w.11 - Civic Culture Concept - Gabriel A. Almond

27
v ..Culrurc in Grear Brirain: e:Decline of the Civic Cufture Chaptet yI The United Stares: polirical Culture Atan I. Abramouitz under Stress . iZ7 273 124 )25 chaprer VIr Changing German political Culture David p. Contudt Cha?tcrVIII The political Culrure o[ Iralv: Conrinuity and Change . Ciacomo Sani Chapter Ix PoliLical Cufture in Mexico: Continurrres and Kevisionist Interpretations Ann L. Craig and Warne A. Cometi& ChaptetX On_ Revisiring rhe Civic Culrure: A fersonal postscript 'idnc, ycrbo . 394 411 Index GHA'TER I Ihe Intellectual r story or tne ulvlc uulrure uoncepr Gabriel A. Almod Stanlord Uni!./tit, T,ARLY NOTIONS Some(hing tike a notion of polilical cLrltufehas bccn around as long as m€n have spoken and written about Potitics. The prophets in tlicir omcles,erihortations, and anathemas' impute di6cren! qualities and prop€nsities to the Amalekites, the Philis- rines, the Assy ans, and lhe Babylonians. The Greek and Roman historians, po€ts, and dramalGls th. .ulture and chanctcr of the lonians and Dorians, Spartans, Athenians, and Corinthians; the Rhaerians; Pannonians, Dacians, Parthians, and Caledonians. The concdpts and cat€gories we use in the analysis of Polni€al cultur€-subculrufc, elite political .ul!ure, political socializa- tion, and culture change-are also imPlicd in ancient writings Jacob on his deathbed forcsaw.lificring tarcs and .oles tor his rwelv€ sons, whose otrspring w€re to constitute the tribes oi Israel. Reuben ould b€ as "unstable as water" and woukl not achieve eminence; Simeon was a",ngri man who *ould be divided in Israel; Issachar would bov his shoulder" and would become a !la\e ar rorL(.|laLor. A, for Ju.lah. The scePrer cop)right O lgso by c.briel A. AlnonJ t

Transcript of w.11 - Civic Culture Concept - Gabriel A. Almond

Page 1: w.11 - Civic Culture Concept - Gabriel A. Almond

v..Culrurc in Grear Brirain:

e:Decline of the Civic Cufture

Chaptet yI

The United Stares: polirical CultureAtan I. Abramouitz

under Stress . iZ7

273

124

)25

chaprer VIrChanging German political Culture

David p. Contudt

Cha?tcrVIII

The political Culrure o[ Iralv:Conrinui ty and Change .

Ciacomo Sani

Chapter IxPoliLical Cufture in Mexico: Continurrres

and Kevisionist InterpretationsAnn L. Craig and Warne A. Cometi&

ChaptetX

On_ Revisir ing rhe Civic Culrure:A fersonal postscript

'idnc, ycrbo . 394

411Index

GHA'TER I

Ihe Intellectual r story or

tne ulvlc uulrure uoncepr

Gabriel A. AlmodStanlord Uni!./tit,

T,ARLY NOTIONS

Some(hing tike a notion of polilical cLrltufe has bccn aroundas long as m€n have spoken and written about Potitics. Theprophets in tlicir omcles, erihortations, and anathemas' imputedi6cren! qualities and prop€nsities to the Amalekites, the Philis-rines, the Assy ans, and lhe Babylonians. The Greek and Romanhistorians, po€ts, and dramalGls th. .ulture andchanctcr of the lonians and Dorians, Spartans, Athenians, andCorinthians; the Rhaerians; Pannonians, Dacians, Parthians,and Caledonians.

The concdpts and cat€gories we use in the analysis of Polni€alcultur€-subculrufc, elite political .ul!ure, political socializa-tion, and culture change-are also imPlicd in ancient writings

Jacob on his deathbed forcsaw .lificring tarcs and .oles tor hisrwelv€ sons, whose otrspring w€re to constitute the tribes oiIsrael. Reuben ould b€ as "unstable as water" and woukl notachieve eminence; Simeon was a",ngri man who *ould bedivided in Israel; Issachar would bov his shoulder" and wouldbecome a ! la\e ar rorL(. | laLor. A, for Ju. lah. The scePrer

cop)right O lgso by c.briel A. AlnonJ

t

Page 2: w.11 - Civic Culture Concept - Gabriel A. Almond

2 The Itt.lteduat Hitory oj the Ciri Cutture Concept

;''.:',,*:: ::i:::,[T,#i.,i1ff :;1",. *, \,af., r.m be,ween

ii;nd#1 Ti{;i*$;i {1r i *rff :;:'.:;::i"',':;#,i:ft*,'"';:ffi ,iili:::ii;,:11 i";:illiff i;:",;-#,'n.ifii,","1':.::ill"il.*::"yr

erire poriti(ar cu,ruresl:. :: " " * _o +,.., o- pi",la' ie,,",i,i' li: ;:H::: l ;r; ::i#ii.T' ;tTT: i:X n T J,,l*,::".,':;:i .ff #:1,,Hfi::'.:..,""t',

thc survivins rocar *t, *"0..,'.i ii,.'::,"*il

,"T:.:Ji':in:j iili:::l"."ii:T:",.,1-" is one of ,he mos,r*x...wil.r,I;:li$Tii:t iil.f ;.":l ;i,riilT:i[._""j,.,,..j:,J:,".,.:,.f.J ; ;] i.,,i,: ;lj;,;T,,,i:,,ilT:::p'*:r,rin :r Hir*#,:" H*: :j"i,;,r' :;'iff :;1,.ffi !y:l1l"i "lli:i.T'ilH;..,J[""'T:"j[]:

I rnar governmenrs tary as rhe dj ,pos

,{ 1;1,ri;;;, r*::1ftrilirf":i: *: ;xl ;n{ tl i,:iirri:T,.:r;:i"rf fiT::,ilffi:,:;rXr.,*l;:, I i{:ff*i .ir.,f:u:_ T. l:;;:,i,,tl"i:j:tu

'zauon experiences of rhe,econd. In;:'.U; 1,1, rii ;xriti ;:il::1ir;:liili;Ti1',:::11( lemo.rar ic por iry iy , r , . 0," , , i r , . " ' ' " ' ' t 'ar 'c ol i ! , r .hi( . rnd

t;l*l;'; jr;uillfifl;ili iff t'l;lr;i:, ::i'fi ;::,* ru* r::r;ln*', m :i lirxti\ i*i#i"xi",,,t;ii"i.u,tt,,il,"lil,:r,,T:,;"l.rl:i"l;::l

Th. InteLlect&l History ot' th.:Cilic Cultrte ConcePt

managcable, inasmuch as he has the fountain or rcason in him Inor tet regui"tcdi he is rhe most in" idiour. 5ha'P uirrcd 'nd l ]in.ubordinarc of !nimal ' . Whcrclore hc mun be bound $i th imany bridles. . . ." ' IUothers and nurses, fathers, tutors, andpolitical omcials all have thc obliSation to guidc and coerce tlre

incorigible animal;nto the Path of civic vi.tue. The last book

ot Adstotle's Polit;ct, a fr^gment to be sure, was d€voted to

education. Plutarch reports how Lycur$s engineercd theSpartan character from the moment of birth,lso to sPcak' coun's€lin8 the womeD to bathe thcir newborn sons in wine, rather

fian in water, ;n order to temPcr their bodies. The nurses used

"no swaddting bands; the €hildren Srcw uP free and uncon-

strained in limb and lornr, and no. dainty or fancitul aboutthcir food; not afraid iD the dark, or of b€iDg lcft alone; and

without pccvjshness, or ill-humour, or €ryin8 . . ."'

lhe Le'r ar ta in"blc Iorn of Sovernmcnt i5 rhc mixed form jn

a society in which thc middte classes predomina!e. Mixed

governmcnt is onc organized or boih oligarchic and democratic

principlcs, hencc giving some represenhtion in governing to

both the rich and the well born as wcll as to the Poor and

the base. Such a govenment is likely to arise and wofk bcst

wh€n v/eatrh is widety distributed and whcn th€re is a large

middle class which impart-s its character lo dr€ state. He points

middle amoun! of all thc good thin8s ot fo(ulc is lhe Lest amauni

to pose$. lor rhis dcgrcc of wcaldl is tl)c readics! ro obev

rcamn. . . . Ana 1be niddlc .lass arc the lcrsr inclincd to sbun

oflicc and to covct oflicc, and both ol thcsc tcDdencics arc injurious

ro saics. And in addidon to these poiDls drosc uho havc an

cxcess of fonune! goods, strcngth, $cal!h, fricnds and lhe lilc

arc no! wiLling to bc Solciicd and do no! know how to be (lnd

de) hale acauired rhis qualiry eYen i. (hcir bolhood rrom their

homelife, vhich was 5o luxurious that tlicy have nor got uscd to

rubtuitring to authority even in schools) r'lriLc fiose who 2rc

excc$jvely nr necd of rhcsc thin$ are loo htmblc.

Page 3: w.11 - Civic Culture Concept - Gabriel A. Almond

rnt .U.,runl Hnrcr, ot the Ctuic Luttw. ConLept

i 1#:::iL':,i*:, itr:i :,,:,::(ffiffi*::r*'ffi,m*,,,:,.m;-;,n*t;**lt ;i",m **-ri,.,1gt*',",,$ r; H*i.:f1*f'5ilt#ffi-***[r,

'fffifiilsffi:*Un:+t *, r*i,'i,,*T"r;j'+ ;l:frfffffiffi*;:;in;";:rrft*+fuffi,iln*'Iffi'\lilttilt"H .;i,;:; *u:lfinilx,llilll";

The tntcllectual Hk1ory ol tl? C;ric CtlLtie Concept 5

lhiql , " r . , , " . - r l ,c powrr ol Go' l I ' i 'n r l .e Powcr oL man ' Brr tI Vlc l ' ia.c l l i . wl , j le empl,Jr i r ing Io l i r i , . t l LLr l rure rnd io. :" l r / , '

tion rhemes, tends to lrear ihem anccdotrlly and illustratively

rather than anal)lically as do Pla!o and Aristotle.

Two centuries laler MoDtcsquieu, rellecting 'similarly on

Roman liistory as a way of deriving Seneralizations abour

politics, r!rr'butes the rri(mphs ol rePublican Rome to lhe

parriotic passion of the Roman cirizenry fostered by their reli-

gion, by a conslant pursuit of military conqupst, and by a lively

ansgonism betwecn the Pllrriciare and rhe Plebs. Tlre cor-

ruption of tltc lale republic xnd emPire he artributes to the

openjng of Ronan citizenshiP to lhc culluially heterogeneoL's

Italian and non ltalian PeoPles, and the ovcrt{hclming of lhe

simple virtues ot ibe rcPublic by tlte conqucsts, sPoils, an(l

commercc of lar.nL,ng tcrriiories and strange cultures and rcli-

gions.a Wbilc ir i5 clear in his renections on thc Ronan exPeri

ence, i r r h is t rentmcDt of Frcnch cul t r r re and society in Tlr

Persian I-cttcts, and iarticularly in his spt'il ol Lnus, tt\vl

Monresquicu has recourse ro sociological, anthroPological' and

social psy.hological !ariiblcs in exPlaining national hisiorics

and pol i l ical insi i tut ions aDi l Proccsses, h; mcLhod i5 cssent ia l ly

aphoristic an(l illustralive. Tlrcre is somclhing ot a de.li e in

analyiic rigor from dre classicat fornulations 0

Rousscau's appreciation of the itlrPortrnce ot political cultrtre

I and socializarion in ihe shaPing ol rhe Public Poljcy and legis-

I ht ion oi nat ions tef le€ts thc in0uencc of Montcsquierr, and

\ in ruLn ; a I ' ,om,nc,,L innt ,c, , .c on '1o.qr 'c\ i l le l - lc ' i re 'l l lenLesqr, ie, , -" 2, , r l ror j r ) tor t l ,e \ icw r1 ' . , ( l ,^ l i r i , r l " ! ' remj- lr slstems of legislation vrrv witlt thc "local situation an(l th€

tcmper or r l ,e ' in l , ib i r .nL' . . . ' ' T l ,c Icrm. Rou' ie:r ' u* ' 'o

;a-ndItTdliiiai?urtur: :*.y!!!211, ng,,.4-!E!je" H.

J trcats rhcse as a kind of larv nror e-iip<'rtan t rhan law ProPerl)LI 'e" l ins. . , k n, l o l l . ,w r l ' . , r i . c , ,Ni ' \ . .1 "n r l ,c IcJrr ' . f !1, .

c i t izcnr. Tl ' ; ' ' " rn 's

r l ,e rc, l .on'r i , t ion ' , f r l rc sr ' r rc ( iLc\ oI

€very day n€w powcrs, Nhc otlter lxws decay or die our, . .

keeps a peoplc in the ways ii was mernt io go and insensibly

rcplaces autlrority b) thc force ot habit. I am speaking ol

moral i ty, o i cusroD, abolc al l o l Publ ic oPinion . . . ' "

Tocquevi l lc s analysis of American r lcnrocracy and oI thc

origins of thc l:rench Rcvolurion arc adrong thc most soPhisri-

Page 4: w.11 - Civic Culture Concept - Gabriel A. Almond

The lntellectLal Histary ol the Cilic Culture concepr

\

:1t:1_lealnenis of $ese rhemes. rn Denocraq in Ametica he

,*,,"i1;-""" "' * 'i::;"i:'",T.::"'*'

as onc or lhe*pur,r. in,r," u,,',J r,;,.;,,';;,.""i:;?TiJ: :,::f:i::T,uson,1 Lirh rhe hcdn:nR qhi ,h rhc an,, .nr . 2. , i ! t ,ed ro r t ,c

: :L1:: : ' : ' :1 r ,ar,prv i r lor on') ro x,rn,,cr\ r ,orf , r) ,o

;i;'; il:'.:t.j:."jj;Jl':1,,"";iil::l :i;,:;i j,.:,.J,;j:.jl;

;il;","t" ;'.TIj':.;JxlJ.,ii,T;",i:;,-"','c .' o', mo,r,1-o(tuer i l le had .r s i r r r i ld ly tcFn "cn.c ot pot iL" l r , ,b. , , l ru,c.t l6 analysrs of l t rc pol i r icat r t | iLud,5 ofl:rx;::; :;ii,.." ril ;:i li, | ;::, ili"i:,:f, ::i l;il::i;j::5i*,"ff":';,:ll:.j: .jl:.t,;:,j;:',' ." " -",r,,.f,NLICHTENMENT AND LIIIEE,{L VItrWS

, l f rhe_nor ion ot pol i r i (at cutrure t , r5.

[iiiiiiil',;x.'i.:: ;":.r}lnH*:H ili:l i l l f '11. ',s"" tha, Lhe fairu,c or enri8h,p,,men( rndrDerar expecrar ions d( t t rey reldred ro pot irn; t , lerelofnrenl1111.,ry]rl":,

currurc rer rhe .xpranJror\ prou.cm ,o w,r.,hpolucnl .ulrure re,edr.tr wJs . , .rpon,c, oni rtrc devclolau.nr. l : : : l l l ": . , ,

in tr,e nine,ecnrh in,r rqentrern ,.nrur:c\ and

;-ii,"i1"j;:::ililT:1,:%ii::;":1ty'.1,,,j.,5ir;,il11problen' . The inre ectuat cha enqe pttrs r t

m'm:,1:;*il'' ;;fi lfl ":' :' ffi lT:l';;:f #] "TThe

-entiShtenmcDt and liberal theories oI potirical delclop-nent of thc scvenrcenth ro ninercenth cenp"r;';*r

--.;"r;-ii"'.ip.ir,';.;;;; ;:'::;:: ffi .".':T,l'ii::iffi-1,:::TJ 1"":l:l-:,1,."T":: ::j, ;:,,i,..#"","il*:::1..:)'l :1", ",*'

to ,r,e rationarizarioD 01 sovernn,crr orsaDi.zar 'oD a,)d law, and ro democr?r izat ion. Wb;n,er; i i ts nr;Lrral

Th. lnt.Uect@l Hktory ol thc Ci';' Ctltue Cotce|t

law/natural ights asP€ct a la Locke-Condorcet' or ;n it' util;

t"'i.. ..p".t i la nelueti.rs-llenthamFenliehtenmenr pgliricit

; i ; . " " : ' "

o\ ,horoa;cal Pol i r j 'Jr rh io ' r drr l inP 'n ' r i ' rqt i rv-

r."-iarn-riffi!@. ;= i ; ; l ien, 'bre ' , :qhr ' r , ia, 'nr \o iJer and plcasure \ccker ' ! t ru d

' I ' t ' r ' r

r ' " ' " i "P' 'nd

onsume, or,rse}9}lfl- -" ' i f -" *-^.r l , , l ior r l 'e nrn' r 'enrh ' (nrur ' 'hLsc

Lel icI '

";-^,r,i"a S" th€ industrial revoiudon, sfcnSlhcncd by rhe

"- ."" t . i "" ' ' . ' ; , " r arrLl so'rdl rcLornr) in Ut i ta in dnJ Lv t l 'c

l ' . . ' " , r * , .pr" rnd lorrr6' ' l by t l rc dcveloPm'nr ot Pvolu'

,io,'-r' ia*, ;,i Uotogy, toot' on a scnse oi incvitab;litv { lr

was lliis libcral tanli in rhe ine!itability ot incremental economrc

rtrJ Fol i r i ( r l I ' rorre ' pu' l ted lurwJ'd Lv r l tc no8rr \ ^ l s ' icn'c

,"J 1r," . " , . . i1 i ' " . "o"

t r ' - t r rnJer l l rhc JL' l l in ' ot 'o 'n

;;;;; ;.'"."-"., and Poritics as it emcrscd in the late '

ninctc€n1lt centurYWoodrow wils;n wrotc with subiinie coDfidcnce in r895:

l l A ' i ' to. ' " . ) J i 'JPPcrr ' D!m' r" t ) rnn's "LoLl

, ' i , " ' " , r i ' , . nfe\ , ; l EvrJir"c rhi r ie or poprL' <lu ' ' t :ot ' in

trt" r"" -*"il

anai ils aas! &veloPmclt sinc' halc asu'ed a

,i'i',ti'" r"'*nl rc the mi$€s or the PcoPre dervwhse' the

'i""".J "t i..--,t. oPinion ard lre sPfcad or demooatic

;rr,irt,i.* r',* been n;s( narked and most sigDili'a't Thcy

have tl*uove<l alnct all Purc loms oI Motarchy and Arntodaq

bv introduii.g inlo them inPcrative forces ol PoPuIar thougtit

,ia ,t'" -*.""

inslirxtions of PoPular rePrcsentation: and ihe)

D,omi- . ro,edu. pol , t 's ro " s:n8le PUre (orm i ' ) €r( lu ' l in- J l l

i i i " ' -** '* . ' . * , "J

in\r : tuL;on: Lu( r l 'u ' or " h idc \uf l ' qc

""a , i " . " . ' . i i . , 'p '* '

' rdr ion bv rcdu' in8 al l tords or so\cr n '

menr to Demo$a.Y t

Bnt this confidencc in inevitablc incrcmenBl Progress a! lhrs

time of Wilson's writ;ng hld alrcadv bccn challenged bt the

Nfarxist vcrsion ot enl ighlcnmcnt exPectat ions' and was about

,oi . r , " r ' . ' * . r bv rhc- ' l i ' i l lu ' jonc' l c l i r r ' rs of r l 'c rurr t ot L l ' '

.e" t , .v. l i l " ' i , "s ' . ,e ly in rhc

' ra ' l i r ion of r l le t | ' I i i - ' ' '

c I I | ' '

nr '

;;;;^, -h;

arongea ti'" theorericar variablcs (ljllercntLv and

ri.-"J,t'" r'i',o'i."'r p.ocess in dialectic rather rhan incrcmcntaL

," . r* . l *""a oI intc l lectual jnProvemcnr Prest ; I rg f"w'rd

makrial and Political-noral proges ;It r bcnign sr:qucn'c'

Page 5: w.11 - Civic Culture Concept - Gabriel A. Almond

The Inteltccttul Ekton al the Ciri autture concept

, . ,Tlrus the..wrire! , on comparat i \e eovcrxrnenr $ho rol towedwoodrow Wihon w<re less comptacc rh:rheorcticar (harrenses ;, ;,;;;i;;;;;;,i X:,,11; ::Jl,:,f..T:

Th. l^tcllectval H[tory ol tLc Civic Crltlte Aancepl

enine and dir i l lu ' ioning ev'nts J"me' Br ' (e wr i r ing on rhc

{ut"r-c ot . lemocracy in ;he j rnmet l iare arr(rm'rrh ol wor lL l wdr

l-some drirlv vears aiier Wilson's !€xlbook on comParaBle

hr, l rnr 'ear,r l 'orrnJ i t Pos\ ib le ro cxPr ' - rncrel)

' r tooe ,u. l ' . ' rh"n co0l- 'dcnte in rhc furu 'e ol ' lemolrd(\ ' '

wi l t i ,m.B [ tunro w' i r rne in the 1920" ' r i l l roulJ e 'ho wi lson

'LomDlrLenc\. , ' l \ lunro (13:me, l : l t i ' h ' rd lv ?rr

'xd58crdr 'onto ri". tr'"t.r..", that re demooatizatioD of lhe cniirc civilized

"o.ta, ru'g.ry throu8h the inlluence ot Anglo-Nonnm leader-

"hip. is rh i rnor ,6n'p;cuo* taLr in r l 'e $Lole rcr lm ol Pol i r icdl

'c ie*c. g.r the pr in, ip. , l .ornl 'arar i \c8o!ernmenL rext wr i rcr(

of rhe 1930s-Heman liner and Carl J Fricdiich-w€re de€P]) '

troubleal as libcral €xpectations Iere ctrallenged first by rhe

success of lhe Bolshcvik Revolulion in Russi2 and the rriumPh

ot Fascism in Italy, and more tunclamentally by lhe Nazireizure '

of power in Cermanl Fincr conduded his massive work on a

notic o{ cxnortation i. trre r.rces of good-e(tucarion-to ovcr' '

come aDtidemocralic evil;* Fdcdrich concludes the Pretace ol

his first edition in a dcnant reammarion ol cnlightenncnt

faith: "within rhe liferimc of this g€nera!ion, the Pr€scnr

barbaritjes will be abandoncd, and finer, more noblc conccPtrons

ol Lfe w. l l reds'crr rhem'el \c5 - t

Other students of Politics in these dccacles' as vc havc sug

sesred, began to go beyond these reallimrations ol enlightenmcnt

iaitir ancl-hope as they contronted overwhclning eviderice thal

rhe historical iorces at Nork werc morc comPlex and ambivalent

lf the historical lrencl was in the dircctio'l of d€mocra'y' thcn

Iiow exDlain thc Bolshevik Revolulion and its oulcomc' ancr

rhe tr iunph and PoPular i ty of exPl ic i r ly ant i€nl ighlenment

ideolosies in such Zounrries as Cermany aid Ilaly? And these

big do;brs bcgan to rriggcr manv smaller doubK trnliShtenmcnt

"*ll."tutio"' Jia"'t.""n hold lull) in such a countrv as rrance'

"otor;ous fo. the persislence ot clcricorr2ditionalism the i''

.i?irns ot its people, and the instability ot its cabincls' or as

Ensland witlt i!s aristocr.tic insti!utions and Tory working

O"i', t. * ,t "

Unitcd States, there ParticiPaiion iD etliSht'

enmcnt values was denied to PeoPle ot color'

It was not tha! the earlier generalions of sludeD$ ol com_

pararive politics tikc Wilson, Bryce, Finer' and rriedrictr lere

I"" . . ' " ' . i a in"*** in the p; l i t ical Profcnsir ies ot PeoPles

Page 6: w.11 - Civic Culture Concept - Gabriel A. Almond

lO Th. Intell.cruol Histary ol the Civic Cultvre Cotcebl

:::,,fl:'p' on.

_rhe .ontary, rheir srock in ,,".t" *," ,r,";'#T:::#":'::',',ff:: .ii,.i*.:Tj"T.,-u and,,i\persion

, parry sysrems, [sb'.,*. ;;;;;;.;;;""i."1l;.1.f;:t;1,::-

fi l[{:::1ii.,1ilf:.ilti.:;til;:Tii::x'tr,*i:"i,f;[| i|ili;"T'fit:^il,:":' :,,;:""1..:. t.",gi"s.,,ft h,.*i;li poti,icar decision rh,oil'.";;;;;i;.,i;:'*""tative sovern,nenr,

I and emcienr I*pr.,n*i*r." . i i"", ,

" ' ' rattve pt otorcs t at ional

' ;lt"L:',".1i*ilil.f; $?h[i!I1l*:x,#:gT-,1" "lt.l, had been shaped primriiry by ,r,.r. .,;_^.

xli: i:i: i.lrii:u';",y;,-.1 ;r*;':I ;:li:iru*i;;t'::ii:l:il,,rfilft 1,":i'"':;",il j,tl;l**:;riAmericans, and tr,. ipuil;r,.," owerf ul tlqlsformarive

#j^-'1s+E:;*.'-sdffi

5":l.r::::":::",r*:l'::il;;.'J i,ilTli'illi'Tl ^li#fj,:::l,:.;:: :t'l:'.'.' b. #;;;;,';;;;.;t:ij:H'::rhe sociar characler or sr.,p,,",., Jilili;iil.':':;i:,,:::;theme.

THE INTLUEIICE O! DUROPE,/IN SOCIOLOCY

-,4s. r}le discipline of 5ocioloay ,le\etopcd in rtrc course of rt,e

il::fii"1,T::T';.n: ;Tj-":ii;.","j,:i',*,'. *,;ar.",.l;.",'.::'i*.llft i:,'il1#;::11*#.i:',:';{i:!:ll,:ll":*u ;1, :*^x illJ.i *., jf ":ilffi

.:i':,' :.J':;:l::-*:, 3;r,' ra*..- "*_'";.*.i'iuil}il1',,il"llj.,jfiff?:l::Ji""1,Tffi,:T *;.1::::1,",*rJing' iorurionas a neccssary condiiio,,

"r u;;;;;,";.jldlH,,T1,g;;,

structure and social .hange.'oBut of all dle EuroPean sociologists the most

the shaping of research on Pblitical culture was

Th. Intellcctul Hitary al the Citi Cultltr. Concelt 1 l

lreim based his conception of social solidarity on rhe "conscrencecollective." or rhe svstem of values, beliefs, and sendments shared

. by the members ot societies." And Pareto's concePti oi logicar

and noniogical action, of "residues' and "derivations, r were

pa s of a substantially psychological theory of socioPolitical

inf lueot ial in

for Weber sociology had to bc an "emPathi€ science, a verste'

hend.e Soziologia in which attitudes, feeliDSs, and valucs were

. impotant explanatory variablcs. Perhaps Weber was thc first

truly nodern social scientist. His concePts were emPiricaily: grounded; tre was metho.lologically quitc invenrive and sophis-

licated. He himself had used questionnaires, developed a fornt

ot conlent analysis, and employcd syslemadc neld observation

Webcr's work on the socioloSy ot religion was a resPonse to

Xlarxian sociological theory, which stressed econornic struclure-

rhe relaljons of production-as the basic formativc inlluencc on!

social institutions and idcas webert .omParativc study of tire Ieconomic ethos ol $e grenr world reli8ions was. intcnded to

lrdemonstrate tilat values and ideas can be the caralltic agcnts Iin ( luD8e' in economic . r rutrLrre anLl in p" l i r i .a l inst i ru! ion' . " 1

webcr 's qpes of Pol i t ;Lal rut l ror iL) I raJi t iot ,d l r r t ionr l - \leg, l . and (hJ, i rmJt,r d,e subjetr ivc , i rcEor ies. ' lhev wer ' -

the thrce ideal'lypical rcasons why leaders are obe)ed by fol

lowers, the three ideal-tlPi.al bases ol Political legitimacy

Structural difierences among Political systems are treatecl as

subordinat€ catcgories to thcsc ess€ntially subjectivc cat€gones

Traditionai orders ar€ rhose in which the rulers are obeycd

because they havc been selected according to ;nmcmorial rules,

inal a€l in accordancc wiih such rules. The ftain form of

ralional lcSal order that wcber trcats is ,!r?aa.tory, in which

officialdom is obeyed bccause it is sclected and acts according io

wrilten, rational, and enlorceable rules. Charismatjc authority

is the cxtraordinary and tfansitioDal ryPe ot J)olitical ordcr

characterired by a beliel in the supcrhrman or exrra human

qual i t ies ot r leader. '1Wcber 's typology of Pol i t icai Part ics i rgain is bascd on rhc

$rbjecLi !q rcasortE for menrbeNhiP and suPPort Ch5s Part 'es

Page 7: w.11 - Civic Culture Concept - Gabriel A. Almond

Th. I\t.llecttdt H;rtory ol the C;lic Culture conccpt

: le-fo'e wt,tdr rec,uir supporre,s un rr,e bnqr ot rheir rppealIo-dass rnrcIest. t4ggligg parries a1s 11.ror" .hich :rpperi to

ili,r,ffi :t'd::ili:,[""i-',".fi Tiff ;;Hn ;li l,l1;1i:: l:,.i.::,',pp.,r e-ir'!Li-Eiifp"i;;i,;;;;i.;:lt 'nal l ' , Webcrs basic (aregories ot rvpes or so.raj a(r ion_tradir ionat iry, af lectuat iry, in irrumenral ' jprc,omd,y innuence; i1;;i::" .il:i.iil#i"",i''l*1,"'2a.1' : : ' yhid cnrered inro pol i r icat culru,e j r"edr(n.

:d:'q "t::'::Ti";::i,'"i"J:i Tiii :1:l"l:':.:':l""if"::{.l"',i'.::.#lil,Y':il:l.,::f ':..'::,,1i";;"{,t**l : :1,! l : ' - j* quire crearry erabo,aLions oi rhc wcbe,ian(a:egorr€s or rypcs of soLiat acrion. pdrsons in hi! concepr otorrenrauon to sociaj acr ion spenkr ot (ogniLive, af fccr ive, ,n. levalual ive modes ot or ienrar ion. eanon,.s parrern var iabter_t , ;P-arrs ol (onlrasr ing modcs of or ienrar jon ro a,r ion _r€f lLcr Lhe: l j ' l .*"

.r !_",1, wel,er and Du, ktrcim: frum rne perspecrrvc ofweucr, specif i . i ry, universatirm, a.hievemcnr morrvr[on, andauccrrve neutra] i ty are properr ics of raLionar t ul turc and stru(-turc, . white di I Iusen-css, part icular i"n, as.r ipr i rener, . and atTe,.1,"^1i1,".. I'p.* ot uadirionaliry. These parionian rateeoric,

il?::,"'l i:::::iT.::J :t,il.;,::fi,j::.,1 Jid.,'i;;";THE INTLUINCE Or SOCTAI PSICHOI,OGY

A rhird inaeltecrual srream enaered inro potiricat culture con-::1":ll:T,l:" and.research_that .r. *.i?,r p,ya_usy.'ihi,o-rsc'pxne emerged in rhe lirst dccades ot

rni:i:i1 Ji,Ti i r,r*:;** i:,1 " ilixliili*:':': r:l',: rhe broodshcd and desrru.tiin or wortd wir r, r.l,e:^o]: levlt

R::t, [on. th€ crcat Depresion, rhe I 'se or rratidn

rilT lq rui",I'*",HI;l ;:":1":n:*jru:: :T:,:q

*po'. how and;hy the,tr ir,cre. dnd bcha,ior orrnorvrduats are coni t i r ioned and inf luen.ed Dy rne presen(e and,mpacr or orher indiv iduat5 and social groupings. i r re unia or

The lttellectnl rl;'tory of th. Ciric Cthwe Concept

analysis vhich social psychology has emPloled as building btocks

of explanation arc instinct, Inbit, sentimdt, ^nd.

ett;tude'Graham Watlas and Walter LiPPmann were iislinctivists, aswcre Wiuiam lvlcDougall, E. L. Thorndike, and John Dewev.r'Othcr early social psychologists ltressed habit and scntimentas the basic units of analysis, but dre mainstream of social

psy.hology adopted a(dtude as irs unit of analysis. The concePt;f attitude avoidcd the heredity or environment bias imPli€din such concepts as isliDct and habit, and also avoided thestress on ieeung implied in the concePt of sentimcnt As defincd

in social psychologt, an attitudc is a ProPe sity in an individualto per€eivc, inlerpret, and act toward a Pardcular object inparticutar vays. As the disciPlin€ bccame inoeasingly emPirical,cxoerimenral , and r ieorous in the l9l0s and l9505 ir begJn ro

e*pro'e t " '

p"rr ;cur" ' "o, ia l and Pol i r i .a l at t iLudct were tot mcd

and lranstormed, the eEecl of grcuP structurc ancl communr-cation upoD attitudes, thc structure and interrelations ot atti-rudes, and the l i l€

Two scudi€s of Breat imPortance, stemmin8 out of fie issues

and problems of World War Il, were The Authoritdrian Pet'

sonalite atd The Ametican SoLdier. The A thoriterian Person'

cl i r l ic"errch rePre.enre, l a mrjor tol iaborat i re an. l rro* '

a;iiptin..y "no.ito

e*plain racial and ethnic prejudice lhrough

a research strateg:y which combined thc methods and theories

ot psychology, socioloS], and Psychoanallsis.3s The Amutcan

soldte" research similarly pioneered in the develoPmenr ol

social psychological method and theory, aPPlying them.to Prob-lems ot mititary morale and the ellects of communications on

soldier attitudes and behavio..ldDuring world Wrr l l and the early Po' thar )ear l sy'remaLic

survey rsearch on voting behavior had its bcginnings in the

workrof Paul Lazar:teld and his asso€iates Hcre lhe afiorl was

to explain voters'ihoiccs in teros ot denograPhic character'istics, aLtitude pattehs, and exPosure to communication.3' Theseand orher empirical social-Psychologicat researches in the 1910sand l95os had inPortant imPli.ations for srudies in Politicalattirude formation and for the understanding of the demograPhic

corelates an.I the inlernal €omPosition, structure, and consis'

tency ol pol i r i (al atr i rudes J '

i

Page 8: w.11 - Civic Culture Concept - Gabriel A. Almond

t4 The l4t.lle.tu.I H;ttott ol the Cilh Culture

THD TNILUENCE OT PSICIIOANTHROPOLOGT

A lourrh inreltecruat srream enredng into polirical culru.econceptualizarion and research was rirar of psy;oanthropotogy,stemmins trom rhe work or Freud ."d h; jn;ipk, and j"in;gwith anthropology in rhe l9g0s in what later becarnc known aithe psychocultural approach. Freud himseu commenled on man,spol i r ical fare bur f iom a psylhobiotogi( at poinr ot r iew.i , NcirherI 'e nor his srudents dealr wirh rhe speci! t chu,J.rer i \ r i . \ o lnat ions and Broups. Ir was rhe general fare of man l imirc, l L)hh insr in( l ive endowmen$ anJ p,yLholosi( .1t me.hansms Lhaiprovrded l t re rhemcs tor l reud an,t lhe rart \ p,"ct ,ornJl l r j (theorists. The merger oI pschoanatysis wittr the ioc;al scienccsbegan in rhe 1920s and 1930s wirh rhe work of BronjstawMalinowski, Ruth Benedicr, lfargarer Mead, and Haroldlisswell.io

i / l \ Plodu,:d pr in i ly by ant i , roporosisrJ rnd r , . ) ,hiarrkr, , rhi \

. l l lpsycho.uhu' al I i reraturc 50ughr ro erpldin prr i r i tJt culrureJ l /

propensrt 'es by chi ldhood social izr ion pJrrc,nr. uncon(iou5||mo' i .*r io. , -and

pslchotosical n,ed,ani j ; , . DLrns rnJ im-' mediarely afrer World War II, efiortr werc maoe ro charac_

terize and cxplair- the psychotogical propensides. of rrre najornations at war-cermany, Russia, Amcrica, I.rance. and i:r-pan.,But rhis ef lorr ro explain rhe pol i ( i6 rnJ publ ic pot iyof large and complex narions in the srmpte rerms oI tibidof icory and lamjly aurhori ty and \1ir t r rhe assumed homog.ne;ryof the small vitlage or r bal sociery aroused skepticnm arid gaveway to rhe more sophisricared lormularions or Abran Kardiner,RalPh Linton, Alex Inkeles, and Daniel I_evinson..l Kadinerand. Li on- ex.ended the scope ot sociati,arion beyond theearlier libidinal sraSes to rhe full ]ife cycle, including aduttexpen€nces a\

. fa.rors inf lucncinE cDlrurrt t rot ,cnsir jc l . Ttrcyarso rnrrodu(.d quas' .r(ar i \ r ical nor ions 5U(1, a( . ,Lir ic. , o,"modal" personaliry to correct lhe €articr assumprion of culture_personaliry homogeneily. Linron was the nrsr ro deal dir€crlywith rhe hererogeneiry of cuhur€ in large socieries by introducing the concepts of subculture, role, and sratus cultrrrc.t+:1."

"ld. Lvinson b.oushr rhe pslchocLrlrural approach ro

a ful l l tar isr icat formular ion, arguin8 tbar onty r igorous sampl ingtcchniqu€s wirh carefulty formulated and tcsted !uestions iouli

The Intellectvol His1ory ot' the Ciric Cultlre Can'ept

e\rabl i .h di f l ' rctr ,c) in t Ie lo l i r i r l 'u l rur i ot nat ior ' ' an' l

subgrouPs within them

THE DEVELOIMENT OT SURVEY

RESEARCr! IIETHODOI-OGY

t5

Bu! as so ofren has iraPPene.l in dle history of scienri{ic work'

lhe inlcntion ot a new-iesearch rechnology was the crtalyiic

""* i t " .n" pol i t ical .u l rurc conceP!u! l iTat io and rcsearch

rfiat took plac'c in th€ 1960s Tlre incrcrsingl) evidcn! Iaill're

of enlight€nment exPeclations and lhc incaPaciry ot a co'n-

oaradv; Doliri.s barcrt on these exPectalions to exPlain tlre

iar icrv ol polrr i , , l p l 'en"ntcn' Ie l l ' t r ' ' r r ' l ' r ' rJnd r l rc m"t i \ i

, ; " ; , . . " ; 'ot : r l sLienrt" t" ,onrrr"uLins Lo tol iL cJ

'u lurre

'"..u,at; "-'a the develoPmcnr of Drole comPlex and soPhisti

cate<l socioloeical, anlhroPological, and Psychologi'al theory

coula p-tialiy explain tlic opportunity whidr 1ras bccoming

-"il.bl" f..

" *"; eficclivc SraPPling vitll Palterns of Politics

and thcir expianations. But rhc develoPment of suraey reserrcn

mct l ,odoluA\ s.r rhc i rnm.diatc "nt l morc l rowcr lu l sL nrr ' lut

l r l , rd no;! Le,om. lo ' iL lc ro e5r!Ll ;s l ' s l 'c t l 'er r l 'cr( \ !c 'e

inilecd clisrinctive nition "narki and n;rtional charactcrsi

*l'"trt.. ",tA

in ivhar resPccts antl clcgrccs nations ere dili(tc'l

into distinctive subcultures; wheLher social classes' hrnctiotlal

*r" 'o ' . " . . f rpc. i l l . r l i re ' I .a lJ;rrn ' r i \ ' or icrrrJr ions to$rfJ

i . r i , ; . r^ . r PuLIL l ,o l i ,y "nd sr '1t ro le s ' \ t l " )cJ l ' \ !h" t

lo. ; r l izar iou .gcnrs i r r t ln dev. lopn.,nr " t r l 'c 'c or iet ' re inns'

The developrnent ot stalisiical anallsis madc ir incr€rsitgl) Po!-

sible lo estabiish the Palterns ol inrcraction among atlltuoes'

the rcladons ot social-itructural and demographic variaLlcs to

attituale variables, and thc reiations of attitude lariables to social

rnd Dol, t ;cal behaviot "TI ; is rc\olur ion in so, :"1 s. i ' n.c rc 'e rr 'h rc ' l 'nolo$ h;J

some four conPoncnts: (r) tlic dcvcloPmcnt of nrcrcas'ngr)

precise samPling mcthods, making i! leasibLc to gatlrcr rcPrc-

i"'o,i'" a"'* cir targe populations; (2) thc increasins soPliisti-

calion of interviewing mctlrods !o assure grearcr rcliability in

ir," J"o a*i'"a by ftcsc mcdro'ls; (3) dre develoPncn! ol

scoring and tcating t€chniques, making ir Possiblc to sorr our

".a .is*;" resp.-nses in I'"*"g"n"ou' (litrrcD5iLns atrd relare

trrem Li theorctiial variables; and (4) the increashs soPhLstic!'

Page 9: w.11 - Civic Culture Concept - Gabriel A. Almond

to Th. tntellcctuat Hktory ol th. C;lic Cuttur. Coscept

tron of. merfiods of starisrical analysis and inference, novingfiom simple descriptive statisrics to bivariare, multivariatelregression, and causal.pa analysis of rhc relarions amongcontextual, atiirudinal, and behavioral variabtcs.

The dcvelopmenr of survey research broughr ro bear onpolitics a ser of precision roots enabljns us ro move from rela,tively loose and speculative interences regarding psychologicalproPcnsrttes trom rhe content of communications, Irom ctinicalmateriak, or from b€havioral rendencies. To bc surc, rh€ darayielded by survey research were crcated by ttrc instrumenG andprocedures of the rcsearclier, by the quesrions askcd of respon-denrs, by his sampling decisions, and bi his tcchniqucs of analysisand inre'en(e. As exp€rien(e in vot ing \rL,Jics.

" i t i , , , r" , ,u. t i " . ,and market research accumllarcd, (he\e rour(e, ol cnor .anteunder grearer con(rol, atthougb, to b€ sure, ttrey can ncvcr befully eliminared.

THE CIVIC CULTURE MODEL

Thc C;l,tc Crllrre study drew on all rhese inlellectual currcnrs.From enljghrenmenr and liberal politicat rhcory ir drew rhc"rationality-nciivist model" of <temocratic citizenship, the modelo[ a successful dcmocracy rhar requircd thar all cirizens beinvolved and acrive in polirics, and thar rheii.participalion be

by itsell ihii-F;itiAFanEdfioiralisr rnodel of citizenship corr)dnot logically susrain a rlable democratic government. Oniy whcncombined in some sense with its opposires of passivity, rrur, anddelerence ro authoriry and comperence was a riable, stabledemocracy possible.

The Chic Cultute study .was €onceived in (he aftermath ofWorkl War IL The ev€nr5 of the I920s and rhc 1930s and therellecrions o[ social rheorisrs on those cvcnrs informed rheirlDlilical theory. The rragic collapse of Italian an(t parriculartyce.man denocracy and rheir subversion inro panicipani-dcstructive manias, and the instabiliry ot rlre Fr;nch ThirdR€public, were rhc powerful historicai exper;ences conrriburingto.this more complex lheory of rhe retarionship be[vcen po]iricai.ulture and democratic srabiliry.

'fhe Intcllectrdl llktory ol the Ci'ic Cu ,!t. Concept \7

The tlreory of democlalic stabili!] to which TIle Ciric Clnlure

conrributed is in the most ancieni of inlcllecturl tradiLions.

we have already suggested !ha! the ct,;. crlllrd modcl is

related to the mixe(l-governmcn! nodel, celcbrated in Aristotle'

Polybius, and Cicero, and laler inlluential in the develoP'ncn!

of separation'of'powers lheory. Aristotle ProPosed tlle mix€d con'

sriluaion as an answcr to the froblcm of ilrsralriliry in the lighr of

the excesses of Alhcnian .l€mocracy. Alr(l Aristodc in Parricularspecin€s the atrirudes.Dosr likely to iustain such a mixed Polity:moderation, inlerFrsonal lrust, an(l cvcn

' "rtain dimdcncc

rcgarding politi.al Parric;Pation. Agiin in the aftermath ot tlre

Third Punic War and in the tlomc of sciPio Africanus, th€

Greek stoic Polybius draws rhe lessofls of tire tragic Greek and

oarr i (u l r r l \ { rh€nian exner icnce tor hi ' Roman mrsr ' r ( 5rress-

ing the 'irt"cs

of -i"e,i

goucrnment, which hc nnds cxemPli'

nA in the Spartan and Carthaginian constitutions and in the

contemporary pre'Gncchan Roman rePul,lic. A ccntury later

Ciccro, in thc ailermath ol tire disordcrs iDd civil wtrs of the

Rome of.the Gracchi, Ifarius, and Srrlla, and i,r th. Period ol

th€ struggle among the TriumviN-in the twiliSht of the re-

public ir other words-revives ttlc Polybian version ol the

io-an constit"tion, Prcscnting it as the nixed'consLitutional

solut ior which mighr sr iu sale the rePubl icr{

Neither Polybius no. Cicero cxPlicatcs the Psychologicalaspecls of polilics and of varietics of PoliticaL sistemr in thc wa)

ttrar Plati and Parlicularly Arisiorlc do. Atislotle claborates

thc psycltologicai variable in the context ot his discussion ot

the best realistically Possiblc constitulion, aThich is a mixture

of oligarchy and denocracy in a socicty in which lhc rniddlc

classes predominateJ eithcr in the lense of bcing more numerous

than the rich and rhe poor, or at leasr numerous cnough to

maintaiD a balance ot Power. This kind of ftixed Sovernnent/niddle-class-prerlorninant Polita is likcly to bc charactcrired b)

the "batancecl disParities" of thc civic culrLrre-a kind of

moderate poliiical PatticiPation vhich "'ords

discretion to

political leaders ind govcmm€Dt oFcialsj a i<ind ol Politi'alinvohement which ;s ncitlter fully Pragmatic nor si!nPly Passion-ate; and a torn of PartisanshiP which is dynrnic vcr containc(l

wi lh in olerar.h;ng nof ln5 of a common. iv ic uni tv

Though Pol lb i |s and Cjcero ei thcr wi tncsscd or l ivcd ;n thc

Page 10: w.11 - Civic Culture Concept - Gabriel A. Almond

t8 Th. Irtellcct@l Hhtary ol thc Cilic Crltute Con.ept

viv id mc,nory of pa\s ionarc anJ l , looJv. i \ ; t i t i \o,ders in demo.oalr( Arhcns and denrocrar i? ing Rome, their uedlm.nt o l rh.mixcd consri(urion tends ro b€ mechanicat an.l srrucrLfat rarherthan psychological. Ir may b€ rhar they assumed rhat a mixedconstrtution would require a Sroic cukure ro produce it; orthat such a polit;cal cukure would iesulr from it. In any evcntit.is an unamLiguously clear jrrplicalion ot dreir rreatment otmlxed govemmerrr rhar it would be a governmeDt in which rhernsurutronal arranSements would encourage moderadoD, and iDwhich.thc modcrarion o{ irs members would conrribure roPreserving rhc institutional arrangements.

The Fren.h Revolut ion, rhe American demo€ral ic. ,expcr;ment," ancl rhe dcmo$arizario ot Brirain in rlre cighteinthand nireteenth .e'rturics produced similarl' sobcr rcflecr;onsamong poliricrl rheorists. Tocquevilte, wriring on rhe condilioDof opinion and polirical culture in France on rlic evc ot rhcrcvolutioD, spclh out rile vcry obvcrse of lhe cjaic culrure jnh; er lo ' l ro.xplJ i rhc (o r t .e ot r t ,e aI i , r r .g i ta". rhcdestru,r ivcncss ot rh.

'cvotur ion, rnd r ln in,rar i l i i l ur rhc

posrrelolutionary regimes: rhe incsponsibitity of rhe arisrocracy,r l ,e i ' , tcNc jealoDs) among r l ,e Lo;rgcoi . ie ot ! r isro.ruu. l r i , l -lcge, (he.runcor ]n l l wr!rh ot r t ,c pe!,Jnry u, , r r t r .n erpt" t ra-tion, and dre self,inroxication of the French in(clle;luats w;rhth€ir Srand and absrract rheories and clesigns.-

, Tocquevillc, s€ekin8 to allay anxiery about the prospecrs of

democracy in A'ne'rca, iD ef ler L repc,rs r l ,c mixc. l g"rrr ,menr.crvr( .cul tu 'e r l ,cor! of h is preJc,es)ors. Th. r \ raIny o{ rherna.iority and rhe dangers of mass dcmocracy are conrained inAmerica by the insrirut;onal separarion of powcrs, bur in aditition by a "legal arisrocracy.', He poinrs out rhal .,The

arisrocracyof America is on rhc b€nch and ar rhe bar. . . .,'tr has a kindof corporar€ quality in .ommon with aristoffacics anal ir is the"onty arisrocrlri. €lement rha! clln be amatgamated withourviolence widr rhe natural elemenrs of democracy and be ad-vantageously .,nd permanenrly combined vilh them. . . . M€nwlro L.,r,r nadc a spccial study ot rhe taw, dcrive from lhisoccupatro,) cerrain habirs ol order, a la5re for Iormaliri€s, andal . ind ol r r rsr inr t i re regard for r t re regutrr conne(r ior of ider. ,whr(n narunl ly render rhem vcfy Losr i lc to t t ,e rc\^ lu{ ionJr)spir i t and rhc unf. l lect ing passions ot the mutr i rudc. io

The Intelle.ttol ll[tary ol th. Citic Cvlttt. Concelt I !

To th; seParation of povcrs, aristocratic 'dmixrure

as an

assurance of itability, Tocqueville adds his characrcrization of

American political culture Llc a(ribulcs lhe stabiljty of Amcrrcau

ilemocracy to irs gcography and ecology, ro irs constitution or

laws, but mosl imPorlant of ali to ils customs, by vhich hc

meant "rhe moral and intcllectual characteristics o[ men ln

so€ietl.' He leaves Do doub! about tlr€ imPortance lic altaches

to whar we aoul.l calt Polirical cul!ure loday: "1f I havc hitherto

taile.l in nakir)g the reader tcel fte imPo't2nt influcncc ot the

practical cxpcrience, the habils, tlie oPinions, in shorr, ot the

iurt.*t of iI'" Americans upol tlre maintenance ot thcjr insti-

tutions, I luve failcd in thc Princilal objccr ol my work n

tlc then goes on to descrilrc a Polilicrl culture' at least on the

llast Coasi ol Amcfica, as Darkcd by habirs of rtstrain!" xnd

"tranqui l l i ty ," onc in wbich a substant ia l Parr o l the PoPulat to ' lpursucs tel f inrcrest r ight ly understood' wi th ' tcnrPcran'c,

nodcrar ion," and "scl l -comnrand' r r

I r l lhc process oI de.rocrat iTat ion i r i l r i ta in in lhe 'outse

ot thc nnr;tccnlh ccnlury, John Stu.trt l{itl rexctcd lganrst tlrc

rational democraLic sinDljsm ot rhc earlicr IDglish radicals,

rccognizing rhc dadgcrs ol naiorir) lyrannv a d moral rn-

- ' "p"*" ." ; " a fu l l reat i4t ion oI dcmocrecv wit t rout regafd

ro.o"rp","" ." and rcsPonsibi l i iy . LcadershiP by bc! !er-qual ihed

ci t izens nay courtcracr r l ,csc tendcn. ics l \ I i l l farors a kbd of

mixeal governmen! with lhe PrinciPlcs of ParliciPaLion a d

competence 'omel'ow

recorcilcd in the najor PolitiGl in5ritu'

tion;.' A. v. Dice) Poinls out that, whil€ lt{il] rcmamed a

democrat until his dling clay, "his bcl;ef nr democrac) \tas aery

difieren! in spiri! fron lhe confrdcnt democratic laith oI his

iathcr. I t was l imirc. l bt the drcad, impired by Tocqucvi l lc '

oI th€ tlranny of tlie najorily . . The dcnrocrat who h'Jlds

that tlic rnajorily ought !o rule, bui !ha! \{inl{rm is to be found

mainlv;r nr inor i t ics, and that c lcry Possiblc t rcaDs ougl l r Lo

be ailc'prcrl to PrcveDt Lhe ignorant najorn) trom:rbusnrg its

powcr, has rctreare<] a long way lrol! thc clear, lhe confid€nt

an<l the r lognnt ic Radi . : l ism of thc 1830s ' !0

trValter Bageho!, latcf in thc ccnlury, rcnccting on thc charac

ter;st ics and condi t ions ot a Pol i t ) o l dncussion" concs ver)

c lose to the br lancc. l d isPir i ( ;cs" ol thc c iv;c 'u l lLrre

l lc

i spcaks oI t l re iml,orrancc ol "animatcd modc4r i ! r r ' i rL thc

Page 11: w.11 - Civic Culture Concept - Gabriel A. Almond

20 Th. IateLhttudl Hi j to ' ) o l thp Ciui Cul 'L 'e Con.ppL

maintenance of "governmenr by popular discussion," a "vigor-ous moderateness," "a cerrain €ombinarion of energl ol n;ndand balancc of mind, hard ro arrain and harder ro keep." nAnd in T/ra EngLish Constitution he spells out lhe artirudinalprerequisites of elective and cabiner governmeDt as includingmutual trust among the voters, a "caln ralional mind," wide-sprca{l knowle(lge and anal}tical capaciry, and Aelerence ro rankand authority, enabling ihe governmen! ro govern.r,

The rise of totalitarian movemenls afrer World War ll pro,duced another wave of theorerical speculalion regardiDg rhecondi t ions of democrar ic srabi l i ry. Democra! ic ins!rbi l i ry andcollapse was said ro bc thc conseqLre')ce of "mass sociery. iuasssociety was said to be a by prodDcr of thc procc$es of jndus-'t r ia l izat ion, urbaniza! ion, and democrar izal ion, resulr ing in rhcdestruction of social tics and orginiation in which the inomicmasses berome susceptible to dema8ogic leadershD and aulhori,tarran movcments.,r In rhosc soc;eries in which sociat andeconomic organization remained vigorous dcspirc urbani,arionand industrialization rhcre ivere detcnscs agrins! thc disintegra-tion and anomic conscqueni-s of rhe forccs ot moderniarion.Alcxis dc lfocquevillc had, ot course, arrriburcd rhc success andstability of American dcmocracy in parr to the prevalencc oIloluntary associations, to the cooperatilc cren!iviry of Amcricansin contrast to dre conrinental luropeans. In thc crisis decadesof tlre t930s and I940s rhc plLrralist hyporbesis was advanccdas a partial explanation {or !l)e incidence of democraric in,stability and collapse. The role of interes! groups in irticutaringrhe demands and neecls of dillerent social groups, the amliarionof individuals wilh a rariety of inrercsc gloups as rendjng torcduce the intensity of inrerest, and the energencc of skilled-interest-group elites was said to mirigare rLe consequencc ofmass so.iery. ln its stress on rhc developmcnt of skiued cliresand subclites, and in inregrating individuats into sociil srruc-ture and mitiga!ing fie inrensity of alienarion and antagonisn,pluralist th€ory had much in .onmon with rhe mixed.golern-ment/c iv ic.cul ture theory ot denocrat ;c srabi l i ty . -

Wllether the explanation for rhe success of aurhoritarirn ma$movemenG siressed sociocconomic or psychological conditions,the presciplions proposed by social and polirical rhcorisrs hadmuch in common with the mixed<onstirurion/civi. cuhure

The lnkUecluol Hislory ol th. Ciric Crltwe Corcept 2l

tradiiion that we hale jus! rericwed. Thus Joseph Schunperer,chawinS the inplications oI thc poljricai (leveloPmenrs of lhescdecades, ploposed tvc "Condirions tor rl,c Succc's of rhc De'ro-cratic Nlethod. 'I'he 6rsi ot rhesc was a ser ol poliricians, noronty ol good charactcr and inreUigcnr, but s l i l lcd in bargaiDing,coatition making, elecroral campaiSning, and rlre l;ke. In orhcrwords, democratic l,olitics requires skillc(l prolcssional polir;cjans. A second rcquiremenr was rhat the i)oliricrl processshould not bc overloadcd wirh a mullirudc of pfojc.rs and l,fo-grams, lha! lha scope of g.'vcrnmenr be in somc nrersufc limire.L.,4. third rcquirenenr was a prolessional burcau.rrc) ro t)rovnlecont inui t l and cxpcrt(e to rhc legis la l i le aDd adminiuar ivcproccsscs, a boreaucratic profc5rional(loDi srrong rncl corfideD!cnough to " instrucr the pol i t ic ians." "Denocrar ic sct l coDtrol"was Sclrumpeter's tourth rcqu;rcm€nr, wtrich b.oughr lrim jrrothe (loDrain ol wb:rt wc $'oul(l irll potirical cnlrufe. Covern-mcn! and shadow governmcnt, par l iaDrcnrar ians on both s ic les,of ihc aisle, and Lhe elcclors in rlie countr\.sidc musr rcqrecrthc pol i t ic i '1 div is ior l of laLof. This mclnr r l ra( "bxckbcDcherJ 'shouicl accord (liscretion !o tronlbenchcrs i aDd wtritc riieopposj t jon tus rhe doly Lo opl)osc, thcy "Drusr rcsis! the Lcmpta,t ror l lo rPset or cmbarrass t l ic Sovcrnmcrr cach r i rnc they coulddo so. Schumpeter also afgues rha! "Thc vorcrs outside olpalliament must rcspcct the di!ision ot labor bcrween rhchsctlcsand the poi j t ic ians rhey elcc! . They mus! nor wirhdiaw conn.dence too easily berwcen el.ctions xnd tlicy Nrsr uD{lcrsk (lihat , on.e l l r€y h, tvc c lccrcd an indiv idual , pol i r icat acl ion is hisbusiness and nor thei |s. Thc fr I ih rnd Gnal rcquircmenr tofdcmocra! ic stabi l i ty is to lerancc oI r t i l lc |cncc ol opinjon. Hepoinls out rhat, "(lcnocraric governrncnr aill s,ork ro fuiladvantage only if all the iDlercsts lllirt marrer nrc pmcri.altyunanimous not only in rhcir at lcgiance !o lhe coun[y bur alsoin t l i€ i r a l lcgiance ro rhe srru.rural pr inciplcs of r l jc cxkr iDg

It is easy to scc i fom Schumpclcr 's analysis Lhrt he has inmind pr imxr i ly Bf; t jsh, and ro a lcsscr cxtent Arner i . : ,n, ( tc i roc-racy in spel l ing out his f ive requireuents, an( l rhar his negar; \cmo(lels are cermrny, rMDce, nr)d Irxly. tsle was asking ttrequesr ion that most i f nor al l l )o l i r ical and social scicr l t isrs rvcreasking in thc dcca. les immedirrc ly pr;of ro i rd r f rcr $/( , id

Page 12: w.11 - Civic Culture Concept - Gabriel A. Almond

22 t h. t rk lL.ct lnL I l is t . , l o l thc C i CuUlt te Conce| l

\ \ ' i1 I l . \ \ ' l ly r l i i l ( lc t rh(ra.y sur! i !e in l r i ra;n and thc Uni tcdSr,rrc! , xrd \ 'h) ( l id i r colhpse (n t l )e l turopcaD cont iDcnt? AndI ' is i 'swcf hl ls in lo r l ,c r ' iNcd.govcLrrcnt /c i ! i . .cul tLI le t ladi1i(D whi( l ) we l r rvc oa(.d brck ro r l rc or;gi , rs of humar spcculx-( i inr a l )out pol i t ic i .

' l I l I Ct f l ( ] ( iUI- ' l URl. : l (USr]^R()I DIISIGN

' I l i ( r , , r l ror ! ot ' l ' l1c Cir i . Cr l t lue wcrc tJrc hcirs ot t l , isiDt. l lc{ : r , , r l [ : r l i i tnr , r ' ,d wcrc secking Lo test th;s theory olstal) lc l lor(x ' r (y ;n t l ,c ( l r rD)at i , lx l ,orr tdy oI rc.enl h inory.l l r i l ish rn( l , \nrcr i . . , , ( lc , r ro( . r .y h.( l so eho\v vcarhcre. l thc! ! i l rs, , { r l ,c l1 l20s ard l ! )30s; Gcrmar,v and l ta ly had Dot. Wasi t I rAsi l , lc I ' ) e, ' ,p i , i . r l rcsear(h ro csral)1ish rhrt dtcrc was;ndrcd : , s ig, , i l i ( I i t ly l , ig1,cr i t r ( ; , lc l )cc i , f Af jstol lc s '1)o1i t i .a lh icD, l l ; r l . ls ' .n( l " l ,ar t , rc)rhi t t rn( l l )o i i t i .a l restraint , rhcscl l i r r l i rcst r ig l , r l f , , , ( lcrst , , . , . l , L l ,e ter lpefxD(c, moderar ionrrrd sr : l i ro l r r r rarr l o l l_()(( l t ( r ;11c, t l ,e an; l rercd nb. lerrr ionI t l l rgchor, th{ i l ) . r1a,xci l d ist) . r ; t ics" oi L(kstc in ; i the $c(csl , , l ( lc ' , , ( ! , r ( ics thL i , r (hc orct {h ich l ! rd gi \cu Nry ro

ln, l , ' , l isr ic Iyrrrn,y?' l l rc aut lus t ) I ' l 'h / t Ci1) ic Cr l lu,c h;rd avr i la l r lc to thcrn Lhc

lr)1blhcscs rD( l rhcor ics oI pol i tnr l sociology, n,c i r l ps,vchology,rn( l ps)( l ! , r rL l ) ro l ,o logt , bur nu( jmporta t . ,1 ' i i l rhc) hadr\ i i l . r l r lc r ( , t l rcr) thc rcscrf(h tcchnolog) ot srmplc suNefs,{hi{ l r lc( l thcm t( ' x n)u.h s l r r r t ,ef speci f icalbr I 'nd c lx l )orar ion, ' r r l ,c sul , jcct i !c ( l i t r rcr5ion5 oI stabl . c lcnxrcrat ic poLir ics. ' l 'hcor i l j inr l l ) l rn sxs to ; r . l r r1c hi ta i ! ) : rnd !hc Uni !cd Statcs, i f i th1, . , , , \ r , , , , . , ,1 r ,1. , ' r \ ' l ) ' r . ' l , l ,

. lL, ,n,r . ' . ) l . ' r . , . , , .J r ,nrrr \ , r r i th hisk,r ical rccoxls of dcrno. t ic i r5tabi l i t l i atrdS$cr lcn, : rs rn cranrt , lc o l a stablc dcnrocrxcy rv i rh a niul t ipartys)srdn. s inc |nr(c r ! rs in the.ar ly thfocs of rhe alxul l is trcgi ! rc, 1,cr t , r , t ) ! ) \ tcr l r in c l isarra\ aDd I icr dcnro.rat ic futurein doul , t , rhc ( lc( is ioD r ! is tn idc to subst i l ! tc an tLal ian lor al r"r , , l

' r " ,1 \ \ ' '1 , ' , r r l ' , t r - 1, , .1 r . ' . ' . r \ ' .

" r8J / . ' i " r l

wi lh cxl)er icDcc i r l ! ) l i t ical rcscarch, an. l Nlcxico lv is subsr iLL, lcdwirh r l ,c rhourhr rhrr a ( lcvclot) i fg, Don l ]ufopcan .ountfy \ t i t l r! ! ixcd ( icr , , ) ( |at ica!rh,)r i lar iaD IQtures nigl i t tufnish soDreirrc,c\r i rg (o ' l t r i \ rs 1vi !h thc Luropcan rnd ,^mcf icen.as.s.

' l l rc ( lc. i \ i . r l ro n5c a nat ional probxbi l i ty sampl. o l .n l ) a

Thc Inkllcctnol Ilistary al thc Cttic C"lture cancept

thousrnd intcrlic$s in cach counlry $'as based on tlte exPen-mcntal chrractcr oi thc uD.lcftaking rrd on coDsi(lcrations ol

'u.r .1 l ! "hr , l ) w-, r t ionc ainq !rr ru,c, . ! i , ' j - f l ,1or in\^ 'L i .gation. We wantcd to havc a sr ple large enough to Pcnn;rinfcrcnccs about national populationsaas x wliole, and somcdenogfdphic subgroups silch as ihc educatc.l and rhe un-cdu.atcd, occupational and incomc SToups, meJl rnd wonen,young and okl, ard lltc likc. This dcci5jon, bascd on .onsi.lcr.r-tions of risk and cosi, rurncd our to have bcci an u'1lorlunateone.

' in(c i r . imirc l .Lr , ,p"( i r ) ro . lc . , l $ i r l , r l , t i . , non'

' iol subcultufc. 1'Vith a s!,nple ol a lhousand casqs, ii $'c tricd toco trol ior orc tira one demographic variablc s,e rapidly ranoul of cascs- Our Amcrican sanr l ) lc y ie l ( lcd onl) undcr a hundrcdbhck rcspondcn!5, har( I1) re| .esentar i !c ot lhc black populat ion.I Ie cc wc fai lcd to dcl l wi lh rhc pol i l i . : ] l at t i tudcs ol Amcricarbl"ck5. In addi t ion, !hough wc appreciare. t tbeir importancc,we did not inctudc spccial san\,lcs .lcsig,,c(l to get at rhcor icntat ions ot p l t l t icular c l j tc Aoups sucl i at lJol ;L i . ians, bu.eauoars, inreresl.group omcials, journal;srs, ancl lo.al-opi,rion and

l)oliticrl clite!. We did 1)rovidc ior tl:]e re nrtcrlicw in dcpth oforc hudrcd dscs jn crcl, counLry, silcctcd ro rcPrcscnt signiil, : r r ' r ) t r . u l r . , .oILl , r r ' i I .J . l . ,JJnI\ . f l ' . t . l r , .lile.histor)' iDterviews \vcrc used fir illusuativc purposes in

reporr ing and in lcrpret ing ihe studls l indings.'fhe iD!ellectual currcnts discusscd hcre cont|ibutcd to tlie

lorm and coDtent of dre sn,d). Thc cnl igblcnmeDt theory otpol i t ical cut !urc was lestcd by sevcral scG oI qucst ions deal ;ngwith levcl o i edu.et ion, mcdia cxposurc, and pol i t ical knoalcdge and ski l l . Iducat ion and media cxposur. t r r rn.d o, ,L to bepowertully rclarcd to civic compcrcncc and participation. Thc€ddcated in all lire couDtries wcrc nrorc like erch other in thescrespects than they \rcrc likc !lrc uncducitcd resPon.icnts in thcirown countries.sd Howcvcr, thc stu(ll brought to ligli! tlrat thcpolitjcal propensities associated with cdu.ation werc primarily

cognitivc in characlcrj they i cluded jn{ornatiound cr)n-municat ion about pol i t ics, conf cDc€ in undc.strudinl i Poi i t icsa, ld in onc s abi l i r ) to Le pol i t ical ly cf icct ivc. I l ;ghcr . idrcr t iondid not as s igni f i .xnt ly , t te.r ani tudcs toward c;r ic obl ig. t r io.and ol l ier dcnocrar ic rr l , ,cs, , )or d i{ i i r i1 i . , r r l ! i !udc5 oI

Page 13: w.11 - Civic Culture Concept - Gabriel A. Almond

Thc Intcll.ctudl Hktory al the Civic Cultwe Concept

political trusr aDd partisanrhip. Here natioDal historical experi-ence tended !o deate special patterns in which education seemedto hav€ relatively litrlc inliuence.

But taken all in all, some aspects of enlightenment polidcat-culture thcory were substantiated bl our study. Latcr studieshave overwhelmin8ly conlirmed rhe importance of education asan explanatory variable for civic propensitics.lr Flowever, ourstudy showed tlut education in the formal scnsc docs notnecessarily produce the aFective arrd evaluarive componenLsof a civic culture, such as civic obligalion and trust. Theseadtudes and values seem ro be signifrcantly afiectcd b' nationaland group hisror ical anJ I i le experien(e.

Sociological theory enlered into the study in part throughstress on the stratifi€ation variables ot occupation, income, andeducalion. The intercoffelation of rhcse three aspects of slralili-cation (as other studies have shown as well) was tound b bestrong, but education was found to be the most powerful pre-dictor of civic competence. Neverlheless it was clear that positionin the o€cupational and income hierarchy ind€pendent ot ecluca-tion was associated with civic compet€nce and activity. Theplulalist hlpothesis re€eiv€d some test and confirmaiion in thestudy. There was in Britain and the United Slales a higherin€idence of organizational afrliation and activily, as well as amore widely disdbuted s€nse of coopcrative competcncc, thanin Germany, Italy, and Mexico.6d

The sociological concepts of Weber and Parsons provided themajor analytic categories employed in che srudy. The interview

hinstrum€nt was designed in such a wa) a to mdlc i ( po( lrLlc

llJto separate tl,e cognitive, aff€ctire, an.l evaluarive d\pecrs oll fo ' ientat ions to pol i t ical obie(| l , and Lo a,cerrdin rhe inrerrcia.

l ' r ion among them and thei i a$ociat ion w,rh dcmographi, rdr i -ables. The Weberian typer of authority and the Parsonianpattem variables entered into our rnajor catcgorization of typesof political culrure-parochial, subjecr, and parricipanr-andhence provided fte conceptual bit| out of which thc civic.ulturemix 1{as conslrucled. It was thc persistcDce of tuditional andparochial atritudes and their tusion with participant ones rhatexplain€d the balanced dispadties of the civic culture thecombi ation of political activity, involvemenr, and rationaliry

Thc tnt . tkLtuol Hir tory ol the Ctui . Cul tu4 Concel t ?5

with passivity, traditionality, and commihent io parochial

Psydloantttopolo$cal hlpothcses wcre tested in rhe Ci,;.Czilz" srudy primarily through a seies of quesrions on experi-ences with aurhority pattcms in family, s€hool, and aorkPlace.The difficulry wirh ihis part ot the intcrvicw was lhat it askedindividuals to recall early family lile and the structure of schoolaurhority. ltecall data o[ these kinds arc lnown to be unrc]ixbleThe longcr the time Iapsc of the recall lhe less reliable lhe

'e,ponse. Thu' our Lndinq. rn t l re 'e are$ Jrc open to que"r ior .

for what they are worth, they suggested thal authority struc-rure in &e lamily had only a a'cak reiationship to adult partici-pant propensities, rhat latcr cxpcricnccs in school but partic-ularly in the adul. workplace lvere more closely conelated withpolitical compcten.e and participarion.do We a]!o noted thatmembership and activity ;n organizations could independentlyproduce civic competence..r Though we sought to tcst psycho-

culturat hypothcses in our srudy, ve cannot claim !o have testedthem in any eficctiv€ way, not only because of the unreliabilityo[ recall data but also because our srudy locuscd on system andpro,c l" pol : r i .a l cul ture, anJ nor on pol i ( ) l , rot , . r . i r ( r ( . .

The impact ol social psychological rlreory ot The Civic Cul-

iaTe was manifested in those parts of the study which'!ver€

concemed with the inlerllat structurc of polilical attitudcsThus we employed Guttman scaling in develoPing a measurc

oi subjective competence, which showed thar th€ capacity to

understand politics was rclai€d to a scnsc of abiliry to influcacepolitics and to actual cxpcrience in attempring to innuence ia.d:We also repor.ed r€lationships bctl,ecn the sense ot Polidcalcornpetence, political participation, and positive supporr tor the

political system, and relalionships belween gen€ral irust inpeople and coopemtivcncss in polidcs.

Other opportlrnities to examine the interconncction of atlitudes and their relation to political behavior wcre not exploitedin tlre litsi report of thc Cinic Cultue datz because ot the skteof rhe survey analysis art in the early 1960s. -fhe computerlevolution was in its beginning5. There were no compurerprograms availablc spccially adapted to our material; T,le Ci,;.Cllturc vas perhaps dle last major sociat ;nrestigation to be

Page 14: w.11 - Civic Culture Concept - Gabriel A. Almond

26 Thc litcllc.tu.I Ektot ol the Ciric Cultwe Can.epl

analyz€d by a sBtkti€al sorler. Thus simple considerations oftime and cost limited the indulgence ot our imaginarions andthe richness and !igo. of our analysis. Similarly, sratisticalanalysis was moviDg into its more powcrlul phase ot multiyariate, regression, and path anallsis. kafrng through rhe pag€sot Th. Ciu;c CuUue frfteen years after iis publication gives oncsomerhing of a sense ot archaism. The tablcs, charts, and graphsrePort or rePresenr raw percentaSes and simplc onelcvcl a$ociations fo. the mosr parr.

POI,ITICAI, CUI,TURE AND POI,ITTCAL TUEORY

Pol i l ical cul ture i r nor a r l ,eor) i ; r refer, ro a se( or vJr irbies*hich may be used in the construcrion of rheories. Bur insofaras ir designatcs a set o{ variables and cncouragcs rheir invesri-gation, it impuks some explanarory powcr ro thc psycholoSicalor subjecdve dimension of politics, jusr as it implies thar rhereare contcxtual and internal variables which may €xplain ir.The explanatory power of politicat culture variables is anempirical quesrion, oper to hypothesis and tesring.

As political culture research has developed in rhe lasr rwodecades, tlrcre has b€en a polemic ot sorts orAanized aroundthree questions: (l) difierences of opinion as ro dennilion andsp€cificalion o[ rhe content of polilical culturet.(2) controversyover the analytic separation of poiitical culture trom politicalstructurc and behavior; and (3) debare over its causal properiies.

The various definitions of political culture are in most casespretheoretic categorizadons int€nded to amrm the imporlanceof these cultunl variables in the explanarion ol political ph€-

preceding empirical investigations ot lome speci6caspecr or asp€cts of polirical culture. ln an early formulariondmwing on the work of Talcott Parsons, I defined poliricalcuhure as consisting ot cognirive, afiecdve, and evaluativcoricntations to political phenomena, dist bured in nationalpopularions or in subgroups, and then I proceeded to suggcsrsome cultural hyporheses whidr might cxplain the difierencesin p€rformance among Anglo-Amcrican, co'rtinenral Iuropean,totalirarian, and preinduslrial politi.at systems.'3 ln a fornula-tion published around the same time, Samuel Beer, also drawjnson Talcoti Parsons, argucd that a political culrure oricurs rpeople toward a polity and its proceses, proliding it'lvirh a

The Ittclle.tual H'Jtort al.the Atuic Ctlture ConcePt

system of bctiets (a coBnitive map), a way of evaluatiDgoperations, and a scr of expressive symbols.6{

ln The c;vic Culture r\e definition of lhe conccpi was adaptcdto lhe ?nalysis of lhe cultural properriei assumcd to be asso-

ciated with democratic stability. Consequently the claboration

of the concept slressed political knowlcdge and skitl, and teclings

and value orientations toreard political objects and processes-

toward the political systcm as a whole, toward th€ sell aspa.ticipant, towad polirical partics and elcction!, b(tr€aucracy,and the like. Little or no stress was placcd on attitudes towad

pubiic poli€y.6rIn a major collaborarive invesligation of varicties of Polirical

€ulture, Lucian Pye and Sidney Verba oIler€d more conprchen-sive elaborat;ons of the concept. Pye, Jocus;ng on Pol;rical'dcvelopmen! themes, dGcuss€d thc variety of Nays the conccPtof'political culture can help explain developmental Problcmsand proccsses.so verba defined the importan! dimensions ofpotitical culture as including lhe sense of iational identity,adtudes toward onesel{ as participant, atlitudes toward onc's

fellow ciii?ens, attitudcs and expectations rcgxrding Sovern'mcntal output and perfornance, and knowledge abort and

auitudes towad thc polilical processes of decision makin8."'Dahl, in his study ot political opPositions, discusses in detail

several tlpes of polilical orientation that have a bea ng ol1

patterns of political partisanship. Thc first ot these is oric ta-

lion toward the political system ?s a ahole, which afiects the

extent and distribution ol loyalty in a nalioDal societ); attiuLdes

toward cooperalion and individuality and to!ard oiher peoplcin general, which altecr rhe formation of polit;cal groups and

their interacrion; and orientation !o ard Problem sotving (c.9.,

whether it is pragmatic or ideological), whi.h aflccts the ilitcr-

actions of polilical parries. FIc ttren Procecds to show liowthese atritudes may alfect the policies and la€lics ot politicalmovements, drawnrg tor illuslralive PurPoscs from case tris-

bries oI thc Uniled States and a number of vrestcrn luroPcandcmocracier.""

In a recent formulation, Almond and I'owcll claborale rhe

concepr of political culture in lhree dir€ctions: (l) substanlivecontcDt, (2) ! r r ic ' ics ot of ic,)1rr io, , , ard (3) t l te s l r rcnr ic rc lat jons

among thesc components. An aDrl l j is , ) l a LaLlons l ,o i j ! ical

27

Page 15: w.11 - Civic Culture Concept - Gabriel A. Almond

28 Thc Int.Ile.tual Hiltary ol the Cbic Cultute Concept

cullure would have to concern itself wirh all rhr€e. From rhepoint of riew of subsrantive conrent we may spcak of ,,s)s!em"culture, process" cullure, and ,'policy' cuhurc. -r'he systemculture of a narion would coDsis! ot the disrributions of at!i-ludcs towad dre narional community, the regirne, aDd rhcauthorities, to use David Easron's formularion.6'l'hese woutdinclude the sense of national idenrity, attirudes towarct thelegitimacy of tLe regime and irs various institurions, and atri-tudes toward the legilimacy and efiecriveness ol the incumbenrsof dre various polirical roles.

The process cuiture of a narioD would include atlitualestoward tlrc self in polirics (e.g., parochiat-subje.rpanicipanr),and attiludes toward orli€r politicat acbrs (e.g., rrusr, coopcrative compelence, hoslility). The policy culrure outd consisr ofthe distriburion oI preferenccs r€gar(ling rhe outputs ajld our-comcs oI politics, lhc orderiDg among difierent groupjngs in fiepopulation ot such polilical values as welfare, securiry, aDdIiberty.

Orientations loward rhese systemi process and policy objccrsnay be cognitive, consisting of belicts, informaiion, and analysis;afiective, consisring of fee]ings of a(achnent, aversion, or in,rliffcrence; or evaluarive, consisting of moral judgmcn$ ot onckind or another.

A lhird aspect of r polirical culrure would be rhc relarednessor systemic chamcter of its componcnls. philip Conversc io sLrg-gesr€d rhe concepr of "constraint" ro characteriue situations in

hich adtudes toward political instirurions .and poticies gotog€ther. Thns, in a given populalion, arti(rdes torvard foreig)rpolicy, domestic economic policy, and raciat segregalion tnaybe parts of a consisrcnt ideology; fo. mosr individuals in thisgroup, if one knew how rh€y slood on lorcign policy one couldpredict thcir views on taxation, on busing, and ttre tike. Inoth€r groups rhese aRirudes migh! be independenr. Similarli,information, beliets, feelings, and moral .Tucrgmcnrs are rnrer-relared. Cenerally speaking rhe politicat culrures of narions and

bc disringuished and comparcd a.cordjrg ro rheirinternai constraint or consisrency.?l

The pr incipal cr i t ic ism of r t re pol;r icnl cut lure l i terarurc isthat; t impures a cnusal dnecrion {o t l le relar ion ber$een cut-tur€ and structure, irflplling rhar the cuhure produces the

The Intelkcttul Hktary ol thc Ciuic CLIturc Concept 29

structure. tsrian Barry in a deraiied critiqae aryucd thar rheactual causal patrern mighr be one in wtrich a satisfacrorydemocratic expoiencc produces rhe civic cutrure in a rarionat,learncd way' , Ri ihrrd Fa8cn, in r ' r ruJy ot r t ,c pnl i r : (a l eutrurcot Cubr. arguL\ U.dr (hc ver) y.prr iLio ' or rhe aLrirudin! ldimension from rhe behavioral dinension tends to give a con-senative bias ro polilical culturc research, arrribuling gr€arpower to socializarion variables, and rends ro overtooL rheimportancc ot political srrucrure, parricularly deliberare anclorganized cllorts to transform poliriaal culturc as in Cuba andorher Comm,,n:.r (ouIr , ie\ . I {oL,,r . Turker ar:sues a . imi larposilion also lvirh refercncc ro the cuhurc-strucrure rclarionin Communisi socicries.?l

:fhc .riticism ot ?h. Ciuic Culrure Lhar ir ..r8ues ihat poliricatculturc causcs poli!ical srructurc is ;ncorec!. Ttiroughout rhcstudy rhc developmcnt ol spccilic cultural parterns jn parlicularcounfties is explainc(l by rcfcrc,rce ro particular historical ciPcncnces, such as rhc sequencc of R.eforn Acrs jn }ritain, llic

,An'crican herirage of tsrirish insriturions, the Ntexican Revotu-tion, and N-azism and defear in World War It for cermany_It is quite clear thar polilical cutn,rc is ueared as borh anindcpcndent rnd a dependenr variabte, as causirlg srructure andas being caused by it.t.

The posirion raken in The Civic C11ltu.e itrat boliefs, fcelings,and values significanrly in{tucDce polilicat behav;or, and thartlies€ beliefs, feelings, an.l values arc the product ot soc;ali,arion

l\, expcricnces is one rlur is sustained by much evidcnce. Bur Tie

l lc j r ; Cdl i , , ,e wJ5 onc or , t ,e .r ! r ie5r rL,,Ll ,c, ro , , rc \ r t ,e inrpor-

l l tance ot dJulr pol i r i , r l so. i " l i /Jr ion:rn. t er l . . r j ,ncc\ and ro\ldemonstrate tlie rclarivc eakness of childhood sociatizalion.rj

\These .points arc made una,rbistrously and are subsrantiared

Tliis relatively open conccption ot poljrical cul! re, v;ewedas causiDg behavior and srructure, as wcll as being caused bythem, and inciu( l ing adulr pol i t ical learning an(l a rar ionaicognitivc componcnr, is tlie special rargcr of Ronald Rago!.skj,who rejecls political culrufe rtleory as bcing roo loolely anddiffusely formulated !o bc acceprable as explanilory theory. FIc

5,1!,4rnr-irelc-!lrl!!3].4! (lr!gL]1L Lelrrior!hip,r- l29rllsqnso! jo((onomi. , r1, , . i . . !n, l re l : j , . . r . i r , ! ,e . , rn, t l , " , r t ical

ft

I

. l

I

?tsT1

TliT

jIIIIlI

I

Page 16: w.11 - Civic Culture Concept - Gabriel A. Almond

30 The lnt.lkctuol Hnbry al the ciric cuktte concept

structurc, and tha( a rational individualist explanarion otpolitical strucrure is a more powerful and parsinonious theorythan politi€al culture theory.4

This polemic abour the cxplanatory significance ot politicaiculture as defined in The Ciuic Cultute can only be resolved blctnpirical research, and such research as has been done suggeststhat Rogowski's position is not sustajnable by cvidcncc. .l{uch

ihr-iatiofafielFirteresFoFsocial chrssxrd of_aahriiclind-r cl i g;ousgroups is a powerful dynamic illumirrtirrg politi.rl movcnrcntsand conflicts, and contributing siSn;fir;rntly to historical outcomes. Bu! palr iot isrr , communiry lo la l ty, rc l iSious ! l | lucs, aDdsimple habi ! a d l radi t ion obviously crr lcr in(o Ll ic cxl)hrxr ioDof political structurc and lcSitirracy.

Fagen's cmphasis on thc l ) lasr ic i ty ot pol i t i .a l . t t i r , , , lcs rrk lthc importancc ot dcl ibcratc c l lor ls ro Lrar)s iofn, Lhc,rr i r sup.ported in only quirc l imi tcd ways by srudics oI pol i r i . r l ( ' r lLurcin commun;st countr i€s. Co)rmur);st idcobgy r , rLer a r iL l 'crextrcme posi t ion on the nal leabi l i t ) o{ l iun,al l l )c i r rgs, arguirrgrha! attitudinal dillcr€nccs arc the s;rplc con5cqucnccs oI socirland political structural arrangetrrcnts. Chxngc rhe social !r)dpolitical structural arrangements and a new kind oI sociirlistman can bc creatcd. From this point ot vicw a courparison ofthe real po!itical culrure in cornmunist socierjes with the omcialcommunisl political culture may be a kind of lest of the explanatory power of cuttural variables. As Arciric Brown pulsit in a r€cent comparative study of political .ulture in com,rnunist countrics, there has be€n "a radical break in rhe coD-tinuity of political instirutions in Communist socieries" and"an unusually overt and conscious attemp! to crc:tc new politi-cal values and to supplanr the old- Indced, thc validity ot rh€conc€pt ot polilical €ulture cannot be said to have been tullytested rntil it has b€en usc(l in a cooparxrive study of Com-munisr srares, for if the polidcal culturcs of societies whichhave bccome Communist can b€ readily moukled inlo a newshape ith old values cast aside, the explanatory value ofpolitical cultura may reasonably be regarded as narginal"'

-I'his rcccnt study of commun;st politicnl cultures concludes

The Intellectuol HirofJ al the ciric cruule concept 3l

thal thcrc ar€ two pafty cullures-an aspirarioDal "D€n socialisrman cuhurc, and a racir "operarional code' consisring of dreactual workirg rDles ,nd bcliets of rhe sysrcm. OD the cenbalques' ion u\ to rhe,u.cc$ or ld i lJre ul

'hc mJ$i tc iomm'rnisr

eilort to lransform polirical arritudes in rhe scven aounrriesincludcd in the study (USSll, Yugoslavia, Poland, Uungary,Clechoslovakia, China, and Cuba), lhc scholars who examinedthe admittcdly inadequarc dara on poliricai artilu.tes crme rothe follow;ng tentarive conclusiors.

'I'hc atrempr ro creare a new socialisr,nan has bccn oD rhc qlotea dep.c$j!g hilurc- . - Aln,ost everlwberc apathy, privarnn,rn.t cco,,omism ar. prevalcnr iDd iolcratcd and soDrLinrcs evcn'cncouragcd- . l,crlrrps rbc mosr srriking impli(alion oI ours(udy is LLc rc lar i lc fn i lurc oi Commun;r procc$c! ot social jzat ion and cducar ion, in spi lc ot a l l drc ineirur ioni l powcrs whjcha co,nmuDisr pol i t i .a l s lsrcn !csrows.?6

l , b ' t ' i r ,

, l ,a, r l . , r r , . ' , :w, ,J l p,1i , . , " , ,JtrL, . . , " \ ( t t . ' ) .1 om.pai t in r l )c l ,o l i r ic . l drangcs shid Iavc raten t , lacc r l i roughourihc ComnroDir t {or id, . . , Thcrc l ' rs beeD l i r t lc s igr of muclrpLDcirr t ioD oI L l ,c ! r i ionr l lo l i t i .a l cul lurcs b) rhc om.ir l (uhu.c,rx.cpt in r l rc todn ot I vrguc gcncr2t comnri .ncnr 10 social ;m,

Thcrc is subsunr ia l and signi f icant contra$ LcrLecD rtrose cou.-r i .s iD *hi .h &u$iaD i , , f lu.ncc pu(s shr ' f l iDr i ts o,r the to$ibi t i r )o l .hrnte, xnd dtosc counr ics (ChiDa, Cuba, ard yuSosta! i , )

vhich nre indcpcrdcni. The dcg.cc oI divergcncc i,r th.k couDriesis rcry grcar. Cuba nra) bc a cas. mcrcly oI incomplcrc . ,nlergcncc, blt iD the orhcr rvo .oudfics ticc of Ru$irn domirancc lhe Communist systrm l)as been wholly remodclcd i!{ays powerlully nrllurn.ed by !alional tradition.'.

l'crhrps rt,c mon inpoftan! conclusion shich rlris book suggcstsis rhat nr couofies shcfc rh$e |as iD rhe pas! bccn crp.rieD.cof ' lnc f ru i t lu l p lay ot cont,ct ing ea5 rnd conpcl i .s inroesrs,expericncc of Comnunnr govcrnhcnr has nor Bcikcned butactual ly yrcngdrcncd rhc con! ict ion .mong ! l )c popul . r lon rhxlpol i l icr l l rccdom br i r {s l )or t r grcr tcf ju! i (c t ru l s.crrcr c l r , .

This study does indeed lcnd conlirmation to rhc ,iFumcnrt l )ar pol i t ical .cL, l !ural var iables, an.1 r1,c social inrnrn t , r . .cssessl , i ,h cre{re ,nd mrrnrarn r"F n t , lJ \ "n Lnl i . r i . ' r l ! , . ' ,1

of human h;story stands in disproof of the arguxrent ttn! dre;tuaruit-roF-p€lfttcaFimritntior-anA--iliair laFii;*y c"" beiiptq;;aa lrl s.<im-;'lc-rcf*en.€-to-rdridiiel-sCltink-resc:Surely

Page 17: w.11 - Civic Culture Concept - Gabriel A. Almond

52 Th. tnklhctanl Hktary ol the Cilic cu\ute C.n.e,t

tltc explanation of poli!'cal structure and process. Among !hemore interesting nDdings of political culture research, dresccotl.lus;ons as lo the intr.ctability ot tliese "pre.comDunisfalti(ud€s dcspite the awesonre ellort to transform them, stand indre sltarpest contrast to the olerwltelning evidcnce ilirt somehumane an(l parlicipant consc<tuences llow trom modern educa.t jon wherever i t i5 introduced.s ' l t woul( l thus ippear, no! lh l i rpol i r ical cui lurc is an inhactable rar;able, but !h. t thcfc arel imits 1o i ts pirst ic i r ) , and inhcrcnt propeDsi i ies of a modes! ly

NOTES

l Gtncsis 4!l:4, I5, l0 Rsv.2. luncl dc Couhngcs, T/re;1, . t . , r c i r , (CI. lctr c i t ) , N.Y.: Dodlr lc,hl ,

1056), p. 106.9. r Ic.) . lc oI pol i t ical change l ron k i rgship ro r l , i , , , ry (o rr ino.uy

tu ol igrrch) ro ( lcnrcracy ro,nob rul . is 6 ' i nrrnNhr. , l i t r ( l . r i i l i fPtaro, TLc rvoti' ol rrdro, tnnr, Jorrc( I rol. cd. (Ncrv York: r)irl I,r.$,n.d), p. 307 (?h? R.ptbtic) it is clabomtc(l in Arisrortr, Portii.r, hans.H. R3ctham (Lni lo": Hr inchr, 'n, 1932). pp,23i l l I . . ar( l is p ' ( \ . ' i r r t l i " asohrr fhr t n l lncd iorn i r l ,o l lbnr, Thr Hntot i . t , I look 6, . r rN. W. k.Prton (Lon( lou: Hcincnarn, l !25), \o l .3, pp. 169l l . th is cy. lc or p.Lir icr l.h l r r8c rxplr inc( l in socir l I tcholoBicr l tc ims nptc r rn{ t ,crptQ,r i t r{hc hktory oI pol i r ic , l rhco'y, f . l l inro rhc ! incrcc"th. ."rnr) .

4- l'la(o, op. cir-, p. I45-i . l , lutrr .h, 7h? Liuts ol tht Nol)1c c,r . ;atrr a l l lo, 'd,r , bar! Johr

Dr)(lcu, rcr. rJl ]llrlur Hugh Clough (r_cr! York: Rtr'ntoril Hors., ntoltcrrLib,arl, l.n.), P. 6x.

6. Aftrorlc. Polil;4r, pp, 329 31.?. Niccolo nllchia\clli,7hr Dir.or)J.r, rans. Lcalic \\j3llcr i)ie,f Ilarcn:

Yalc Unn, P6s, l0i0), p, 240.3, nlonrcquicu (cha.lcs (lc S(oulrt), cotsid.ratio's an th. adu.s al

th. (rlnt,Es ol th. Roit.8 ard Th.ir De.li., tia'$, Dlvid Lo\el(hrl(n"c 'L Yo' t : ' Ihc I 'c . r ' r$. 196r) , pp.9l [ .

9. nlontcalLricu, Thc P.ttidn L.u.ts (lndianapolis: Bobh*rlr,rill,ard, parrictrli.l), Th. Spnit ol ZduJ (\-cw Yort: Colorial Prcs,l :2921i .

196{) ll8!9),

r0. Jcan Jaqr6 Rous*au, Tlc So.ial corttaet (Nea Yor(: Cartror

lL lbnl . . p. ,13.r2. ALrn de rocqucvillc, D.tno.4c! i't ,lu ari.a (n-$v Yor!: Alrred ,{,

Ir, Alcxjs d. Tqqncrill€, Th. Old R.Cnn. and tht Fr.rh RdollLion(Carden Ci{y, N.Y.: Dorblcday, 1955).

l4. Ihe (om pr lnt .d/ . /1r1, . sccms l i rs to hIc l rcc" uscd by r l rcc.rmr$.nl ishrctrmcn' phi losophcr J. C. Hcrdcr nr t Ie t r re c igbtc.urh.ctr!'t: scc F. IL R bard, "Culrurt and Polirical Dcrclopnctrt: Ilcrd.assugg(sri\. I'*ights," Art.1i.nt Politiot sci.n.e Rditu (Ju,c 1969). t.3!j2_Carl lricdich us6 the term qunc casuall.t ft his dis.u$ion oI co;srirutionrlism rs an aspcc. oi rhc pohicrl cullurc of tnglGh{p.aking pcoplc

The InteLlectual Hitary af the C;dc CLltue Concept J3

rc Cail J. Friedrich, canstitlltionat Aatet n.nt and Dcno.rd.) (Borronlc i ' , ' , r Compa.v. l9 0, . n. 13. the t f ln \ r \ atp-, . , , r .v -- .1 b) r1. , ,, .d no. r( , .nr lL l \ Br, / . , , , . \ : rc l Sr,pt ,e. , r rnt ' . . - t $X, ALro, , . . '

" r , Ii " A' .1 ' i " 0 'o"n d, ,J t ; .1 ! .J1. r . t , ro l l \ot \u,h, : o, lI'ohitdt chdrgc nt cafunrnnt si"tJ G\cN yo.L: rtormcs ,nd Mejcr,1977), p. 58. Ldlis N:nic. crnirles a tccLurc .IIntory and poliiic2l CLlrrurr',;sc. trirz srnr, cd., The rld'ieties o/ r.{,r!,r) (New yo.k: [lcridian Boohs,1956), p.372.

r5..r\. v. Di..y, Lou hd Pxblic Olinion i En|tand DLring th. Ni1.-te.llh cettut! (Lordonr Mr.'riutrn & Co., l!621, rccturc lz.

16 uloo.lrc\' lvitsdr, 1.r. .!al. (rlonon: D. a. Hcath, l8!:l),

^ lt. vilr,cdo Prfuro, Ler J!rd,6 so.idt;?,r, ro). ! of Con;lcre \!orks,

:ld-ed. (9gTu Droz, 1965); Cadxno nrou. Tt? nltr,s cla; (Ncl, york:NI.Cra*IIill, l!39); Robdr ilichcls, p,lili.dt pdrttdr (^'erv yor.r; Thc rfcc

r3, Crahrrir \Vallas, Hu"Lon Natun in potrrt.r (Ncw yorL: Allrcd ,{.Kropl, 11M), pp. 5-rj.

,20. N?lr ! r L 'ppmnr. , P, tbt , Opintoa rNc\ yorL. H,, ,o, , , r Brd!€, lJ_l

_ 2r Jan(s lrrrcc, Morl.tn Dc,tocrEi* (Ncrv yorr: nracdriUan, tea),

T

22. Wi l l ian, B. NIunio, T/ ic countnenh ol Er',p. (Ncri yorl: Irac:'

. 23. I1, "1, . ,

l . ' r '

1 t . "a^ rr .1 t t t , ! . o l i joJ, ,n Lr, , ,1, r . , . / \ . r ry, , I l l r " ' ) Uotr rLtr t LontJ,r) j rJ2l .2{ . . . . "1 J I i .J , r r . . t at , . r , , t .vaar La-. .L.1p,1 o td p,r , r . ) ( \ . \ . \ , .1,

I l r rPrr e r{or, l r37), ! . x1i ,

. ? i ' \ r . , l r ( ,c t t \ l , t ,anh , .1 \ ' , , /v ia I r l ,o i , r r ) r \ , r r Hd\p. . ) ,hu"; \ t " r .J" . , s, t \ , , to , . \ td td, -g. , / . l t .h1t . t , I . . . , ] , - rn. st .n, , td, , ,(LordoD: orford Univ. Pre$i r!28); ;"d 'fi. ,,t1n6na", (LoDdon:'olrdrdtjriv. I'r's, 1930).

26. llcnfi dc SahLsinou, Socidl Orgoni,ntiDn (Ncw ta;rkr Ha.pm & Row,l96l) .

_ !7, RairDnd Aron, ttair cr,,cnrr ir So.i,lagt.al Trorglr,, rot. I (NelsYorki Itrsir Boots, t965).

28. Shlomo Arincri, Ttu sacial o't!t paikat Thou'ht ol Katt Matx(Cxhbr idgc, Eng.: Crmt)rntgc Unir . r . .ss, l96s), pp.220f.

29. H.r) Arp.rf, r,,riic Duthhcint an.t His sociiog, (Nc{ yo!k: Ruscl

30, viri,c.io Larcro,. Tr. Mind a,rt Societt, 4 vols. (Ndv yd.k: Do\rrBooks, 1903). lhesc cotr .epr:rc d. lctoped iD !ots. 1,2, ard 3.

31, Itax rvdcf, C. D-n.lt. /lrkotlt rrr ft.tigio,ro:iotogre (Tiibtjg.n:J. C- lJ. ! Iohr, l ! !0) ,

_^32. Nra{ lvcLc, tv)'k.h(tt lnt c.r.rk.r,/i ahbingcn: J. C_ B. rr(,hr,

33. Ttrlcotr Pnrsons rnrl E. ,4. Shits, Toedrrt a C.n.tdl |h&ry al iction(carrblnlgc, I tas.r I lasar. l { rn i \ , prcs, t9 j l ) ,

31. Cordoi , \V. Al lporr . " - Ihe I I in0i . r l n; .krrounr l of vodcnr Soci l lI'stdr.log-y, jn Lirdzrl ,rd -\ron5on, ctJs,, Th. tru baatt ol Saciat p:f-.rolrgr, 2nd cd. (Rcaailg, Itas.: Atdison.\Vcslcy, t!63), l: 56fi.

3i. T. 1r,. A1lorr., !kr l,rcnkcl trunsfik, N;virr Sa,,Io , and Di.idlL6ir:or, 'fhe-lttliotiblidn Pd oiQtir, 1^-cN york: HlrtrJ e Roj!, ltjrJ).

36. Sinrucl Stoul lo c( a l . , 1-he Ant, t .ar sr /d i . / , roh. I anr l 2 (prn, . ! to i r ,

Page 18: w.11 - Civic Culture Concept - Gabriel A. Almond

t4 Thc lnt.llectval History ol the Cili. Cultute Cotcept

N.t. : P' inrcron Ul ' iv Pte$, 1949,; Cr i l J l lorhnd et nt Lr l - t4 'nLt L lM;s connwkrLon (Pnncron. NJ.: P;nc,ron Urie rrra lg{ar.

3?. Paur LazlEl€ld .t zl., Th. P.opL.s Choi.. iNe, York: John Wileymd soN, 1960); Brrnird Bcrelson et al., ,/oling (Chicago: uriv. oI Chicago

!8, Srmu.l sroufler, comnl aitn, conlornit,, onA ct"il ltDtr.its (Cloud_

rcr, Ms,: Smith, 1955): (urt kwin, Fi.lA Th.ory in so.idl s.t.n.d(l,ndon: Tavi.t@k, 1965); Lon fesringcr,,l 'Ineo, al coEltitite Dssonan..(Ncw Yort: Hrrper & Rorv, t957)i Mihon Rokeach, Thd Open ond ctot.IMind (N.$ Yort: Basic B@15, 1960)i M- Bressl€r smirh, Jcrodc S. 0.urcr,R. w. Whnc, Oqinions dnd P.'sonotit, (Nev York: John Wiley and SoDsr956).

59. S.c, Ior qahplc, lris Civilization ind lts Dicont.nts (1950) in Conpl.t; WotLt, \or, 22 (N.w Yorl: Ma.nillan, 1962)-

.IO. D. ntarnror.sti, s.t dnd n.prct5ion ir s,,"9. so.t.t) (Ncr Yo'k:Harcou.t Brac€, 1927); Margaret Nlcad, c,ning oI ,rs. in s.,',d (NovYork: wirriam Moro\t, 1928); Ruth Bcrcdict, Patt.'ns ol (LtLt'. (Bosror:Houghton Mimin, r93{); Itarord L^swell l\lchoqdtholoE and Potitica(cl'io8o: UDiv. oI Clii€,8o Prcs, 1930).

ll, Exampl.s of rhn lteraru'c arc BcnEm s.h][ncr, Fnrhcn.td: Astldt ol .luthoritarittnfl in th. Ccrnlan Fa'nilt (Ncw York: colu'rlriaUnn;. Prcs. r9{8): M,rgarct Nlcad, so,i?,,r!!irrd.t TaroA Arthatit, lr.\!York: Mccnw-Hill, r9rl); C.ofircy corcr, ErpLorng EngLXh Character(Ncw Yorl: Crircriotr aets, 1955); RlDdr lilcorux and Nh.$rcr ucrdTh.m.t b Fr.n.h C/rrur. (Sranlord, Calif.: Stanro Univ. Irts, l95l):Rurh Dcncdicr, Thc Chrtorth.nutu dnd th. Saa (Bo$on: HouBhbnMifltu 196): Marglret M. , lml KceP volr Pouddr Dry (Ncw YorL:

42, Abnm l(ardincr, Thc PsJcholoeic4L Frozlidts ol sD.i./, lN€r! Y.tk:Colunbia Uniec6it) Pre$, r9l5); RalPh Lirrrotr, Th. cttltat llatkgat .tot Pr$ordir, (New Yo*: Appl€tod-CcDtury-Croi6, 1945); lca h,kcl.s andDanicl lxvnMtr, Nrtioral Charlcr.l :lhc Srudy ot ltodal Ptrsonrlity andSocio-Cultunl s'st€G, in Lindzcy ard Aronson, Ha droon, rol 'l; Alcrl!k.16, NatioDa! Chrraclcr and Modcin Poliriol S)ti.nj in FrrnklnlL, K. Ilsu, cd., Br.holo9ical

^nthtupolog, (Honcvood, lU i Dohcy Prcs,

196D.43. loi 2 gcncrrl discu$ion of sun€/ r6car.h in thc stud) ol Poliii6,

*e RicharJ w. Boyd and Hcrbci Hyn,n, "SuNcy Research, nr crccnntn!lnd Polsby, c&., Handboot ol Politicil S.i.n.c (Readnig. nlas: Addnotr'w6lc], 1975), pp. 265fi,

14, Polybiu!, ?tr. Irirl,ri.r, tranr. W. R. ParoD, rol. 3, book 6 (NewYorl: C. P, Putnzmr So!!, 1925); M. T. Ciccrc, On th. Comnond.atth,rnor. Corg. H, Sabinc od S. B. Smilh (Coluhbus, Ohio: ohio Stare

,15. Atcxi! d. Tocqucvillc, Th. old R.gine nnil tttc Ft.n.h R.utlttian,TnN, Sturrt Cilbcd (Cardcn City, N,Y.: Doublcdiy An.hor Books, l9j5),

46. Alcrir dc r'oquttirrc, D.no.rd.t in Ant.ric4, l: 2121t4t, rbid., pp. t19fi.{8. Ibid., pp. 30511.49. Drnnn f. Thompson, lohn Stltort MilL ond R.lte:cnrlLi!. C.!or-

rn.nr (hinc.ton, N.J.: Prnrccron Unir. Prcs, 197?), pp. r?6lt,50. .^, v. Dic.y, Lav rnrt Ptbli. opinior, P.427.

The lnt llcd@\Hittary ol the Citic Cu\we Conccpt 35

51. 1!aller Bagelrot. Phyns and lotitics (-"ew York: Colonirl ?rcsl3r!), pp. 122fi.

52. udiehor. T/ , . Lnl l rh Coat i tut io l ( l r lud. N.Y.: co,neu Lni \ '?f6s, l!66), p!. 2J9ll.

53, Sec i,,tcr rr. Emir Lcdcrcr, The slotc al th. Ma$e: (N€w York: w wNorton, r940)i Hannah Arendt, Th. Origins.l ?oralirartontJn (Ncv York:Ircridian B0016, l95r); willian Kornhauser, Tl. Politics al ito$ soci.tl(Clcnrce, Ill.: The !r.e trcs, 1050)i Erich lronm, EnP. J'ont Frc.doh(Ncrv Yorki Hoh, l9,ll).

54, Scc ntrcr al, Drrid l_rumad, Th. cou.rnn.nLtL Prd'.$ (Nc,r Yo,k:Aurcd A. (nopr, 1955)i Robcrt E. L^nc, Patit;tal Ztl. (cl.!ce, lll.: TIrcIrce Pr6s, 1959); Ednard c. Banicld, The tlarat Bdi\ al o Backuodso.icrt (Clcncoe, lll.r Thc Frcc Prcs, 1958).

5r- Joscpf A. Schunpctcr, Cdpildrr,!, sa.ioln"r, o,,n D.,n,.|n., (NervIork: liarpc! & Ro\e, l!42), pp. 239-96.

5rj. C. ,{. rnbnd and sjnncl Vcrbr, 'th. citi. cttLrt. (l'rnt lon, N J:l.in.don Univ, PrN, l96t), PP. 3701t.

,?. Hcrb.{ H. H}man. ?hc Izdrrirg E[ecLs ol ELtLaLiai lctii. EUni\,, ol Chicago l'Ir*, 1975).

58. lnord and Verbr, Ciri., Calrrfd, Chrt- rl.59. lL id. , \h" ! \ . I a"J lJ,60. lbid., chxp. 12. I61. A rcaralFis of ouf data suggcsted iia! orgrnnadon"l i,r\01\cnrc!r

rrs rhc non polrcrlul prrdictor of all thc rariiblcs a$o.iatcd nLthpa{icipari... Scc Norman Nic et al., 'Socirl StuctrIrc and l'a.liciPa(ion,Anetictu Paliticdl Sci.ncc R.ti.tu, Jw. and Scptcmber, 1969.

6?. Almond aDd Veiba, Cdic crttrr., pp. 23rfi,63. C. , Alnond, Politicol Dtuelolntcnt (sortor; Li(lc, BroNn, l9?0),

Pt.35rI .64. Sanucl Bccr's most .cccnt fomulation, wlich elaborat{s lk rit\s

hrn lorDurxrcd in Pd!r',J oJ Cot.htntnt (1C58), is ro be routrd nr s. Bccr,nd

^dln UIam, cds. , rd l rdnt ol Car. , ,nent,3rd cd. , Parr I (Ncrr \o!k:

ka ' l rn H^.. e. ld74r.65. Almond and verba, citic aulttrc, cnaP, l.66, Lucian I,)c and sidncy vcrbn, foliri.4l Cttttr. on.l Political D.rrlaP'

''.n, (Prnrctoi, N.J.r Pfircton Univ. Prc$, i966), chaP. r.

6?- Ibid., chap. 12.68. Robcrt A, D^h1, Polihdl Olpatitia,s it Itettct! ,d,ro.ra.ier (Ne,v

Hryen: Ydlc Unir. Prcs, 1966), pp. 352fi,69. David Easonr ,, Srsteh ,4^.Usn al rolilt.al ril. {NcN Yort: John

Wilq and Sons, 1965).70. r'hilip Con\.rse, Thc Naturc oi trh$ IJ.licl systcms," in Dari(l

Apr.r, ed., Id.olaA, .nd Dncort.tt (Ndv Yo.L: Thc lr€c I'rc$, l!64)7r- Scc als DoDald De\i., 'rhe Polili.aL Clltut of ltte U,ite.L stdks

(8os.on; Little, Bro\$, 1972).72. aixr NI. Barry, sacibtaq^ts, E.o"o)n4|I and D."to.tu.t \r'o.,Jotr:

C, l l icFl{acni lhn, ,9t0), pp. 43ILt3. Ri.lurd Fagc!, fhe Ttan:[orrtution al I'alitkaL crlhDN ar art)r

(Srarfo(1, Calir.: starrord urn. Pr€s, r969),.hrP. lr tof ru.r.cr's Icrrssr Robed C. Tuckcr, CulNrc, Political Culturc, rnd Conxnunnt S[ctlPaLitirol s.i.rc. (U!d'iel, (Junc 1973), pp. r73 C0.

t4. i\lnroid ald \'tc z, ciai. crlLt!., cbap5, I 2rd l5t5, ib , .hrp. l2-

l

i

1

Page 19: w.11 - Civic Culture Concept - Gabriel A. Almond

E6 The Inklhctuot Hiltory ol tte Ciuic Cuttt/e Coac.pt

?6, Ronal<f Rogo$sti, I Ration^l Th.or,./ t.gnitu,, prnreLon, NJ.:Princcton U.iv. Prs.. l9t6l.

??. Archi. DroFn d Ja;r crar, Politicnt C tvt. a potitcal chn!.i,t corrnunitt Stata (lc| Yoik: Holm6 and rrcic., l9??r Dr 12. Ti€r, ' iou! dutr"y (otrk i l ,ur ion5 to rhis ! rmposium r.rer ro rha l i rcrqLurcdcsrr ib i t rg pol iL io l (uku'c pr l . ,ns jn C; lm!, , i ! ( cour iA. I r lDJi , ,gChhr rnd Cuba. Some oI this lit€ulurc is of a th@r€tkal son, and sm;

' .poIr .mpi ' ie l rGcrrch or ' pol i r ( r l (ut lu 'c p,r ' " r ,F, l r i ( o( inr lc i

In. t lh. .orcpr har bmn \r idclv rr .epreJ in Easpn, Luropcr ' r , rounrr ig,Nhcre il rcrdi ro l(aitinr.c natioDal ,nd ethnk auronoor, !.or r.tcclccsto pol i t icr l .uxu'c in Sor ier r r 'd Lukrn t iu 'open t i rckru,c, 5cL tr ,^lvialrl @nribu.io! to th€ preseDt rolumc, aird rhe extensi\. biilo,'Arrphior citrtioN h Drovn and Crat, poliLiet Ccttsr,. Atso rrnpcNPr*nrcd rt (hc Roundrlblc or Politic.l cutture tuld utrder rhc ausDi&is oa

'hc I ' lLcrDrr io"al Pol i r ia l S( i .ncc Aso. iaLion al K'cro$, poLnd. s! ; r ,mbcr

r977, in pr( icular, S'anc Juznk,. t rpoloet ol pol tLkdt cr tu, ; ; toancct€t(hi a Ornlru Trdsncr, Polni."i Cutt!'. and pdtitrnt D.tztoh,..nt:Xaridim Opar(r, Tna Con..t't "Cuttnr. in L.Col Ih.o.,.nd in ioLh,ats.nr.z; anJ Arrrrk sobolcrskj, TI. Po,tttotiv. Mod.i at ut. s...alPolitir.l Cultur. it Polan.l.

78. B'o\n rnd G6,t, Politrcal c"ttu,., pp.270-7t,79. rbid_30, Ibid-, p. 271,81, lbid,, p. 272,32. S.. Aldont l and \ 'cr l , r , Ci , t . Cukul . , pn,3?0f i . . r r \ t Hcrb! ,1 H\ma,r .

Th. Eidu, i tg E[. .h oi Ed!.d on \Chi .J6oi Uni ' . oI chnrco p,cs, i97t .

CUAPTER II

Ine Jffucture ot Interence

Arend Lijpharr

Uaiue$itt ol Cahlotnid. so{ Diep

ALTHoLCH rHr 'BULX ot Ttr Ctr ic Cl t t turc deaL wirh rhe co'm-parative description and anallsis of rhe patrerns and dinensionsof five political €ukures, the largcr qucslion rhat morivatcs rhcstudy and that is discussed exrenlively iD rh€ innbcli.roryand concluding chapr€rs concems the relarionship betweenpol i t i (a l cul tu 'e anJ pol i r iLal strrcrure. The r tcpenden( v iable i \ the srabi l !y dnd ef fef l i reness ot democrar ic Sovernmenr.The idenlidcation o[ the independent variabte presents a bit.of a problern. In thei. preface, cabriel A. Almond and SidneyVerba state their main lhemcs in the foltoving words: '.whatthe Greeks called civic virtue and its consequences for theelTectileness and stabiliry ot rhe democratic poliryj and.the kind of communi!y life, social organiza!ion, and upbringingof childr€n ttpat fosters civic virtue.

" ena the firsi sentinci

ot the 6rst chaplcr rcads: "This is a study of rhe polnicxlculture of dcmocmcy and ot rhe social srru€rurcs and proce$csrhat sustain it.", These sratements su88c;r rhar rhe argumenris structurcd around rhree lariables or sers of variablcs: thc

Coprrigh. O i980 by Arcnd LijlhartI rfhh to Lhark rhe Ncrhcrlands hsriturc lor AdraDccd Sru.ly nr thc

H{manjties an(l Sociai Scicr.es in Wasscnaar, \herc r rras a !,clloiv duringthc )sr l97rr-75, lor Lhc opp.rLuniry it providr.r de to $fitc Lhis chaprc;.

37

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tOn Re!;siting Th. C;!i Culturc: A P.nanal Pattsdipt l ! ! '

CIIAPTER X

On Revisiting The Civic Culture:A Personal Postscriot

Sidn€y verbaHatua Unt!.ttity

TIrE Crvrc CuLruRE was a bold and incautious book. Whctherone us€s th€ one adjecrive or the other will depend on one'scvaluation of the work. Either adjective witl do to describe awork thar a(empted one of the fiIst systematic doss nationalstudies; lhat used as its rcsearch tool the sample suryey, a tech'nique that was still in the process of development and thai hadnot been used cxtensively in several of the nations studied; andthat dealr with the complex maoopolitical problem oI democraticstability, a probl€m for which the r€search tool had not b€enused even in a single nation. To have conducted a ooss-nalionalsurvey on a simpler and more tradiiional topic 1.rould have becna fairly bold venture; to have tried to use survey techniques todeal with the issue o[ democratic stability within a single nationsuch as fte United Staies where, ai least, these techniques werewell developcd would have bcen a bold venture; to have tricdto explain dcmocratic stability by comparing several nationsusing more traditional techniques would hardly have been atimid enterprisc €irher. Bui to apply a new method on an un-

CapyriShr @ 1930 bt sidnq vdba

394

prccedented .xoss-national scope to a problcm never srudiedby that method suggesLr thar neirher bald. not incautiotls;s theproper wo'd Foolho,d, might be more .ppropr iarc.

The fact that.Almond and Verba rushed in where other socialscientists had not even .onsid€rcd trcading resulted in a bookthat had a larBe impact on compantive polirical srudies, an im-pact lar8.r rhdn qould havc been

" t tarned l ,y a more circum"pe(

'book. It also resulted in a book thar has receivcd a good deal ofc ticism in terms of metftod, scop€, and lheory. The essals inthis volume are examples - amon8 thc besr exampl€s, 1 be-lieve-of a long serics oI orks that have atlempred to asscssthe impact.ot The C; ic Cuhurc and ro indicare where it wasadequate or inadequate. Some of rhe praisc is warranred. Muchof lhc criticism, it is painful for an aurhor ro admit, is jusrinedas well. llut one gratitying aspccr of much of lirc conrDrnt onthc book is that ir has been constructiv€. Cdrics halc rarely beencontent to dismi$ the eork as wrong or ilrclevanr; rh€y haveused it as a basis lor gojng several sleps further. Ior somc, ?lcCivic CuUurc represcnted a corect approach to problcms otdemocraljc politics. These have rcspondcd with rhe most im,portant kind of prais€: they have nodificd and replicared parrsof the work jn olher scttiDgs or in the samc settings ar a hrertimc; extending the scope o[ the data on the subjecls studicd in'fhe Ciuic Culrwe and/or giving them some deprh ovcr time.1Othcrs have {ound lhe data Bath€red Ior lhe purposcs of rhebook to be usetul, bur incompiercly analyzed. Tirc) havc canicdout secondary analysis, applyin8 orhcr srarisrical rechniques ordealing with oGer problems lhan lhose rhat concemed theauthors of the original work.l Srill orhcrs hav€ lound rhc merhodattnctive as an a?proach to comparalive polirical srudies andthe subjec! marter of political valu€s imporr?nr, but they havego e beyond the original work to improve the conceprualizatjonand measurement of such valucs.s Somc havc tound the n,ettrodattractive, but havc applied it to a somcwhat d;ferenr scr ofproblcms- to voting behavior, politiclll participation, socjaliza,!ioD, o! othcr topics. )iven rhosc Nho have fouDd bolli rhcmethod and the thcorctical approach lackirg hivc, jt appcars,bcen morivated to "take another step"-ro show ivhar shouldbave been srudicd and how it sllould havc beeD done.

Page 21: w.11 - Civic Culture Concept - Gabriel A. Almond

398 On Rev;Jiting The C;!;c Crltur.: A p.rsondt postrcribl

TIIf, SCOPE OT THD STUDI

One incaurious aspecr ot Ti . Cit ic Cultwe *, . i , " , . "p. .Five nadons was five times as many as in previous studies ofpolitical behavior using national samples. There are a rumberof problems with such a broad scope.

One problem is ihat a cross-narional srudy can nevcr give roeach individual narion rhe full artention and uDdersrandiDe rhari t desewes on irs own. The cross-Darionat sctrolar is raralv asfamil iar wi lh rhe narions he or she srudie\ as; rhe iounrrvsp€(ial;t. The r;ch contexruat lnowtcdge possesed by a spccialist in a pardcular nation*in hn or her own narivc landor an adopted place of specialization - rakes a lons lime ro comeby. Ir in lol les immcrsion in a culrure, I (nowledge ot a ldnguaBc,and understanding of history. One can onty acquire such knowt-€dge slowly; loo slowly for onc ro b€ a speciatist in nore rhan afew nations. The social scientisr who artempB ro deal wirh a"sample' ot nar;ons, ,ho\en no( for rheir Lmil i ! r i r ) , bur bccause they represent rypes of nadon useful for a parrjcutartheorelical problem, musr dcrl vr;rh narions less tamiliar thanthey should b€.

Iunhermore, the alrempr to deal wirh a gencral rheorcticalproblem, as was artempted in The Ciuic Crtllra, ineans tharone may not deal wirh problems most immediarely relevant tosome o[ rhe narions srudied. lnrcrnal compte\ i ( je i or pa ;Luldrnlstoncar pa(erns and expcrien.es ma) receive shorl shr i f r . Theauthors of the various counhy chaple$ in rhh votume quiteappropriarely make lhis poinr in retar ion Lo edch of ihejrnations. Tlr Civ;c Cultuie, by focusing on a broad probtem ofcross-nal ional retevance, ignores signi t 'cant aspecrr of rhe pol i r i .cal s i luat ion in each of (he narions srudied

In part, therc are ways around this probtem. Comparisons €anbe conducted by collaborarive teams made up of specialisrs fromeach of rhe narions. Recent researcb has_raken rhis formar,usually involving scholars from each of rhe nations srudied. Sucha tormat is both inrellectually more jusrified than the approachil The Civ;c Cultue

^\d, more in rune wirh an approach to

s. ienr i6c research as an inremarional coopt 'ar;ue ueniure.But this way oI dealing \rith lhe probtem docs nor eliminare

the main inrellecrual issue: the exrenr to which national poliries

on Reokitin?'Ihe citi. cultte: A Pe6oaal ponscr;pt 399

repres€nr an dppropriate 'e i

of uni ts rbour whi.h ro h(neral i7. .Arc there funcrionall) equivatenr problems or processes innational polities that can be idenrined and aboui which $.e canusefully genemlize? And, if so, are dre problems or procc$es ofcnough significancc thar it is worrh thc eJlorr ro a(ernpr toSeneralize abour them?

The Ciric Cultue focused on those poliricat a(iru.tes tharwould be supportive of a dcmocraric polirical sysrem. Thc as-sumption vas thar a number of forces led ro rhe developm€nrof such a ttitudes - cduca tion; the democratizarion of nongov-ernmental authority syslems in the family, rhe schoot, and thewortplace; general trusr in one's fellow cirizens. As a numberof the authon in the prescnt volume have pointed out, rheimplicit predicrion in The Civ;c Culrure of a rcndency rowardmore videly held "bivic' attirudes has nor been bornc out. In.he Unicd States and Brirain, the narions iD which we toundsucl, arr i rudes ro bc wide"tr . l . t , r t rerc ha\ l ,een r sr, dJy erosionof confidence in the government. Wc had assum€d rhar olhcrnatiom mighr move in rhc "civic" directjon of rhe UnitedStates and Britain; in I?cr, rhe latler two narions moved araylrom that posirion. Iach followed irr own fajecrory. Basic cirizen attitudes have been aFecred by rhe parricular scr ot potiri.alissues which the nadon taced. In rhe Unircd States, lhc crosionof supportive polirical belicfs probably derives from rhe poliricalevenB of the 1960s-Viernarn and racial rension-cappecl b)Watergate in the I970s. In Britain, much can be lraccd to gov-ernmentat incapaciry ro deal wifi severe economic srrain. In theother nations as well, as lhc various essays in this volume pointout, the specific confiSuration of poliricat probtems and poliricalcleavages aSecrcd the evolution of potirical atritudes.

In generat, the 'variarions from ;alion ro narron makc clearlhat general sociological proccsses €an easily be modified bypoliticat events. Our general approach was ro scck rhe roors ofpolitical beliefs in long-term social processcs. Basic poliricalattitudesj we belj€ved, were ransmitred fr,rr gctrc,aoon ro gcn-eration, through rhc family and rhe s.hoot. fhey lfcre tormedearly in life and had a good dcal ot srabitiry. rt rl)cy e.ere !ochange, the change would come gndually in responsc to changcsin their basic social and pslchologicat or igins. 1 'hn:pproachwas consistenr wilh much of rh€ literature ar rhe rime. Norc

n

I

,t

r

a

I

.J

Page 22: w.11 - Civic Culture Concept - Gabriel A. Almond

400

how similar it is to the analysis of the basic origins ancl stabilityol party identification in the voting lirerature.. What was notcl€ar was the dcgr€e to which such political attitudcs acrelabile and could be allected by politicat even6.

lnsofar as basic political attitudes respond to specific politicalevents, the attempt to generalize about such atritu(lcs acrossna.ions is made more dimcul!. The specific crises and problemsthat individual nations face undercut any broad sociologi€algerleralizaiions. Such a criticism of att€mpts at brcad-scale .ross-nat;onal generalizations is well takcn. Any such generalizationsmust bc sccn as highly contingent on political evcnts. But drisdo€s not imply that all one has left is descriplion ot rhe politi,cal erents in a nation coupled {i!h description of tlie way inwhich thc public rclponds to such cvcnts. Ior onc thing, thc.ross national sociolo8ical generalizations - such as the oneibout the relat ionship between educal ion and pol i t icr l involve.ment-ma) st i l l hold i t a l l e lse is equal . Tl ic evidence l rom'I'hc C;uic Cultwe has been confirmed by olher stu(lies. The link'a8e bctwccn cducation and political attiludcs and behavior docshold up, though the impact oI the formcr on drc lattcr is lllodi'fied by macropolitical proccsscs and clents.5 Tlrc recognitionthat poliiical attitudes and behavior cannot be reduced to psy'.hological and sociological forces does not mean that tbc krlcrare not imporlant dererminanls ol long'term political belicts.Currcnt s ludics ol the or ig ins of "post in( luslr ia l ' ra lues in younghigh-cducared citizens iilustrate that thefe nlay be cross-narionaltendencics in polirical bcliefs that tranlcen(l thc spccinc experiences wilhin an) particular nation.6 Having recognizcd tha!indiv ual political behavior and atlitudcs arc irt largc pari rc\ponrs to sfe, in( pol ; r ; ,a l r r in 'u l i , $e mu5r no,{ | | ) ro inresrJrethosc contingen! factors into our analyses.

Thc exhtcncc ot generational el{ecr- tbat is, hen a par-ticular age cohort resl)onds ro a ser of stimuli in i wai dificrcntfrom othcrs cxposcd to the stirnuli and then carries lhe inipacrof that r€sponsc through the l i te €yclc-surcl ,v indicatcs dratpolitical attitudes are not solcly the rcsult of the polirical eventsof the period. cenerational eficcts involvc an intcraction be'tween tl)e particular ser ot evcnts taking place in a nation andIoDger tcrm fo'matioir of poliricnl belieh, ?s when a posli'rdu!trialgcnernt ion r i i rcd i ' r an cra of amuencc takcs on pir t icular values

On Rerititing The citi C\ltwe: A Petsollol Postsctibt 401

rhdr i t thcn cdnie\ t \ ,ouLh l ih .or :na" carr \ rh 'oubh l i f ' , rhc

evidence is not yer in), whereas oldcr cohorls who are also

cxposed to contcmporary afiiuence but had in addition experienced an cra of greater econornjc want clo Dot adoPr new ralues

Attempts to sort out the stable from the labilc in political

and social attjtudes must be placed high on thc research agenda.

The g€neral €xpcctation has b€en that attiludes on sPccifi. issucs

or about spccific people vil1 changc easil), bat that b:tsic beliels

about the rules ot thc political game, or aulhority Pattcrns, or

equility rill remain more stable, as will lundamental attach-

ments to SrouPs or to Political Parlies There is some evidencc

that rhis is the cairc. In thc United Statcs, attiludes toward the

in 'Jmbcn( prc, idenr ' re qLi t" ! rnuLlc, r . . , ,c \ i . r \ ' ' ro P(Fformance of political instirutions, but fundamentrl views as to

the desirable naturc ot the political sysicm havc rcmajned

sieadier. In this sense, The Ciric Ctllve's dascriPtio oi Amcri-

can political cuirure has hcld up &spitc thc lumoil of the

1960s. Even in rclation to party amtiation, which rcscarchers

have found to be les stable tban was oncc assumecl, ficrc;s

evidencc for basic stabilily comparcd wilh artitudcs to Particulercandidiles. A! least lor drose who lormcd a Par!;san aitachrnenl

before thc latc 1960s, party idcntincalion has rcmained fairly

stablc, and at the samc ljme split'tickct loting bas riscn.i

It is, ho$ever, difficult to sort oul the stable lrom the labile

Ior onc rhing. vcry \vet l ar iL.rJc, ro$ , )J

basic institutions in isolation frod attitudcs aboul sPecific evcnls

and pcoplc. The average citizcn - and the averagc survey ir'

strumen!- conlounds attitudes !o the omce and a!riludes rowad

the incunrbent. l'urrhermore, '!ve do not havc adcquale t'm€

series to esiimate thc enects o[ evcnts on d;fierent iypcs of belief.

The slstemaiic strrdy of the way in Nhich su.h bchcf patterns

change will require more timc-series data with replicated ques-tions. In the United States, whcre there are extcndcd timc scricson specinc irems such as prcsidcntial popularity or Prrly ident;frcation, beginnings arc bcing made in tracing tlrc imprct ofcvents on such bclicfs." The dara in lhis book bring T/rd C;,i.

culture up to datc and are a step iD that direction, Ihougtr

there are fcw extended iiLne series on Ctttr Ctltutd itcms Thc

Cilic CuItMe ire'ns nelertheless form a baseline for conparison

Tlris brings mc to the next chxractcrislic ot Tle CiLic CuLture:

On /lcvis;ting Th. Ciric Culturc: A Personal Postscri|t

Page 23: w.11 - Civic Culture Concept - Gabriel A. Almond

402 On Rak;ting The Citic Ctlrut.: A pe$arat partr.ttpt On Rdkiting The Citic Cultrt.: 4 pettonal patuctipL j03

is r ighl in rhat rhe tedp from ci t i /en vr l . res (o Llcmo.rar iL tLn. .t ionin8 \ra\ vcry 8 'edr. Ouf darr wcrc on in, t iv iL lu. , t Lel ;cr , .They could be aggicgated to rlre bcliefs of the cirjzcDr), bur dreconne(r ion beLween

'h. .e bcl i i , r pr . rn. ?nLt whdr qe were rr \ .

ing ro cxplajn - wh) \ome nar ions hJd relrr ivc l ) 5u, , e, . fJt Jn. lstabie democracies and other poliries did not_wxs rcnuous.I.utl'ermde, there uas no way in which we coulcl manipularetho data we had garhercd-thc dara on rhe aftitu(tcs a;d be-licft of a saFple ot citizcns in cach narion-ro see how varra-trons in our data atTected rhe dependenr variable ot sysremstability. The lattcr was not precisety ,rcasurcd and nor di;ccrtylinkcd to our own dar,

The problem is not one confined ro our .ross-narional a.orkon democrrr ic a i ru, le. . A qort carr icd oLr , .m.wt, , r . r , l :e lthan ours * Stouilert srudy oI artitudes towird civil libcrties _triggercd ofi a debatc about democraric functjoning wirhin lheUn:rcd SrJrc ' . How (outd nealom ot 5pceLh U mi,ropot i r ; , ,1.nardrter 'str \ o l rhc Ameri t ln polrrr .J l ) }srcm, s.rr \ ive r t pol , -rar a l | r rJdec wcrc b) no m.Jn5 tu y sJf l ,orr i tc oi . . . . t . , : ! i ll ibert ic,? Ihc an)s.r lc) in rhe d j ruJ, ; or to,J1 t . . , , tcr . , - .L itudes that were more in accord wirh. lemocEr;c nofm!. , l Thedata on local leaders added one a( ld i t ionat bi t of in lbrmaLionto the Stoufler srudy tha! helped cxplain rhe conneclion_orrnthcr, the lack of connc€rion - belween &e public ntit(lesand the way instirutions in facr worked in tlre United Srares.But the connccrion was by no means clear and invotved sevcratinterenr id l leap' t ro ln LiLi , .n v- lue, ro s\ . ren. tun(r .uning. l roependel l upon a-ump' ions r5 ro hoq . i r i l (n \JtLe. . t t . . r

" ) . -tem functioning rhar wcre neirher csre.l nor tesrable wjrli riredata available. Retenr studies show a mnjor chanse in rhe tevclot commrrment to free speech: 1! AmcricaDs cxpress much moresupport for free speech fo. devianrs than they (lid a couple oldecadcs ago. The chanse in pubtic attirudcs lowar.t frcc speechis unambiguous, The inrpact on rhe polity of ttrc change js tcsclear. As wirh r\e Civic Cultue dara, r,hictr shoa,ed an incrcasein attirudes supportive of denocracy as one nove.l trom nar;oDsthat appeared (on the basjs of unsysremarjc oiteria) ro bc tessstable democracics to those rhat tnd an increasein c i t izcn suppor! for f rce specch rhar coincides wirh,r morclibcral interpretarion of laws on matrers of ,l,ccch (though

1:-::1.-p, . use sampte suneys to dear wirh macroporirical

SURVEY RISEARCII AND M CROPOI,ITICS

. The data garhered lor The Ctuic Cuuure werc used wirhinrhat book ro raise a number ot micropol i r i .a l qucsr ionr. Most of

: : - : l r* rera re- demo8ra phic charatrer iqt i rs Lo pol j r i ,a l a| i -luoes, or reporc o[ ear ly expcrienLes to surb arr j tud,r , or relareone a rrude ro anortrr . t r is inrere\r in8, fuf lhermo,e, r t rrr !u(h

.mr(roanaryses have received more dUeDrion in rhe t i re, i rur. ,Partnufdr ly aDong rho\e who ha\c urd rhe c,rr , Cultur. drta: : :_ru' :ne,

anart :es., su(h mi(,odrary,es a,c ea. ier ro rcpr,cJrci l "1 " ' . -9, .

dis(usi te ma(ropol i r i ,a l rnJtyr. \ ol r t ,c sodr.esrabit i ty. . l he micropot ir icr l D,e ot The C;,k

: :-_T:. l y anr i( ipare_ rhe orher bcins r tre rrraiEhrtorward

oes, nprrvc mater iat rhar wa) prescnred. We , ," ," ; , .h mo.e(oncerned w'rh rhe ma(ropot jr id l qDerr ion oI Jemo.r.r ic \ rabi t .I ty; :^d,rh€ use' ,or t r lemari( $rvcys to dcJr $irh rr ,bL quc\r ion.ioe rcy ro rhe u(e of our surve! JJrr to dcdl $i ,h mdno-Poi 'u.at rue5 was the Ia rbat the , l r ra wcre cornparar ivc.

our srudy had becn l i ,n ired to a sinste l ,ot i r i , r l 1.r .m. a" mosrsurvey srucl 'er werc, i r woutJ ha\c b.d, i t r l l ,o. \ ,LIc ro !ctJrc

11::^^:.-:f,1,1,,*: ro rrre runrriorring or rrrc por;ri,rr ry,r"m.I nere would hare b€cn no vdiJr ion i lc l r . r . By Lr; ing J: : f 'e lJ.

or .pol i '

ie! rep,c,cnr ins t t i f i erc, ,L r) 1, . , or d.1,ro, r J, i ( , .: f I , . l j . , : ' , , , ,

cxrstrd ror.ronnrtr ins ,u, ,cy nn,r,ns. ro ,n, .o.portucar pro(ps\er. Bur t t re ,onjrccrroD i \ J mujr .oml, tex oncand far from fuly r€alized jn The cit)ic curtl.ra 1or sincc thcn).One approa(t ' uscd in T,t e Ciurc C,trurc wd\ ro rctrrc avcraeeor modal.art i rude pauern\ ro (hc luncr ioning ot ; r ; ' ; ; ; ; : ;sysGm. This r€quired a rarher iargc hroenri;l r"up rri_ Uruion.*hich we had dala to ftar ab;r which *".",i"a . g."-eral ize. Our assumpLion was rhar ye were nor movrng lrom rheindividxat, lcvel ro rhe tever ot rhe m:rcrol ,ol i r icr l , j . rem. buLlrom r ire icvel of otrunl parrerns ro rhe ,uJ.rotevel. Lrkjn: :_11:: :Ll : f . :*o,y. l 'ons in accu, ins u, or (ommirr ins a,r ind;.vroua/rsLrc tal |acy. We here movinE from i ma.rochar!Lrer i , ( ic( the scr oJ art i ruJcs foun,t wirhin t i l . 1,ulr i . ; ,o anorher nd(rocnara,relsrrc (rhe run.r ioning of rhc pot ir i .at s)\rcm). jo 8uL hc

Page 24: w.11 - Civic Culture Concept - Gabriel A. Almond

'104 On R.risiaing The ciri crltur.: A Pelsonal Ponscript An n.r;sitins Thi) Ci1)ic clttlic: -4 Pc^onal Pastsctilt 401

consequences in ternts of eieciion resutts. Ior examPle, Nie,

Verbi, and l'ctrocik use sPntial analysis to sho how thc location

of a Dair ot candidatcs on a lcft/ight issue continuum aflects

voter decisions anal, in tutn, allec$ which candiclate is likelv

to win the election.lsThe linkage betwe€n microstudies of individual voting choice

and electoral outcome is made possibl€ by thc fact thaL we know

the composition rules to bc aPPlic(I. 'fhey rrc the laws ior

counting votes: each Persont votc counrs equnlly in Presidentialelections with modilications due to lhe ldinner-take-all rule in

relalion to elecloral collcgc votcs ln ad(liiion, w€ knor^_ the

process by which votcs allect thc DacroPolitical oulcornc. The

winner of the elecrion tlkes ol6cc- Thc link benvcen election

resutr and dre outcome rvilhin the government is in fac! Dol

rhar simpic- We do not know tlic imPact ot the size of the

victory on the mandate that an officc hokler Perceilcs, nor do

we know in any precise way how the comPosilion of the vote 'Ior the winner aficcts the behaljor ot thc clected omcjal. (what

exactly is rhe imPact on Pres cn! Carter of the [act that black

vorers votcd almosr unannnously lor him?) such conncclions

depcnd upon contingencies e cannot measure 'n

any prcctsc

way. But thc nrnjor elcction outcome- the victor} ot candidate

A orer B- is c lear ly l inke( l to the sum of. i t iTen votes.

Making such connections betwecn inrlividual behalior and

system outcome h ha er fu otbcr areas ln thc study of political

participarion, e have been able to link in.iividual behavior-

the choice whether lo bc lctile or not and how to be aclive -

back to some nacropoliiical antccedents (to tlre institutionrl

structures that Provide channcls for Political actility) as ell

as foNard !o the comPosition ot the Partic;Panr PoPulation in

a society.rl BLrt \l1e have had less succcss in (aking thc linkage a

step flrrther. We know how individual decisions to bc act;ve br

not aFcct the deglee to which dle ParticjPant PoPulation in a

narion is bias€d in favor ot one socjal grouP rathcr rhan anothcr,

b r tbc forward l inkage of th is lo pol ic ics on tbc Part ot thc

govemment is less amenable to systemalic study.

Third, an issue associarcd ith a fo.us on maooPoliticnl out-

come! is the €hoicc al the approPriaie uni ! As we hive iDdicr tcd,

the assumption in The Cit ic Culht tc--at jo mo5t .orrParatrve

I

|har judgment is based as wcll on unsystematic observation).Dut whether or not the change in attitudes and tlte change in thesystem aciually move in t?n(lem and, if they do, which causeswhich remain obscure.

There are several problems in connccting survey data andmacropolitical outcomes. One has to do with the comPositionrules by which one sums up lhc results ot a surveyi another hasto do with the proccss that connects cilizen attitudes and be_havior to the operadon of the polily; an(l yct anolher with themacropolitical unit one chooses.' One can describe the marginal distributio)r of democratic be-liefs in a population, but it is cterr- as Stoulfcr's focus on thelocal leaders or our focus ;n The ctuic C?rliu'? on the €du-cated por(ion ot our samples implie(l - (hat the belicis of someare more ilDporlant than drose ot others The exknr to whichrhcre are democratic values among those €losesl to the workingof lhe polity - those who are more active, thosc who are likelyto take political oince, c!c.-is more crucial in terms ot dcmo_cratic stability than the betiefs of tlrose further fro the Political action. But in fi€ sludy ol basic Politicai values, there areno preche rul€s as to how much weight one gives to the viewsof various groups.

Second, there is no clcar understanding oI the Process bywhich basic polirical valucs aflect the opcration ot a Politicalsysrem. Ir is usually simply asserted lhat drerc are such connec'tions. Such an assertion is surely reasonable, but how exacdythe beliels within a populace anect Poli(ical decisions or thewiy inst; tut ions operare remain, i ' texpl ic i t .

The micropolitical level and lhe macropolitical ]evel havebeen Drosr successfully linked in the area ol voting sludies.Earlier voting studies were anallses of indivnlual politicai bc-havior rather than of elections. But as election studies haveaccumulated, they have thus provided a series ot elections toconpare, in the same way thar comparariv€ surveys Provide ase! ot national polities to compare. This allows onc to turn tothe way in which the macrocharacteristics of an elcction allecrvoting choice and how that in turn allecls the elcctoral ourcome.Nlacropoli(ical characterisrics are used to h€lP exPlnin micro-polirical choices by loters, which, in turn, bave nacroPolitjcal

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406 On Rfliiting The Civi. Cuttvre: A perrondt postsctiptOn Rdisitin] The Citic Cuhne: A Penonal Postscipt 401

Politics-was rhar rhe nation-srare \{as rhe mosr useful unir.For syslemaric auempB ro Iink individual artirudes and bchaviorto characte.hrics ot politi.at unirs, howevcr, cornparrsons across(ommunir ies or orher subnrr ionat unirs mrv Lc more fruir tul .Ttle es:ays in th; votume also poinr ro rhc imporrance or sub-culrural di f lerenriar ion in pol iLicdt vatue,. a r ;bje(r (o whichThe Civic CuLturc paid in\um.ienr arrenrion. Tt,e Ciu;. Cuthrcdid not assume homogeneity wirh;n nations and heteroscneiiyacross them. Indeed, one of j rs main Lnemc. w,, the i r i rcrnaidifierentiation in political atritudes across sociat groups and rheextenr ro whLh simitart \ pl"(ed groups in . l inerenr socier ie"we'c ( lo\e. ro ea.h orher in arr; tude rtran werc di f ter.nrty ptacedsocial groups wirhin a single socjcry. But rhe book raised thisquesrion jn relar ion to educarional 81oup(, nor rn rclaLion rore8ronar or ethnr( subgroupr. Ttrc er lcnsion ot anr lyses Lo sub_currura, Sroups reprcsenrs an impo anr bod) ot sork lo owinglp The Citic cu|urc.

Ar interesring an issue (and one rhat has rcceived less svs,tcmrt ic arrenrion) i r rhe cxrenr ro whi(h ( t ,e propcr unir lor(ulrural analysis tranrcends rhe narionrrarc. Tic narions andthe world are, as the cli.h6 relts us, in closcr and closer contacrand are subjectcd ro r}le same inrcrnational social an{l €conomi.forces. Thus drc srudy of culturat slabilily and. change may in-volve a considemrion of uansnarional forces. These takes:vcra] form.s Narion5 (an undcrso pxra er crran8cs. whi(hthen l ,ave simi lar ef iecB on .utrural parrrrns a.ross narions,though rhe effecrs rate plare indcpendcnrty wirhin rhe nr-rrons..Examples would be simi lar conscquen.es of r t re spreadof higher educaaion or relevision. Or narions can te exposea tosimi lar ink'nar ionat condir ions wirh, pcrhap,, s imi ldr inrernalettecB. An exampte mighr be inf lar ion, whi(h rno,r nar ions cx-perience at rh€ same rime be.ause of internationat economicforces, su-ch as rhc rise in energ.y (osrs, and $hi(h ma) havesimi lrr ef ieLt5 in ea'h of rhe narions experiencing i t . Last. rherers tnc drrecr rransmission of (utrural values Irom narion ronation. The spread of rhc yourh movement of rhc lare 1960s orthe current spread of consumerism o{tcn involves su.h direcrcommunication and imira.ion of new ideas. Srudics of potiricatculture will have to take thes€ rmnsnational phenomena into

DEMOCR/ITIC SURVIVAL

Onc featurc of The Ci";c Culturc vas its locus on demooaticstability. We wer€ conccrncd I'ith rhc qucstion ol why somcdemocracies survive whilc othcrs collapse more lhan with thequestion ot how well democracies perto.m. Thc tocus n:rs not in-approP ate at lhe !ime. The survjval oI the democracies in thcdevcloped world was problcmatic and the potential for viabiedcmocracy in the dcvcloping orld problenatic.Social scicncc at that time wlrs still trling to solvc the puzzlcof the pre-World War Il replaceqeDr ot democratic rcgimcs bytotalitarian ones. The demooatic regimes in G€rmany and ltalywere viened by many as insecure. In addirion, the lrench FourthRepubt;c had recenrly collapscd, and.he extenr to {hich theFiflh Republic ould be dcmocraric was un.crtain. (Inilced,thc original research design lor The Ciuic Crllur? includ€dfrance, bu! the fal] of thc lourth Rcpublic and tirc unccrtaintyof the political situatio'r l€d us to shift ro Italy.)

The focus on survival had an impact on die rcsearch, an ;n-pact lhat did sornewhat rcduce thc lruitfulncss of the worl.Suwival n an all-or-nothing phcnomcnon- It is not that ye.

expe.tcd the imminent collapse of one of lhe nitions we weresludying as a rest of our theory. Rather, our dependent lariablewas the likelihood of survival. This, untorlunately, is Dot am€asureable phenomenon - unless o_!e studics a l gc numbcrof polidcs ovcr an extended period ot time. Thus ue were nolforced to {ace the problem of a rnore precisc measurement oldemocmtic {unctioning: our semie](pii.it assumption }as thalthe clustcring oi nations in terms of likelihood oi d€mocralicsurvival vas fairlt obvious. It would hxv€ been useiul to halcprovided more explicit criteria of perlormance and to havc, aileast hypothetically, linked aspects of our data to varjous kindsof perlornance. It is uncertain how successful w€ ould havebeen. Thc current conccrn with "gov€rnability (a .on.ept tharseems to combinc pcrformancc with vjabihy) has nor led toprecise conceptualization or measDrcme r.l' B't a more explicitconcem with perfonnance level! would hxvc bcen uscful.

Our .oncern ith survival also lrd to a rrthcr one-sided ap-proach to stratilication. 1Ve were coDcerned with thosc alritudcst}lat were likely to bc supportive oI a dcmocratic r€gime. We

Page 26: w.11 - Civic Culture Concept - Gabriel A. Almond

408 On ntuitit;ng The Chi. Cv\urc: A personol postscripl

toxnd these (o be most f.equently and tully hctd by rhe moreedu.ated rnembcrs of rhe polir). In rhis, our dara para eled orherstudies of the rimc. Nor, despi(e exrended debarc abour thcimplications of this nnding, has the nnding irsetf bcen conrmdicted by othcr dara: the upper{ducated remain the more activeand involved as thc more civi.,ninded cir;zcns. From the per-spccrive of democraric suiaival rhis implicd rbar democracieswould be more secure il less wcll-educatctL .irizens were lessactive than (he more wctl educatcd. trom the poinr of view otdemocratic p€rformance, the mafter looks somevha! dillerent.Even i l upper.srarus cir izens pd ic i fdre our of a fnv ot Li \ i ( .mindedness and br ing to rhar parr i . ipar ion J \er ot Jrr i ru, te\more supportive of democracy, they also rcpresenr parricularpolicy inter€srs thar arc likely to skew governnrentat risponsive-n€ss in their favor and away from rhe needs of rhc lc; activemembers ot sociery.b

. The concerns expressen \n The Ciric CuLure were producr oftheir times. This, as I have poinred out, was rcltccrctt in thc useof survey te€hniques an(l rhe focus on dcmocratic srabiliry. Tttcbook was, at the !imc, in rhc mainstream of rhe politicat scien.econcern widr nlass polirics, a con.ern rhat had groh,n with thc'behavioral revolution" in politicai s.icDce aild rlie turning otthc discipline away from legal and historical srudies. Thesestudics o[ (he poliricat behavior of the cirizcnry focusecl on in,puts inro rbe policymaking process, bur paiit tilllc or no atren-tion lo re process irsclf. The governrncnr became a ,.black box,that processed inpurs inro oulpurs.

J'rst as political beliets change, so do rhc concerns ot poliricalscieniists. Recent )ears have seen the rcvival ot concern wirh thcpolicy proc€ss: wirh governmcnr decision making ancl withbureaucratic behavior. Ncverrhetess, rhe mass political plrcnonre-non studied in works like Thc Civic Clrllurc remains relevant.Studies of elcctoral bchavior - especi al Iy whcn tinke(l ro elec_tron oulcomes - rcmain imporrant to undcrsrand policymak;rgin nations conrrollcd by democraric regi.les. And tor democraricand nondemocratic regimes, srudics of nonclecroral political aRitudes and bchavior of the sort The Cbic Cultlr,z dealr wirh may

'I'hc mass poliri.at movcnients dircctty involved in cnviron

On Relisiting The Aiaic Ctltne: ,4 PeBonal PottscriPt 409

nentat policy or nuclear cnergy policics have had a major enecton public poljcy in a nurnbcr of courtric$. A stuly ot mass politi-cal bchavior would certainly be rclevant to policymaking inrelation to these issues. And such x study nould build on thetype of work initiated in Tl. Ciri. Cultwe.

In sum, how does one judge Thc civ;c cultltrc rnany ycarsafter its app€arance? Nor by wircrhcr ir obraircd rhe righransae.s; that is too Inuch to cxpcct. Did ii ,sk the r;ght quenrions? Thar is a more relevant and tairer criterion. Thc ansNcris not complctety clear. Many of thc qucslions ii miscd remainimporrant ones for comparativc politics: lvhai sbepes indivi.lualpolilical bclicis? Which bclicts arc politically siSDificant? FIowdo political beliefs alleci political sysrems? Ho\r do hisroricalcxpcrienccs allect vbat peoplc think about politics? Studicsthar Jedi wi th Bcnc' . r l \ r luc,hrn8c Iro r ' . , r ia, ' . or r , ro.(gene.ations continue to ask such questiqns. In many c$es, Ila ,Citic Cultwe askcd the right questions. It did nor rlwals nskthcm as precis€ly as they might havc bccn askcd, nor did ir askall the rclevant questions about democratic stability. ]]u. ilopencd important arcas of study.

The essays in this volumc hxvc called attcntion in a mostappropdatc fashion to some ot the shortcomings in The C;'licCrlirlci veakresses ol merhod and $eakncsscs ot thcory. MaDyo[ these, I have suggeste.l, derive {ronr the boldness (foolhardi-ncss?) ol fie work- Would the work ha\re be€n berter il ii hadbeen more cautious: more limited in scopc, lcss innovarivc irmethod, less grandiose in theory? l! certainly would trave beenless opcn to criticirm. llut morc cautious Nork is also morce$ily ignored or torgot,€n.If The Cioic C1llraru had been norccautious, rhere would be litilc occasion for r volunc oI th;s s.,tt.Thcre would be less to crjlicize, bur also tcss ro remcmber lhar.was \{orth criticirin8.

NOT!S

l Thc atui. Crll,r. qncstionDairc has ben rplicted, in \{bolc o. inpIt, nr Japar. Ircltr'd, C.ortia,'r\,kcy, and rhe !"cttrerlanils 3s wcll as-mor.g \ t , \ , rJ" \ rn,r . . " ' , \

2. Ex,mflcs x,r Nornun H. Nie, G. Bingliin Po{ell, Jr., and KdriLtliI ' r .n i r r , so. ia l st t rcrurc t r .d P. l i r i .a l l r r t i . i t t r t ion: D$clopmcrrr l ) i . l ]tiosl,ip\, ,4,rc,i.dn P,l'r.rr J.t.".d /lc,i.u 63 (JuDc and Sctrcnb.f l11ii].l):

c" ' , j { l l , , , r J ' . , ' r . ' l ) \ ' , " . . ' . r l l . - " . . , r , , r . \ " . ,

Page 27: w.11 - Civic Culture Concept - Gabriel A. Almond

.r 10 On Reti'iting Th. C;lic Cuttse: A pelonaL Fas!'$,pl

ffi:i i:i:;xl. i.j::i.jiTl.lt;3.11:::#j,, j,05, 8'-e6 .\ we,, r.

ir'.Ti#',*-it'i'lln'J#'#i.;i*f Iiff jn:::i;:lilhi:Lontpa,oti". potiti.ot Sru,r_, Z rtut" isco,, i;

y,.,ml*:tl*i'"iil"!{:liiil":i,:*",,,1#liif+: iii:i:il:.,:,i,:;: :;:,,:J., :" ::. :l:,,, r;l*l*iriit"j:j!':jii:B:lirii !fi ;:i:1,";1';;ii .:''*;, j,-1* 3,;li:i:,tilH' j.",di{":.irjr$llft :J,11:';.^,.i:r{1,*;:{,i* j"., i

l l l ' i i iT"i i;, ' f l i , , l lrd-rxser' rl ' i ' Lv;'4' e'r ' 7ori ' ' ,"urc,on.

,.i;,*)',1:,i;.i;:dl'il,'":r'"ijlii,f i"l "i,,"._:',,j,i1..1,,#'T._ 5. Ale\ int€16 rn{t Dar i H Shirh, , . .o,

;;*:*}ii*1e,rr'"';,,",:rl";#::"','iJ:'{"j,f lllil:' i'ifrt':'i:3 :+i:f: z;!: )i!t: i: i:'i: ;l;: I:;';i'iiJp'",.",,,:;-1; f:;;1 #:*",:i":.;,iT";1, i:i ; i..l;jl:; :lt^. .st ,hbn. -p, ,br i . suppof l (or Ameno; pE!.

llm:i:',,,,i* mr iti, -$i'm,iil{dj #tif.rr.,.,qlffi ;:,ft.":1r,,".1i.;i,,;";*ii".,t,,.j.J::,',1'

f ih;:iftjiiir,i:i,;...,:,T ;;,#::.r".T;,1:,ll;:ix,.lj**j":i: *d;.xril;'i:,:, i:;r lr 3 %:#.ililt.^:r :r;, j;:l;;ilT'fi'"'[?]n?r1T ;,izz::,t ]1:? ":'; tt:;r *,,,,,.,,.'"i,

12. S.c J,hca A. Dartr, -CooDUnsb, Coniomro'[g{t!*;-1"'"-##:ii*,#*,i:,:ln;:.-'"',,il; i:;[l'i:, T:,;,?":1, "";i: "T:.x].'J;l:ll;, :,'::,;lnl,::.for6.

sc. Vqbr,.Ni., rd ('ia, participotion and. potitical Etlualitf, clr^p. \4,

INDEX

Ad'Dinniratilc compcrcn.c.,t.. Com.Pelencc

A.lorno, Th€odor w., !43, 3?lAlrcctire dimcnsion ol political cul,

Age, sc, Cenerational dificrcn.csAlboori, Francesco, 279Allegiance ro the political s)$en.

J., Support lor tic 6Fr.nAlnond, Gabliel A., 17-18, 16.1, 2?5,

397. sc€ also citic Ctltvc,

Am.rian satdi.t, Inr ptouf€r eral . ) , l3

Andc6on, Perry, 165

Antisystcn dimension in lL,ly, 29S,302

Aritoo.cy, Amdidn, l8

Arr.rbn, !, Chrnbpher, 315, !59,!61

Adludd, r3, l5. S.. a&o Political

,lltittd.t s!tu., Eolal Connissionor rhe Conrtilnrion), l4r, 149-150, t5!

Arthaitariaa P.rsonolitt, Th. IAd,ar-

Aurlrorirariln pcrsonality t.tpe, 3.13AudroritarilD poliric in Nlclico, 342-

34!,3,17-355,371,383Flchologial intcrpretations, 313,

347-t50$rucrunl intcrprcraliotu, 310-355

tragehot, Waltcr, 19 20, 156BarDes, Sanucl H., 292Barry, Br;an M., 29, ,9, 40, 4?-48, 9C

Black Ame.iqnr, 180-1$, r93, 198,?00

Boynton, C. Rol)crr, 25S 259Brr.hcr, KarlDi.ti.h, 214-21,

llurlaBkii, Fcdor, l0r-106, ll5Burl€r, Dtrvid, 14.1, 145, i19

4l l


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