to oppose him: Venice, papal states,

Austria, and ironically, Milan Defeated at Fornovo, lost most of his army,

and went home to rebuild Ran into the door frame, died, no heirs Consequences: Italian Renaissance to

France

Louis XII (ruled 1498-1515) Actually a cousin of Charles VIII, who died

without an heir, he married Charles’s wife to cement relationship with her father (Brittany) He married three wives trying to beget an heir: had

two daughters by first wife French-Italian Wars, continued

Claimed Milan, so invaded Italy several time Successfully took Milan from Sforza in 1499 and kept

it until 1511 Pope Julius lead armies against his forces with

support of The Holy League (note the name—because it was lead by the pope) which included Venice and England, Scotland, Austria, etc who came in and out throughout the wars.

The French were eventually driven from Milan by the Swiss in 1513.

French-Italian Wars, continued again He pursued the French claim to Naples, fighting

against Spain. Finally, the two countries partitioned the kingdom; of course, the peace didn’t last long.

Spain and France again fought for Naples; the consequence: French lost by 1504.

Francis I (ruled 1515-1547) Father = first cousin to Louis XII;

married to his daughter (but Salic Law = women couldn’t inherit the throne)

True Renaissance King Fontanbleau + employed Cellini and

others = start of what’s in Louvre now DaVinci d. in his arms Educated, wrote poetry Began French national library: he

signed law that decreed one copy every book published in France to be sent to national library

Chateau of Fontanbleu

Habsburg-Valois Wars 1-2 To check Habsburg power Italy, wo central government, vulnerable; ruled Milan

until 1513 Allied with Henry VIII vs Charles V Battle of Pavia; Francis lead the armies himself

Defeated by the armies of Charles V Captured; to go home he had to sign…

Treaty of Madrid renounced his claims in Italy surrendered Burgundy to Charles Turned over Flanders and Artois..

Refused to abide by the treaty, which he’d signed under duress, so attacked again League of Cognac (1526) with Pope Clement VII,

Henry VIII, Venice, and Florence Defeated again: ended with Treaty of Cambrai Left Burgundy to France, but otherwise duplicated

the Treaty of Madrid

The Battle of Pavia

Hapsburg Valois Wars 3-4

Francis invaded the 3rd time when Francis Sforza, of Milan died Claimed succession there, invaded Italy In turn, Charles invaded Provence, again defeated Francis

Fourth time attacked the emperor, who allied himself (1543) with Henry VIII. Supported by Ottoman Turk, Sultan Sulayman I (Suleiman),

invaded Italy (again!) Charles and Henry VIII invade France

Treaty of Crépy: Francis relinquishes claims to Naples, Flanders, and Artois. Peace with England (1546) confirmed the loss of Boulogne.

Francis I and the Reformation By 1519, there were people in Paris who were sympathetic to ideas of

Luther and Zwingli. However, Luther condemned as a heretic, Parlement of Paris ordered

Luther’s books burned, all versions of the Bible except the Latin Vulgate unacceptable.

At first, Francis I's attitude toward the Reformed ideas fluctuated between sympathy and persecution. To gain the support of Parlement and the Sorbonne when Charles held

Francis prisoner, Louise of Savoy, the king's mother and regent, ok’d suppression of heretical books and a commission to find and punish heretics.

On the king's return, at first favored reform, and even appointed Lefvre as tutor to his son.

In 1528, when a statue of the Virgin was mutilated, he ordered persecutions.

In 1532, to ally with the German Protestants and with England, where Henry VIII was antipapal, he changed again, favored reform once more, and in the royal palace of the Louvre listened to evangelical sermons.

1534 "Affair of the Placards." Placards, attacking the Mass, posted in Paris and elsewhere,

one even on the door of the king's bedchamber. Response = renewed persecution; many heretics were burned

and others fled; death declared penalty for heretics. (Calvin left Paris at this time because he was in danger)

Later on, Francis became a consistent persecutor of heretics, by then 1/10 of population. Edict of Fontainebleau: persecution of “heretics,” mostly middle,

lower classes. The Sorbonne issued list of banned books; printing and selling of

Protestant works forbidden in France. In 1545 terrible destruction of the Waldensians in Provence, with

twenty-two villages destroyed, 3-4000 massacred, 700 sent to the galleys for heresy (Protestantism).

In 1546, the "Fourteen of Meaux," burned at Paris..

Concordat of Bologna Between Francis I and Pope Leo X Terms:

Pope got: All the income of the Catholic church in France Papal veto of any leader the King of France chose

that was deemed truly unqualified Right to annates (which often lead to shuffling of prelates among

dioceses Affirmation that the Pope not subject to any council

Francis got: Right to tithe churchmen; Restriction of their right to appeal to Rome Right to appoint to benefices (especially archbishops, bishops,

abbots), enabling the Crown to decide who was to lead the Church in France.

Consequences: No easy reformation agreement in France because kings had no reason to support one. Sets up religious wars between Protestants and Catholics there

Henry II (r 1547-59) His reign was marked by open conflict between

Catholics and Protestants in France: during the reigns of his three sons, kings after his death, 9 wars religious wars devastated France

Habsburg-Valois Wars, continued War in Italy, with some success, until Charles V

abdicated, when his son, Philip, and brother, Ferdinand, split his empire

War continued in Flanders, with mixed success and French sacking of Spanish cities there

Peace of Cateau-Cambresis, a treaty forced on Henry, made him renounce all claims to Italy, allowed him to retain some Flemish areas.

Part of the settlement: his daughter married Philip He arranged for his son to marry the young Mary,

Queen of Scotland; he brought her into his court to be raised there, hoping to use her in alliances against the Habsburgs.

Persecution of Huguenots: burned them alive or cut out their tongues for speaking their

Protestant beliefs. Even those suspected of being Huguenots could be

imprisoned for life.

Wife: Catherine de Medici Catherine de Medici, daughter in

last Florentine Medici dynasty (Lorenzo II) Overshadowed by Diane de

Poitiers, longtime confidante and counsellor, as well as mistress, to Henry

Important because she was mother and regent to three kings

Her uncle, Pope Clement VII, refused Henry VIII’s request for annulment; he arranged her marriage because he wanted an alliance with Francis against Charles V

Longtime Confidante, Counselor, Mistress

Diane de Poitiers Early life:

married a relative of Francis I, had two girls widowed, controlled her husband’s lands, ruling well; canny at both politics and finances.

In charge of Henry’s education as courtier once returned from Spain, (three years as hostage in place of his father

A sharp intellect, So politically astute she wrote many of Henry II’s official letters,

signing them: HenriDiane. "brains behind the throne". confidence, maturity, loyalty to Henri II = most dependable ally in

the court. Henry II’s total adoration for Diane -- jealousy in Queen

Henri entrusted Diane with the Crown Jewels of France, had a luxurious chateau built for her, and gave her another

palace that Catherine had wanted for herself. As long as Henry lived, the Queen was powerless to change

Diane’s power. In 1559, Henry II critically wounded in a jousting tournament:

Queen Catherine de' Medici took control, restricting access Story: the king called out repeatedly for Diane, but she was

never summoned or admitted; on his death, not invited to the funeral.

Immediately, Catherine banished Diane from the palace Catherine wanted: Diane lived out her life in her own palace.

Henry II’s DeathJousting to celebrate his daughter’s marriage to Philip II, a lance penetrated through helmet to right eye, skull: died 11 days later

The Problem with a Regency Government When a strong king isn’t in power, aristocracy and

nobility takes advantage to advance in power and authority

Three families and their supporters fought over power in France

Catherine de Medici’s job: play the families against each other, without seeming to

favor any, to keep a balance of power among them and keep them from taking power or the throne

reserve real power for the monarchy, in trust for her son, the king, who was still too young to govern and make his own alliances

The Players for Power

Bourbon family Montmorency Chatillon family De Guise family

Added together with weak young kings and a strong willed and religious queen, the recipe adds up to disaster and death,

Bourbon Family Originally from a family in France whose heiress daughter

married a son of Louis IX Since they descended from a king, the family was

prominent and had legitimate claims to the throne when the king died without heir.

During the wars of religion, several branches of the family played important parts: Louis I de Bourbon, prince of Conde and general in the

French army against the Spanish, was a converted Huguenot, and lead Protestant armies, then was captured in 1562. He negotiated peace with the Catholics (Peace of Amboise), which didn’t last, and was killed in battle.

At the beginning of the 16th C, a Bourbon was married to the Queen of Navarre, a small mountain kingdom sitting on the border of Spain in southwestern France; the queen followed Calvinism, and made Navarre Calvinist.

In 1572, their son Henry became king of Navarre and leader of the Protestant forces in Western Europe

Conde

Montmorency-Chatillon families

Prominent rulers of central France Though Catholic, these supported the Protestants

because of their political rivalry with the Guises, alliances with the Bourbons

Major player: Gaspard de Coligny, a friend of a major Catholic leader (de Guise), he was converted to Protestantism, then used his position as admiral to try to protect them (established a colony in Brazil, but the Portuguese expelled them)

Called for religious toleration and reform at death of Henry II, but opposed by his former Catholic friend (Guise)

Lead Protestant armies well, he negotiated peace, which didn’t last;

He married a Countess and returned to court and got the favor of the king, which worried the (very Catholic) queen mother and regent.

The de Guise family From Lorraine (dukes of Lorraine), created Duke de Guise

by Francis I His daughter married James V of Scotland: Mary, Queen

of Scots, was their daughter When she came to France as bride of Francis II, the family gained

more prestige Through her charm and “love” of the not-quite-all there, King

Francis II, Mary wielded more and more influence through him Her uncles, who had high positions in the French government (one

was also a cardinal), gained great power in France They lead the Catholic League, organized opponents of

the Huguenots in France

Francis II Married to Mary, Queen of Scots, at 4

(She was crowned queen at 9 months.) They married when he was 14, giving the king of France claim to the thrones of Scotland, and later, England.

At 6 Mary came to live in France: she was poised and fluent; he stuttered and very short

When Francis was 15, his father died, and he was crowned king. Though Catherine was regent, Mary’s uncles, the Guises, held the real power.

When Francis was 16, an ear infection turned into an abscess, and he died.

Charles IX (r 1560-74) Became king at age 10 when

Francis, his older brother, died; his mother, again, was regent.

Married to a princess of Austria with whom he had two daughters; one illegitimate son from his middle class mistress (whose legitimate daughter became mistress to Henry IV), but no male heirs!

Involved in St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre

St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre

Causes: Peace of St. Germaine en Laye 1570: ended 3rd war of religion in

France Leader, Conde, killed; Henry (Bourbon) of Navarre became leader of the

Huguenots Henry and King Charles sign treaty: Catherine and Charles want peace

because the war costs too much money and the conflict divides the court Treaty allows Protestants to keep walled cities in the South, hold office in

France, and to seal the treaty, Catherine gives her daughter Marguerite (Cath) as wife for Henry of Navarre (Prot)

Consequence: Admiral de Coligny again accepted at court, becomes friend with the king, worrying Catherine and arousing resentment of de Guise

Marriage of Henry of Navarre and Marguerite 18 Aug 1572 Opposed by Catholics, the pope, Philip II; Parlement of Paris decides to

boycott wedding Common people aroused against Protestants and wedding by preaching of

super-Catholic Capuchin monks in Paris Economic/Social conditions

Resentment over luxurious preparations for the wedding Harvests bad; luxury good prices so high, only very rich can afford them

What started it: Failed assassination

attempt on Admiral de Coligny 23 Aug Maurevent Possible instigators?

Duke Henry of Lorraine (de Guise) leader of Catholic League, to avenge the murder of Francis de Guise by Coligny 10 years before

Duke of Alba, Spanish governor of the Netherlands (under Philip II) because Coligny was planning to invade and take Protestants cities in Flanders; the summer before Coligny had secretly sent troops to back Protestant revolts there

Catherine de Medici, threatened by the influence of Coligny over her son, the king; however, she and her son were trying to establish peace between Protestants and Catholics, so probably not

What happened: Protestant leaders accompanied Henry of Navarre to Paris at the marriage of

Henry of Navarre to Marguerite (Margot), Catherine’s daughter After much haranguing, Charles agreed to allow Swiss mercenaries, directed by

Henry de Guise, to massacre Protestants in Paris for wedding Originally, proposed to allow noble born Protestants to escape: Reportedly, Charles exclaimed, “Kill them all. None should be left to reproach

me!” First, de Guise killed Coligny in his sickbed, dragging body into streets Swiss guard dragged Protestant leaders out of the palace, to kill them in the

streets Marguerite hid Henry of Navarre so that he would not be killed; he escaped

Paris during the massacres, got back to his Protestant forces in the south. Out of control, the populace went wild, killing anyone suspected of having

Protestant sympathies The massacre spread throughout the country: usually lower class peasants urged on by

religious fanatics, rose up and killed Protestant middle class, peasants, etc. Estimates: 2,000 killed in Paris (gates locked so they couldn’t escape); probably around

10,000 killed in the countryside, but estimates range from 2,000 to 100,000

Henry III (ruled 1574-89) Ruled Lithuania until his brother Charles died Edict of Beaulieu

Minor concessions to Protestants Catholic Henry de Guise formed the Catholic League (religious and

military party: supported by Catherine, the pope, Philip II of Spain) Henry III accepted the League and made himself the head BUT

Assassination of Henry de Guise When Henry III’s younger brother died, next heir under Salic Law was

Henry of Navarre (head of the Protestants!) Henry III had no children: probably gay; adopted very effeminate dress and ran around with homosexuals

De Guise insisted on Henry III making a proclamation outlawing Protestantism and disinheriting Henry of Navarre

Henry III had de Guise assassinated: he invited him and his Cardinal brother, Louis, to await him in the palace, then had guards kill Henry (Louis the next day); he imprisoned de Guise’s son so no Guise heir could claim the throne.

War of Three Henries (Henry III, Henry de Guise (dead), Henry of Navarre) Inflamed by the assassination, the Catholic League rose up against

Henry III, proclaiming Charles Bourbon (another imprisoned cardinal) as Charles X

Henry III was forced to flee Paris and ally with Henry of Navarre With both Henrys’ armies, they were besieging Paris when a crazed

Dominican monk, Jacques Clement, with false papers, pretended to have messages for Henry III, got access, and stabbed him to death.

Henry IV (Bourbon) Called Henry the Great (Henri le

Grand), le bon roi Henri ("good king Henry") or le Vert galant ("the Green gallant").

Baptized Catholic, he converted to Calvinism, his mother’s religion.

When Henry III died, he was next in line to become king.

The Catholic League opposed him, proclaiming a distant relative,

Henry IV: Winning the Monarchy Catholic League with support from outside, especially from Spain, was strong

enough to force Henry IV to stay to the south Henry had to set about winning his kingdom by military conquest, aided by money and

troops bestowed by Elizabeth of England. The League proclaimed Henry's Catholic uncle, the Cardinal de Bourbon King as

Charles X, but the Cardinal himself was Henry's prisoner. Henry was victorious in battles against the League, but failed to take Paris.

After the death of the old Cardinal (Charles de Bourbon), the League could not agree on a new candidate. While some supported various Guise candidates, the strongest candidate was probably Isabella, the daughter of Philip II, whose mother Elisabeth had been the eldest daughter of Henry II The publicity about her candidacy and violation of the Salic Law hurt the League,

which thus became suspect as agents of the foreign Spanish; Nevertheless Henry was unable to take control of Paris, Catholic, opposing a

Protestant With the encouragement of the great love of his life, Gabrielle d’Estrees, on

Henry declared that Paris vaut bien une messe ("Paris is well worth a Mass") and permanently renounced Protestantism Thus earning the resentment of his former ally Queen Elizabeth. But it secured for him the allegiance of the vast majority of his subjects He was crowned King of France in 1553 and proceeded to make peace with all of his

subjects

Accomplishments: Improved the lives of all

“a chicken in the pot every Sunday” was one of his aims Through Sully, his right hand man, promoted agriculture: he drained swamps for new

crop land, reformed taxes to take burdens from the peasants Improved the economy

Made peace with Catholics and Protestants and threatened or bought off noble opponents with titles and land; no wars = prosperity

Encouraged education for all. Created College Royale (now a military school) Saved forests from devastation, built new system of tree-lined highways. Renewed Paris and undertook public works, such as Pont Neuf in Paris, new canals.

Encouraged exploration and colonization Financed expeditions of Champlain to Americas, which allowed France to claim territory

in Canada 1598: Pronounced Edict of Nantes

Sustained Catholicism as the established religion of France: Protestants gained no exemption from paying the tithe, observing Catholic holidays and

marriage restrictions Protestant freedom of worship, but only in specified geographic areas, outside city walls. Only Protestant and Catholic coexistence; the Edict did not include Jews or Muslims. In

fact, France expelled its Muslims in 1610.

Death of Henry IV

1610, as prepared to move vs Habsburgs, King Henry IV was assassinated in Paris by Francis Ravaillac, who stabbed the king to death while he rode in his coach.

Succession Never had children with Marguerite of Valois, and eventually had the

marriage annulled so he could marry another In 1600 he married Marie de’ Medici, daughter of an Austrian princess and

granddaughter of the Holy Roman Emperor. (She also brought with her a sizeable dowry.) Not very bright, but very stubborn, she feuded with the King’s chief mistress,

Henriette d’Entragues She never escaped the charge of having known of the king's assassination; her

best friend was Mme.d’Epernono, who could have, but did not ward off Ravaillac's blow, and who was proved to have known the murderer personally for a long time.

She served as regent to their 9-year-old son, Louis XIII, until 1617. His mistresses included Gabrielle d’Estrees and Henriette d’Entragues.

England: Golden Age

Henry VIII progeny Katherine of Aragon --- Mary I Ann Boleyn -- Elizabeth I Jane Seymour – Edward VI

Edward VI (r 1547-53) Though king at the age of 10, he was really a figurehead. 

His Seymour uncles battled with and ultimately lost the Protectorship to the ambitious John Dudley, duke of Northumberland. 

Edward demonstrated impressive piety and intelligence.  Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer, moved the

English church, with Edward’s acquiescence, toward Protestantism Concerned about the need for a statement of belief for the

English church, Cranmer compiled and wrote 42 Articles, a summary of Anglican doctrine that lead the Church of England in a more Protestant direction.

He was also responsible for the Book of Common Prayer, which broke from Catholic doctrine It toned down the idea of transubstantiation in the Eucharist It removed prayers for the dead, and other ceremonies, including the

admixture of water with the wine at Communion, the exorcism. Cranmer also encouraged the destruction of images, in imitation of

the followers of Calvin and Zwingli. Edward died an agonizing death at 15, possibly from TB &

measles (Dudley kept him alive with arsenic).  Northumberland (Dudley) persuaded him to leave the throne to

his Protestant cousin, Lady Jane Grey, declaring both Mary and Elizabeth “illegitimate” (against his dad’s declarations +he a minor and not eligible to make such pronouncements) 

This decision (because Mary was Catholic, and Elizabeth too strong politically) began one of the most tragic tales of Tudor England.

Lady Jane Gray Descended from sister of Henry VIII; fourth in line for

throne, after her mother. Dudley persuaded her parents to marry her off to his

son, Guildford, thus insuring his continued influence on the throne.

Jane didn’t like Guildford, but didn’t want a Catholic monarch (Mary) either; she married, then when Edward died, accepted the crown, but was only a figurehead for Dudley. She reigned 9 days.

When Edward died, Dudley moved to capture Elizabeth and Mary to silence opposition to Jane’s monarchy, but Mary escaped and gathered support. (She was popular; the people thought her mother had been badly treated.)

Nobles, seeing the way things were going, deserted Dudley. He tried to march with an army + Jane’s dad as general, but Jane cried and her dad refused. Then town after town declared Mary queen. Even Jane’s dad pledged to support Mary. Mary is declared queen; Jane and her followers are all traitors.

Eventually only Jane, her father in law and husband were left, imprisoned in the tower. Though Mary did not want to execute her, Mary’s advisors pointed out that Jane had been consecrated queen and could be a rallying point for Protestants to depose Mary.

After the execution of Dudley and some of the nobles that supported Jane, Jane, along with Dudley’s 4 sons, were tried and plead guilty to treason. The four were sentenced to die by being drawn and quartered, and were executed.

Jane’s parents joined the Catholic church and were accepted in court, becoming some of Mary’s favorites. They were assured that though Jane had been sentenced to death, Mary had no intention to execute her.

However, when Mary announced plans to marry the Catholic Spanish King Philip II, the whole country rebelled. Jane’s father tried to join the rebellion: Jane’s fate was set. Mary’s advisors urged her to execute Jane, because she was a rallying point for the rebels.

So Mary had Jane beheaded, believing the girl was innocent and merely manipulated.

Mary Tudor (r 1553-58) Supported as queen by Catholics

and by most British, who felt she and her mother were badly treated by Henry VIII

BUT she believed the support was not only for her as queen, but for her to return England to the fold of Catholicism

She was urged to marry quickly and provide a Catholic heir, since she was already 37; she chose Philip of Spain, her cousin’s son, since she liked the thought of marrying him, a widower of 26, and he was the champion of Catholicism

Bad decision: The leaders of England were appalled: she was likely to die heir-less, her husband

would inherit the kingdom; Britain would be one more part of the Spanish Empire Conspiracies abounded against the marriage: Wyatt’s rebellion ended with Jane

Gray’s execution and defeat of the rebels outside London’s gates Mary, feeling picked upon, imprisoned Elizabeth, as a possible focus for rebellions of

her Protestant subjects Consequences of the marriage

Purely political for Philip; he lived with Mary for 14 months, then found an excuse to leave England.

Mary, in love with Philip, thought herself pregnant, but it was a hysterical pregnancy or tumor, instead. (Interestingly, Philip had Elizabeth released from the tower, providing she lived quietly in a castle away from London, because he wanted her to look on him favorably if Mary died.)

Philip persuaded Mary to join Spain in the Italian wars against France. However, the pope sided with France. The Spanish forces were defeated. England lost Calais to France, making Philip and Mary even more unpopular.

“Bloody Mary” Mary persuaded Parliament to repeal the Protestant religious laws passed by Edward

and Henry before her. The agreement took several years, and major concessions: thousands of acres of monastery lands confiscated under Henry were not returned to the monasteries; new landowners created by this distribution remained influential.

Mary I put in Catholic officials at the top of the English Church, and had many of Edward’s church officials, including Thomas Cranmer, executed. In all she had 283 Protestants burned at the stake, earning her nickname “Bloody” Mary

After another false pregnancy, Mary died at 42, probably of ovarian cancer.

Elizabeth I (r 1558-1603)

Acceptance Problems Ascension confusion/dispute

Legitimacy Personal image (turned liabilities

to assets) Young (25), Female Out of power stream during

Mary Tudor's reign Virgin—used hints of marriage

as manipulation both domestically and with foreign

Coronation Ring on marriage finger “as to the

people of England” Visits to the Lords

"Good Queen Bess"

Scottish ProblemsIndependent since 1314, resentful of

England Mary Queen of Scots Mother = sister of Henry VIII John Knox’s religious movement Husband, Francis II, French king, dies,

and she returns to Scotland Not well liked in Scotland (Catholic,

seemed French, exiled Knox, others) Married Darnley and had a son, and

then Darnley killed (syphilitic, drunk) Mary married Bothwell, forced to

abdicate (refuge in England) 20 years in prison there: numerous

plots of Catholics vs Elizabeth Casket letters: “Mary, Mary”; execution

1587 James VI (Stuart) of Scotland (her

son raised by Presbyterians)

John Knox Trained as a Catholic priest, he became converted to

Protestantism, objecting to the form of Communion, the religious heirarchy Escaped to France, captured and served as a galley slave, which hurt

his health permanently Lived in Britain and Germany, preaching in Protestant faits

Scottish religious reformer, credited with bringing the Reformation to Scotland Calvinistic, not part of English church Protestantism was adopted by Parliament as the Scottish national

religion. Knox, assisted by five other ministers, formulated the confession of

faith for the Scottish church The First Book of Discipline: priests were replaced by ministers,

proposal to replace bishops with superintendents implemented later Basis for Presbyterian church

First Blast against the Monstrous Regiment of Women, Written against Mary Tudor, queen of England women were not fit to rule, "idolatresses" who set reason aside and

ruled by their emotions. This view of female psychology made Knox offensive to Mary Queen

of Scots and to Elizabeth.. Wrote that it was legitimate for the people to overthrow and even

execute female rulers because of precedents in the Bible, (Jezebel, for instance)

She had him tried with heresy and arrested, but he defended himself and was acquitted.

Money Problems

Lords support Elizabeth's visits

Stopped the wars Promoted industry

and trade Privateers

Sir Francis Drake Don’t forget his

voyages of exploration: claim to N. American lands

French Problems

English war with France In alliance with Spain

(instigated by Mary Tudor m to Philip II)

Sided with Catholic League against Henry IV

Complication: Mary, Queen of Scots, once married to French king; therefore, England open to invasion from France AND Scotland.

Elizabeth drew out, instead secretly supported Henry IV vs Catholic League (backed by Philip II)

Spanish Problems Rivalry with England

Intense because of religious differences

Philip II Flanders interference Fought to keep the Low Countries

Catholic England and Spain officially at war from 1585

after years of underhanded conflict, the war lasting until the Queen's death. Philip died in 1598, but his son, Philip III, continued the war, even though he did so half heartedly.

Privateers (“sea dogs”) Inroads into shipments of gold and

silver from New Spain (Americas) Endorsed by the queen, who took a

share of their booty: income to the throne more than legitimate taxes (favorite: Drake; Raleigh sponsored, used money for his colonies)

Battle with Spanish Armada (1588) Attempts at Colonization:

Roanoke

Religious Problems Protestant versus Catholic division Reaction to undo all of Mary's acts

Parliament dissolved ties to Catholicism 39 Articles: Ch of England performances Elizabeth’s policy:

external acquiescence to Ch of England (attend church or fines); no concern with private beliefs UNLESS pushed;

“I desire to open a window to no man’s conscience” Puritan zealousness

•Elizabeth’s compromises with Catholics offended them.

•Changes in Book of Common Prayer so Catholics could worship in C of England

•Vestments of priests ornate like Catholics (Puritans called it “popery”; Elizabeth liked them

English Problems

Vision for the country Merchants Seafarers

Promotion of the Golden Age Prosperity and leisure Arts

Language Drama

Spain/Germany: Decline of Habsburg Power Charles V

Background: g.son Ferdinand and Isabella and of HRE Maximilian

Becoming Emperor of HRE: Bribed with loans from Fuggers (over Francis

I, Henry VIII) Greatest empire since Charlemagne (Spain,

Naples, Sicilly, Sardinia, Burgundy, Netherlands, Austria, Germany, Hungary)

Aim: keep them and keep them Catholic Italian Wars (Habsburg-Valois Wars)

Defeated Charles VIII, Louis XII in Italy; Francis I tries to take revenge, taken prisoner, French forced to give up claims to Italy and Burgundy; pope allies to fight Charles

Spanish defeat Fr/pope alliance; sacks Rome and captures pope; pope forced to side with Charles vs France and Turks;

Further fighting with France over Flanders; Henry III fights in Italy; Spain defeats him; Charles rules all Italy except Venice

Treaty of Cateau/Cambresis ends Habsburg-Valois wars

Charles V Continued Standing against the Turks

Suleiman the Magnificent, greatest sultan of the Ottoman Empire

Ottomans advanced to capture most of Hungary (HRE), killing 20,000 of its inhabitants

Suleiman tries to capture Vienna (siege of Vienna); stopped by Charles’s armies

Counterattack: Charles captures Tunis, in N. Africa

Champion of Catholicism in the face of Reformation pressures Presides at Diet of Wurms Fought Schmalkaldic Wars: result Peace of

Augsburg (cuius regio) Abdication

At 55, physically old: lower lip extended; jaw out so far, couldn’t chew or speak clearly, most teeth gone, had to be held up to walk; suffered from ulcers, gout, asthma, indigestion, arthritis; retired to monastery

Divided empire Ferdinand I, brother to Charles, got HRE Philip II (Charles’s son) got Spain, the Low

Countries (Flanders and Netherlands), and Spanish America)

Philip II (r. 1556-98) Empire’s economic troubles

Charles left 6 million ducats income; 74 million dollar deficit (wars); debt 8 x annual income

Conquistadores: Pizarro said, “Everything comes down to one thing: money and more money.”

Income = 1/5 of all metals from America

Spain—inflation from gold and silver coming in from Americas

Champion vs Turks Battle of Lepanto:

5 hour naval battle off W Greece between Holy League (HRE, pope, Venice, Genoa, others) and Ottoman fleet

Commanded by don Juan of Austria, Philip’s illegitimate brother

Holy League victory; ended Turkish expansion in the Mediterranean

Philip II: Champion of Counter Reformation Against England

Armada; 2nd attempt 9 years later, but Philip died Netherlands

Cardinal Granville checked Protestants by reforming Catholic abuses

17 Netherlands provinces joyeuse entrée with self government and own laws and tax systems

Spanish took independence from the 17 Netherlands provinces, replaced them with Catholic control, laws, taxes; missionaries and Inquisition to convert back Protestants Persecution and punishment for those who didn’t comply

Netherlands Revolt Consequences of Spanish repression:

Rebellion against laws and governors Protestants fled Low Countries for England and Germany Iconoclasm—wave of violence against images in churches (Calvinistic)

Duke of Alba sent with 10,000 Spanish troops to restore order Spanish atrocities under Alba spurred rebellion Repression with execution of over 1,000 rebels

Alba established Council of Troubles known to the people as the Council of Blood) to judge those involved with the

rebellion and the iconoclasm. Several changes of leadership; finally Duke of Parma came to negotiate

instead of fight BUT Spanish Fury (“Sack of Antwerp”)

Spanish troops unpaid; Spain declaring bankruptcy Siege outside Antwerp (now Belgium); Spanish commander died Troops decide to desert, take their pay—sack Antwerp with much rapine and

death Ended peaceful negotiation

Netherlands Rebellion Continued William (Nassau) of Orange (who was actually Catholic): champion of rebels) Had been brought up before Alba’s Council;

refused to appear, so declared an outlaw, stripped of lands and office

Lead the troops against Spanish: many citied opened their gates to his forces

Spanish siege of Leiden won when Dutch cut dikes: Wm established university there

The Pacification of Ghent signed in 1576, was an alliance of the provinces of the Netherlands to drive out the Spanish The northern (Protestant) and southern

(Catholic) provinces of the Low Countries put aside religious difference, united in revolt against the Spanish

First major expression of the Netherlands' national self-consciousness.

Called for the expulsion of Spanish troops from the Low Countries, the restoration of provincial and local prerogatives, and an end to the persecution of Calvinists

Rest of the Story The alliance breaks apart:

Calvinists more radical, tried to forbid Catholicism in their areas of control. William was opposed for personal and political reasons, wanting freedom of

religion, and the support of the less radical Protestants and Catholics

Treaty of Arras 1579 several southern provinces, unhappy with William's radical following, Agreed to accept Spanish regent, Duke of Parma

Final Peace: Union of Utrecht Five northern provinces of the Low Countries confirmed their unity William opposed the Union, hoping to unite all provinces. Nevertheless, later, he

formally gave his support. The Union of Utrecht = de facto constitution for Holland, only formal connection

between the Dutch provinces until 1795. Later accepted by Parma: Holland would be independent; what later became

Belgium would remain in Spanish control

Decline of Spain : from heights of power in 1588 to 2nd rate nation in 1715 Social Traditions:

Continuation of inheritance laws—all children of nobility = nobility with titles; divide estates; can’t work or participate in commerce

Best and brightest going into powerful church, not business, agriculture, nor government

Agricultural crisis Expulsion of moriscos—no one to work the land in South = wilderness Replacement of cattle by sheep on Meseta

Gradual Transformation of the Americas Mexico and Peru develop own industry while Spain busy on continent Economy with mineral, agriculture, industrial wealth, competes with Spain

Defeat of the Armada Loss of prestige Loss of investment Though Philip begins another, Spain bankrupted

Fall of the Habsburgs in Spain Increasing Economic Weakness of Spain

Inflation from gold and silver depreciating currency while prices of goods rose

Debt begun by Charles V with purchase of HRE title and with wars and building programs continued with Philip II and continued to rise

Bankruptcy of government in face of rising expenses of Netherlands wars

Growth of English and Dutch Overseas Trade Spanish monopolies in the Americas weakened, broken illegally Dutch and English colonies throughout the world competing with Spain,

no longer dominant Trade fell 60% between 1610-1650

Weakened leadership: excessive inbreeding of Habsburgs Philip III: weaker than father, though carried on Philip IV: weaker yet Charles II: complete imbecile; Habsburg features heightened

The Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648)General information: Last, most destructive of all wars of religion Catholic vs Protestant AND Calvinist vs

Lutheran Sacrifice all for religion: belief + hatred; ironic

since all Christian Involved all of W.Europe, including Denmark

and Sweden Changed alliances of Europe and helped

shape the Europe of today

Causes: Peace of Augsburg

Assured sovereignty of small HRE regions: own taxes, own money, tolls and customs duties

Travel and trade harder and harder Holy Roman Empire

Small principalities, etc afraid of growing power of empire

Feared intimidation, take over, etc. by Charles or Philip Sought help from other European powers against

emperor Special fear: Catholic emperors would force

Catholicism on Protestant regions

Foreign Nations Involvement Because of: Spain: Spanish Netherlands was on the

western border of the German states. (The Netherlands had revolted against the Spanish domination, gaining independence.)

France: the German states because were weak neighbors, compared to the Habsburgs realms which surrounded France.

Sweden and Denmark wanted control over northern German states bordering the Baltic Sea.

Leadup: Catholic Maximilian of Bavaria

His first marriage was childless. By his second wife, Maria Ann of Austria

(daughter of his sister + HRE Ferdinand II), two sons, with the oldest, Ferdinand Maria, succeeding him.

Weak in health, Maximilian had high ambitions, tenacious and resourceful

Ablest prince of time, he tried to prevent Germany from being battleground of Europe; rigidly Catholic, but not always subservient to church.

Refrained from interference in German politics until entrusted executing the imperial ban against a Protestant stronghold. His troops occupied the city, and he moved to restore Catholicism.

Protestant princes, alarmed at this action, formed the Protestant Union Maximilian, in answer, helped establish the Catholic League. Under his leadership organized army, but strictly defensive: he refused to

allow the League to become a tool of Habsburgs. Dissensions among colleagues led the duke to resign, but trouble brought

about his return to the League about two years later, opposing Frederick IV of the Palatinate and his Protestant allies.

Calvinism, Fredericks and the Palatinate Palatinate: territory along Rhine (ruled by count

palatine) Hohenstaufen family: electors (Golden Bull) of HRE

Frederick III, a staunch Calvinist, inherited the Palatinate; it became one of the major centers of Calvinism supporting

Calvinist rebellions in both the Netherlands and France; It allied with England, Netherlands, Henry of Navarre in

religious wars Frederick III's grandson, Frederick IV, and his

adviser, Christian of Anhalt, founded the Evangelical Union of Protestant states in 1608.

In 1619 Elector Frederick V (the "Winter King") (the son-in-law of King James I of England) accepted the throne of Bohemia from the Bohemian estates. In charge of Protestant forces (Evangelical Union of

Protestant states)

The Bohemian Period (1618-1625): Revolt vs the Empire Ferdinand II elected to become king of Bohemia and of

Hungary against Protestant wishes educated to be staunchly Catholic by the Jesuits Immediately revoked religious freedom from Bohemian Protestants.

“Defenestration of Prague”: F. sent two Catholic counsellors to rule at castle in Prague (Bohemian capital): Mock trial: Calvinists through them out of window (50 feet up) Catholic story: angels rescued: Protestant story: landed in pile of manure

Angry Bohemians declared the Calvinist elector Palatine, Frederick V their overlord. Became part of Evangelical Union he headed Ferdinand was compelled to call on his nephew, King Philip IV

of Spain for assistance. With Spanish help Ferdinand’s Army had managed to

subdue and conquer the Palatinate, and re-catholicize Bohemia. Frederick V defeated by Emperor Ferdinand II allied with

Maximilian and Philip IV at the Battle of White Mountain in 1620 Spanish and Bavarian troops soon occupied the Palatinate

itself. Emperor tried to force Catholicism on this Calvinistic region.

In 1623, Frederick was put under the ban of the Empire, and his territories and Electoral dignity granted to the Duke (now Elector) of Bavaria, Maximilian I

Ferdinand II

The Danish Period (1625-29): The Lutheran King Christian IV of Denmark, wished to extend Danish

influence in the HRE. Helped neighboring Protestant Saxony vs HRE Feared for sovereignty of Denmark if Saxony under HRE dictatorship Lead Protestant forces against Catholic Ferdinand’s Financed by Richelieu of France (Catholic) & Dutch against HRE power

Christian was quickly humiliated and forced to retreat by Ferdinand. Ferdinand hired Albrecht of Wallenstein as a mercenary. Wallenstein was a

Bohemian nobleman who had made himself rich from the confiscated estates of his countrymen.

pledged his army of between 30,000 and 100,000 soldiers to Ferdinand II in return for the right to plunder the captured territories

However, By 1628 Wallenstein commanded as army of 100,000 and was no longer under Ferdinand’s control. Victory over Christian took him to the gates of the capital of Denmark..

However, without a navy, couldn’t conquer completely, and with war too expensive, Ferdinand settled. Christian agreed to abandon his support of Protestants if could keep Denmark.

Edict of Restitution Ferdinand II wanted to take back the Lutheran holdings that were, according to the

Peace of Augsburg, rightfully the possession of the Catholic Church. two Archbishoprics, sixteen bishoprics, and hundreds of monasteries. It looked like Catholics had won and the war was over, BUT

The Swedish Period (1630-35): Gustavus Adolphus of the strongly

Lutheran Sweden came to rescue of Protestant forces Worried about HRE aggression vs Sweden Protestant, wanted to support others Wanted economic influence with German cities bankrolled by France and the Dutch, and allies with

Brandenburg and Saxony, decided to join the fight.

Adolphus, a military genius, won a smashing victory at Breitenfeld in 1630. Ferdinand fired Wallenstein, then reinstated him vs

Gustavus Adolphus

Adolphus’s army met Wallenstein’s at the Battle of Lutzen, Nov. 1632. Swedish forces won, but Gustavus Adolphus killed in battle (see

illustration) Without Swedish leadership, the Protestant forces lost battles

Ferdinand had Wallenstein assassinated in 1634. W was negotiating peace with Protestants Ferdinand feared he might desert to Protestants

Swedish portion of war ends with Peace of Prague Delayed enforcement of the

Edict of Restitution for 40 years United army of emperor with

armies of German states to one army of the Holy Roman Empire

Forbade German princes to have alliances between them or with foreign powers.

Gave amnesty to any ruler who took up arms against the Emperor after arrival of the Swedes in 1630.

The Swedish-French Period (1635-48):

The Peace of Prague didn’t satisfy the French, especially Cardinal Richelieu, chief advisor to Louis XIII (Henry IV’s son) Habsburgs still powerful, with territory on France’s eastern

border and north in the Low Countries The French (Catholic) openly entered the war, ironically,

on side of Protestants. The war lasted 13 years after that, warring just for the sake of warfare.

With the Dutch and Protestant German forces, France attacked HRE imperial armies with much success Habsburgs invaded eastern France in retaliation, but

were beaten The combined Protestant forces defeated imperial

armies The fighting ended with the deaths of Richelieu and

Louis XIII By the time that peace talks began in 1644, an

estimated 1/3 of the German population had died, with economy and cities in ruins. Civilian deaths due to armed conflict, famine and

disease. Much of the destruction of civilian lives and property

was caused by the cruelty and greed of mercenaries.

Treaty of Westphalia

Brought all hostilities in HRE to an end. It rescinded Ferdinand’s Edict of Restitution

and firmly reasserted the major feature of the religious settlement of the Peace of Augsburg. Cuius regio

Gave the Calvinists their long-sought legal recognition.

Treaty of the Pyrenees

France and Spain remained at war outside the HRE after the Treaty of Westphalia until 1659, when French victories forced on the Spanish the Treaty of Pyrenees, making France the dominant European power.