Southeast Asia

Southeast Asia or Southeastern Asia is a subregion ofAsia, consisting of the countries that are geographicallysouth of China, east of India, west of New Guinea andnorth of Australia.[1] The region lies near the intersectionof geological plates, with heavy seismic and volcanic ac-tivity. Southeast Asia consists of two geographic regions:

Maritime Southeast Asia, comprising Indonesia,East Malaysia, Singapore, Philippines, East Timor,Brunei, and Christmas Island.

Mainland Southeast Asia, also known asIndochina, comprising Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar(Burma), Thailand, Vietnam, and West Malaysia;

The major religions are Islam, Buddhism andChristianity. However, a wide variety of religionsare found throughout the region, including Hinduism andmany animist-inuenced practices.[2]

1 Divisions

1.1 Political

Denitions of Southeast Asia vary, but most denitionsinclude the area represented by the countries (sovereignstates and dependent territories) listed below. All ofthe states excluding East Timor are members of theAssociation of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). Thearea, together with part of South Asia, was widely knownas the East Indies or simply the Indies until the 20thcentury. Christmas Island andthe Cocos (Keeling) Is-lands are considered part of Southeast Asia though theyare governedby Australia.[3] Sovereignty issues exist oversome territories in the South China Sea. In some occa-sions, Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan, the three disputedregions or nations, are considered as part of the South-east Asia.[4][5][6][7][8] Papua New Guinea has stated thatit might join ASEAN, and is currently an observer.[9][10]

1.1.1 Sovereign states

* Administrative centre in Putrajaya.

UNSD statistical division for Asia based on statistic conveniencerather than implying any assumption regarding political or otheraliation of countries or territories:[13]North AsiaCentral AsiaWestern AsiaSouth AsiaEast AsiaSoutheast Asia

1.1.2 Dependent territories

1.1.3 Administrative subdivisions

1.2 Geographical

Southeast Asia is geographically divided into two subre-gions, namely Mainland Southeast Asia (or Indochina)and Maritime Southeast Asia (or the similarly denedMalay Archipelago) (Indonesian: Nusantara).Mainland Southeast Asia includes:

Cambodia Laos Myanmar (Burma) Thailand Vietnam Peninsular Malaysia

Maritime Southeast Asia includes:

1

2 2 HISTORY

LAOS

JAPAN

A U S T R A L I A

C H I N A

VIETNAMTHAILAND

BURMA

INDIA

MALAYSIA

MALAYSIA

SINGAPORE

BRUNEI

PAPUANEW

GUINEA

I N D O N E S I A

(AUSTRALIA)(AUSTRALIA) Ashmore and

EAST TIMOR

Cartier Islands

Cocos(Keeling) Islands

MacauS.A.R.

FED. STATES OF

MICRONESIA

(JAPAN)

PALAU

(INDIA)

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(JAPAN)

( J

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Hong Kong S.A.R.

Christmas Island

P H I L I P P I N E SCAMBODIA

(AUSTRALIA)

(INDIA)

Taiwan

Buru

B o r n e o

Bangka

Billiton

Sumatra

Pulau Simeulue

Pulau Nias

Pulau Siberut

IslandPratas

SamarMindoro

Mindanao

NegrosPalawan

Luzon

Ceram

PARACELISLANDS

SPRATLYISLANDS

BABUYAN ISLANDS

ISLANDS

KEPULAUANMENTAWAI

Halmahera

Pulau

(Celebes)Sulawesi

NICOBAR

NA

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HO

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LA

ND

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KY

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Okinawa

shimaOkino-tori-

BONINISLANDS

VOLCANOISLANDS

Timor

Bali

Madura

Sumba

Flores

Sumbawa

ANDAMANISLANDS

Lombok

KEPULAUANARU

KEPULAUANNATUNA

DaoHainan

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Java

Panay

MO

LU

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SOUTHEAST ASIA

Mercator ProjectionScale 1:32,000,000 at 5N

Boundary representation is not necessarily authoritative.Names in Vietnam are shown without diacritical marks.

0 500 Kilometers

0 500 Miles

802914AI (R02106) 6-02

New Guinea

Davao

Haiphong

Ho Chi MinhCity

PontianakSamarinda Palu

AmbonPalembang

Padang

Medan

Banda Aceh

Phuket

George TownIpoh

Kuching

Semarang

Bandung Surabaya

Makassar

Kupang

Cebu

Shanghai

Hangzhou

Changsha

Guangzhou

Nanning

Chengdu

Mandalay

Pathein

Mawlamyine

Mai

Da Nang

Xuyen

Kunming TaipeiFuzhou

Nanchang

Guiyang

Wuhan

Long

Nha Trang

Jayapura

Sorong

Manado

Bacolod

Hanoi

Vientiane

Rangoon

ManilaBangkok

Phnom Penh

Bandar SeriBegawan

Kuala Lumpur

Singapore

Jakarta

Denpasar

Nakhon

Chiang

Tanjungkarang-

Banjarmasin

Zamboanga

Cagayan de Oro

Iloilo

Naha

Kao-hsiung

Xiamen

Chongqing

Zigong

Shantou

Ningbo

Wenzhou

Zhanjiang

Hefei

Mount IsaPort HedlandKarratha

Koror

Hue

Songkhla

RatchasimaDawei

Vinh

Kota Kinabalu

Dili

Kendari

Merauke

Melaka

Akyab

Telukbetung

Darwin

Sea

Sea

SouthChina

EastChina

Java Sea

I n d i a n O c e a n

ArafuraSea

CelebesSea

Sulu Sea

Gulf ofTonkin

Gulf ofThailand

Coco Channel

Great Channel

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Gulf ofCarpentaria

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Selat Lombok

100 120 140

Tropic of Cancer

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Relief map of Southeast Asia.

Indonesia

Philippines

East Malaysia

Brunei

Singapore

East Timor

The Andaman and Nicobar Islands of India are geo-graphically considered part of Southeast Asia. EasternBangladesh and the Seven Sister States of India are cul-turally part of Southeast Asia and sometimes consideredboth South Asian and Southeast Asian. The Seven SisterStates of India are also geographically part of SoutheastAsia. The rest of the island of New Guinea which is notpart of Indonesia, namely, Papua New Guinea, is some-times included so are Palau, Guam, and the NorthernMariana Islands, which were all part of the Spanish EastIndies.The eastern half of Indonesia and East Timor (east of theWallace Line) are considered to be biogeographically partof Oceania.

2 HistoryMain article: History of Southeast Asia

A golden vestment similar to those worn by the Hindu BrahminCaste, found in Butuan (Philippines) Archeological Digs. Thisartefact shows the inuence of Indian culture in Southeast Asia,also through trade.

2.1 PrehistoryHomo sapiens reached the region by around 45,000years ago,[17] having moved eastwards from the Indiansubcontinent.[18] Homo oresiensis also lived in the areaup until 12,000 years ago, when they became extinct.[19]Austronesian people, who form the majority of themodern population in Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei, EastTimor, and the Philippines, may have migrated to South-east Asia from Taiwan. They arrived in Indonesia around2000 BC,and as they spread through the archipelago, theyoften settled along coastal areas and conned indigenouspeoples such as Negritos of the Philippines or Papuans ofNew Guinea to inland regions.[20]

Studies presented by HUGO (Human Genome Organi-sation) through genetic studies of the various peoples ofAsia, empirically points out that instead of the other wayaround, another migration from the south rst enteredSoutheast Asia and then travelled slowly northwards.[21]

Solheim and others have shown evidence for a Nusan-tao (Nusantara) maritime trading network ranging fromVietnam to the rest of the archipelago as early as 5000BC to 1 AD.[22] The peoples of Southeast Asia, espe-cially those of Austronesian descent, have been seafar-ers for thousands of years, some reaching the island ofMadagascar. Their vessels, such as the vinta, were ocean-worthy. Magellans voyage records how much more ma-noeuvrable their vessels were, as compared to the Euro-

2.3 Spread of Islam 3

pean ships.[23]

Passage through the Indian Ocean aided the colonisationof Madagascar by the Austronesian people, as well ascommerce between West Asia and Southeast Asia. Goldfrom Sumatra is thought to have reached as far west asRome, while a slave from the Sulu Sea was believed tohave been used in Magellans voyage as a translator.Originally most people were animist. This was later re-placed by Hinduism. Theravada Buddhism soon followedin 525. In the 15th century, Islamic inuences began toenter. This forced the last Hindu court in Indonesia toretreat to Bali.In Mainland Southeast Asia, Burma, Cambodia and Thai-land retained the Theravada form of Buddhism, broughtto them from Sri Lanka. This type of Buddhism wasfused with the Hindu-inuenced Khmer culture.

2.2 Indianised kingdoms

Main article: Greater IndiaVery little is known about Southeast Asian religious be-

Angkor Wat in Siem Reap, Cambodia

liefs and practices before the advent of Indian merchantsand religious inuences from the 2nd century BCE on-wards. Prior to the 13th century CE, Hinduism andBuddhism were the main religions in Southeast Asia.The Jawa Dwipa Hindu kingdom in Java and Sumatra ex-isted around 200 BCE. The history of the Malay-speakingworld began with the advent of Indian inuence, whichdates back to at least the 3rd century BCE. Indian traderscame to the archipelago both for its abundant forest andmaritime products and to trade with merchants fromChina, who also discovered the Malay world at an earlydate. Both Hinduism and Buddhism were well estab-lished in the Malay Peninsula by the beginning of the 1stcentury CE, and from there spread across the archipelago.Cambodia was rst inuenced by Hinduism during thebeginning of the Funan kingdom. Hinduism was one ofthe Khmer Empire's ocial religions. Cambodia is thehome to one of the only two temples dedicated to Brahma

in the world. Angkor Wat is also a famous Hindu templeof Cambodia.The Champa civilisation was located in what is today cen-tral Vietnam, and was a highly Indianised Hindu King-dom. The Vietnamese launched a massive conquestagainst the Cham people during the 1471 Vietnameseinvasion of Champa, ransacking and burning Champa,slaughtering thousands of Cham people, and forcibly as-similating them into Vietnamese culture.[24]

The Majapahit Empire was an Indianised kingdom basedin eastern Java from 1293 to around 1500. Its great-est ruler was Hayam Wuruk, whose reign from 1350to 1389 marked the empires peak when it dominatedother kingdoms in the southern Malay Peninsula, Borneo,Sumatra, and Bali. Various sources such as the Nagarak-ertagama also mention that its inuence spanned overparts of Sulawesi, Maluku, and some areas of westernNew Guinea and the Philippines, making it the largestempire to ever exist in Southeast Asian history.The Cholas excelled in maritime activity in both militaryand the mercantile elds. Their raids of Kedah and theSrivijaya, and their continued commercial contacts withthe Chinese Empire, enabled them to inuence the localcultures. Many of the surviving examples of the Hinducultural inuence found today throughout Southeast Asiaare the result of the Chola expeditions.[25]

2.3 Spread of IslamMain articles: Spread of Islam in Southeast Asia andIslam in Southeast AsiaIn the 11th century, a turbulent period occurred in

Kampung Laut Mosque in Tumpat is one of the oldest mosquesin Malaysia, dating to the early 18th century.

the history of Maritime Southeast Asia. The IndianChola navy crossed the ocean and attacked the Srivijayakingdom of Sangrama Vijayatungavarman in Kadaram(Kedah), the capital of the powerful maritime kingdomwas sacked and the king was taken captive. Along withKadaram, Pannai in present-day Sumatra and Malaiyurand the Malayan peninsula were attacked too. Soon af-ter that, the king of Kedah Phra Ong Mahawangsa be-

4 3 TRADE AND COLONISATION

came the rst ruler to abandon the traditional Hindu faith,and converted to Islam with the Sultanate of Kedah es-tablished in year 1136. Samudera Pasai converted to Is-lam in the year 1267, the King of Malacca Parameswaramarried the princess of Pasai, and the son became therst sultan of Malacca. Soon, Malacca became the cen-ter of Islamic study and maritime trade, and other rulersfollowed suit. Indonesian religious leader and Islamicscholar Hamka (19081981) wrote in 1961: The devel-opment of Islam in Indonesia and Malaya is intimately re-lated to a Chinese Muslim, Admiral Zheng He. [26]

Children studying Koran in Java, Indonesia, during colonial pe-riod.

There are several theories to the Islamisation processin Southeast Asia. Another theory is trade. The ex-pansion of trade among West Asia, India and SoutheastAsia helped the spread of the religion as Muslim tradersfrom Southern Yemen (Hadramout) brought Islam to theregion with their large volume of trade. Many settledin Indonesia, Singapore, and Malaysia. This is evidentin the Arab-Indonesian, Arab-Singaporean, and Arab-Malay populations who were at one time very prominentin each of their countries. The second theory is the role ofmissionaries or Sus. The Su missionaries played a sig-nicant role in spreading the faith by introducing Islamicideas to the region. Finally, the ruling classes embracedIslam and that further aided the permeation of the religionthroughout the region. The ruler of the regions most im-portant port, Malacca Sultanate, embraced Islam in the15th century, heralding a period of accelerated conver-sion of Islam throughout the region as Islam provided apositive force among the ruling and trading classes.

3 Trade and colonisation

3.1 ChinaSee also: List of tributaries of Imperial China andChinese Empire

Records from Magellans voyage show that Brunei pos-

sessed more cannon than the European ships, so the Chi-nese must have been trading with them.[23]

Malaysian legend has it that a Chinese Ming emperor senta princess, Hang Li Po, to Malacca, with a retinue of 500,to marry Sultan Mansur Shah after the emperor was im-pressed by the wisdom of the sultan. Han Li Pos well(constructed 1459) is now a tourist attraction there, as isBukit Cina, where her retinue settled.The strategic value of the Strait of Malacca, which wascontrolled by Sultanate of Malacca in the 15th and early16th century, did not go unnoticed by Portuguese writerDuarte Barbosa, who in 1500 wrote He who is lord ofMalacca has his hand on the throat of Venice".From 111 BC to 938 AD northern Vietnam was underChinese rule. Vietnam was successfully governed by aseries of Chinese dynasties including the Han, EasternHan, Eastern Wu, Cao Wei, Jin, Liu Song, Southern Qi,Liang, Sui, Tang, and Southern Han.

3.2 Europe

Strait of Malacca (narrows)

Western inuence started to enter in the 16th century,with the arrival of the Portuguese in Maluku and thePhilippines, the latter being settled by the Spanish yearslater. Throughout the 17th and 18th centuries the Dutchestablished the Dutch East Indies; the French Indochina;and the British Strait Settlements. By the 19th century,all Southeast Asian countries were colonised except forThailand.European explorers were reaching Southeast Asia fromthe west and from the east. Regular trade between theships sailing east from the Indian Ocean and south frommainland Asia provided goods in return for natural prod-ucts, such as honey and hornbill beaks from the islands ofthe archipelago.Europeans brought Christianity allowing Christian mis-sionaries to become widespread. Thailand also allowedWestern scientists to enter its country to develop its owneducation system as well as start sending Royal members

4.1 Boundaries 5

and Thai scholars to get higher education from Europeand Russia.

3.3 Japan

See also: Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere,Slavery in Japan, Japanese occupation of Indonesia andJapanese war crimes

During World War II, Imperial Japan invaded most of theformer western colonies. The Shwa occupation regimecommitted violent actions against civilians such as theManila massacre and the implementation of a system offorced labour, such as the one involving 4 to 10 millionromusha in Indonesia.[27] A later UN report stated thatfour million people died in Indonesia as a result of famineand forced labour during the Japanese occupation.[28]The Allied powers who defeated Japan in the South-EastAsian theatre of World War II then contended with na-tionalists to whom the occupation authorities had grantedindependence.

3.4 Present

See also: Japanese foreign policy on Southeast Asia

Most countries in the region enjoy national autonomy.Democratic forms of government and the recognition ofhuman rights are taking root. ASEAN provides a frame-work for the integration of commerce, and regional re-sponses to international concerns.Conicting claims over the Spratly Islands are madeby Brunei, China, Malaysia, Philippines, Taiwan, andVietnam.

4 GeographySee also: Golden Triangle (Southeast Asia), List ofSoutheast Asian mountains and Zomia (geography)

Indonesia is the largest country in Southeast Asia andit also the largest archipelago in the world by size (ac-cording to the CIA World Factbook). Geologically, theIndonesian Archipelago is one of the most volcanicallyactive regions in the world. Geological uplifts in the re-gion have also produced some impressive mountains, cul-minating in Puncak Jaya in Papua, Indonesia at 5,030metres (16,500 feet), on the island of New Guinea; it isthe only place where ice glaciers can be found in South-east Asia. The second tallest peak is Mount Kinabalu inSabah, Malaysia on the island of Borneo with a heightof 4,095 metres (13,435 feet). The highest mountain inSoutheast Asia is Hkakabo Razi at 5,967 meters and can

be found in northern Burma sharing the same range of itsparent peak, Mount Everest.The South China Sea is the major body of water withinSoutheast Asia. The Philippines, Malaysia, Brunei, In-donesia, Singapore, and Vietnam have integral rivers thatow into the South China Sea.Mayon Volcano, despite being dangerously active, holdsthe record of the worlds most perfect cone which is builtfrom past and continuous eruption.[29]

4.1 Boundaries

See also: Austronesia

Southeast Asia is bounded to the southeast by theAustralian continent, a boundary which runs through In-donesia. But a cultural touch point lies between PapuaNew Guinea and the Indonesian region of the Papua andWest Papua, which shares the island of New Guinea withPapua New Guinea.

4.2 Climate

The climate in Southeast Asia is mainly tropicalhot andhumid all year round with plentiful rainfall. NorthernVietnam and the Myanmar Himalayas are the only re-gions in Southeast Asia that feature a subtropical cli-mate, which has a cold winter with snow. The major-ity of Southeast Asia has a wet and dry season causedby seasonal shift in winds or monsoon. The tropical rainbelt causes additional rainfall during the monsoon season.The rain forest is the second largest on earth (with theAmazon being the largest). An exception to this type ofclimate and vegetation is the mountain areas in the north-ern region, where high altitudes lead to milder temper-atures and drier landscape. Other parts fall out of thisclimate because they are desert like.

4.3 Environment

See also: Southeast Asian coral reefs and Wallace lineThe vast majority of Southeast Asia falls within the

warm, humid tropics, and its climate generally can becharacterised as monsoonal. The animals of SoutheastAsia are diverse; on the islands of Borneo and Sumatra,the orangutan, the Asian elephant, the Malayan tapir, theSumatran rhinoceros and the Bornean clouded leopardcan be also found. Six subspecies of the binturong orbearcat exist in the region, though the one endemic tothe island of Palawan is now classed as vulnerable.Tigers of three dierent subspecies are found on theisland of Sumatra (the Sumatran tiger), in peninsularMalaysia (the Malayan tiger), and in Indochina (the In-dochinese tiger); all of which are endangered species.

6 4 GEOGRAPHY

Komodo dragons in Komodo National Park, Indonesia

The Komodo dragon is the largest living species of lizardand inhabits the islands of Komodo, Rinca, Flores, andGili Motang in Indonesia.

The Philippine eagle

The Philippine eagle is the national bird of the Philip-pines. It is considered by scientists as the largest eagle inthe world,[30] and is endemic to the Philippines forests.

The wild Asian water bualo, and on various islands re-lated dwarf species of Bubalus such as anoa were oncewidespread in Southeast Asia; nowadays the domesticAsian water bualo is common across the region, but itsremaining relatives are rare and endangered.The mouse deer, a small tusked deer as large as a toydog or cat, mostly can be found on Sumatra, Borneo (In-donesia) and in Palawan Islands (Philippines). The gaur,a gigantic wild ox larger than even wild water bualo,is found mainly in Indochina. There is very little sci-entic information available regarding Southeast Asianamphibians.[31]

Birds such as the peafowl and drongo live in this subregionas far east as Indonesia. The babirusa, a four-tusked pig,can be found in Indonesia as well. The hornbill was prizedfor its beak and used in trade with China. The horn ofthe rhinoceros, not part of its skull, was prized in Chinaas well.

Wallaces hypothetical line divide Indonesian Archipelago into 2types of fauna, Australasian and Southeast Asian fauna. Thedeep water of the Lombok Strait between the islands of Baliand Lombok formed a water barrier even when lower sea levelslinked the now-separated islands and landmasses on either side.

The Indonesian Archipelago is split by the Wallace Line.This line runs along what is now known to be a tectonicplate boundary, and separates Asian (Western) speciesfrom Australasian (Eastern) species. The islands betweenJava/Borneo and Papua form a mixed zone, where bothtypes occur, known as Wallacea. As the pace of devel-opment accelerates and populations continue to expandin Southeast Asia, concern has increased regarding theimpact of human activity on the regions environment.A signicant portion of Southeast Asia, however, hasnot changed greatly and remains an unaltered home towildlife. The nations of the region, with only few excep-tions, have become aware of the need to maintain forestcover not only to prevent soil erosion but to preserve thediversity of ora and fauna. Indonesia, for example, hascreated an extensive system of national parks and pre-serves for this purpose. Even so, such species as the Javanrhinoceros face extinction, with only a handful of the an-imals remaining in western Java.The shallow waters of the Southeast Asian coral reefs

7have the highest levels of biodiversity for the worlds ma-rine ecosystems, where coral, sh and molluscs abound.According to Conservation International, marine surveyssuggest that the marine life diversity in the Raja Ampat(Indonesia) is the highest recorded on Earth. Diversity isconsiderably greater than any other area sampled in theCoral Triangle composed of Indonesia, Philippines, andPapua New Guinea. The Coral Triangle is the heart of theworlds coral reef biodiversity, making Raja Ampat quitepossibly the richest coral reef ecosystems in the world.The whale shark, the worlds largest species of sh and 6species of sea turtles can also be found in the South ChinaSea and the Pacic Ocean territories of the Philippines.The trees and other plants of the region are tropical;in some countries where the mountains are tall enough,temperate-climate vegetation can be found. These rain-forest areas are currently being logged-over, especially inBorneo.While Southeast Asia is rich in ora and fauna, SoutheastAsia is facing severe deforestation which causes habitatloss for various endangered species such as orangutanand the Sumatran tiger. Predictions have been madethat more than 40% of the animal and plant species inSoutheast Asia could be wiped out in the 21st century.[32]At the same time, haze has been a regular occurrence.The two worst regional hazes were in 1997 and 2006 inwhich multiple countries were covered with thick haze,mostly caused by "slash and burn" activities in Sumatraand Borneo. In reaction, several countries in SoutheastAsia signed the ASEAN Agreement on TransboundaryHaze Pollution to combat haze pollution.The 2013 Southeast Asian Haze saw API levels reach ahazardous level in some countries. Muar experienced thehighest API level of 746 on 23 June 2013 at around 7am.[33]

5 Economy

See also: Bamboo networkEven prior to the penetration of European interests,

Southeast Asia was a critical part of the world tradingsystem. A wide range of commodities originated in theregion, but especially important were spices such as pep-per, ginger, cloves, and nutmeg. The spice trade initiallywas developed by Indian and Arab merchants, but it alsobrought Europeans to the region. First Spaniards (Manilagalleon) and Portuguese, then the Dutch, and nally theBritish and French became involved in this enterprise invarious countries. The penetration of European commer-cial interests gradually evolved into annexation of terri-tories, as traders lobbied for an extension of control toprotect and expand their activities. As a result, the Dutchmoved into Indonesia, the British into Malaya and partsof Borneo, the French into Indochina, and the Spanishand the US into the Philippines.

The Keppel Container Terminal in the Port of Singapore. ThePort of Singapore is the busiest transshipment and container portin the world, and is an important transportation and shipping hubin Southeast Asia.

The overseas Chinese community has played a large rolein the development of the economies in the region. Thesebusiness communities are connected through the bamboonetwork, a network of overseas Chinese businesses oper-ating in the markets of Southeast Asia that share com-mon family and cultural ties.[34] The origins of Chineseinuence can be traced to the 16th century, when Chi-nese migrants from southern China settled in Indonesia,Thailand, and other Southeast Asian countries.[35] Chi-nese populations in the region saw a rapid increase fol-lowing the Communist Revolution in 1949, which forcedmany refugees to emigrate outside of China.[34]

The regions economy greatly depends on agriculture; riceand rubber have long been prominent exports. Manufac-turing and services are becoming more important. Anemerging market, Indonesia is the largest economy in thisregion. Newly industrialised countries include Indonesia,Malaysia, Thailand, and the Philippines, while Singaporeand Brunei are auent developed economies. The rest ofSoutheast Asia is still heavily dependent on agriculture,but Vietnam is notably making steady progress in devel-oping its industrial sectors. The region notably manufac-tures textiles, electronic high-tech goods such as micro-processors and heavy industrial products such as automo-biles. Oil reserves in Southeast Asia are plentiful.Seventeen telecommunications companies contracted tobuild the Asia-America Gateway submarine cable to con-nect Southeast Asia to the US[36] This is to avoid dis-ruption of the kind recently caused by the cutting ofthe undersea cable from Taiwan to the US in the 2006Hengchun earthquake.Tourism has been a key factor in economic developmentfor many Southeast Asian countries, especially Cambo-dia. According to UNESCO, tourism, if correctly con-ceived, can be a tremendous development tool and an ef-fective means of preserving the cultural diversity of ourplanet.[37] Since the early 1990s, even the non-ASEAN

8 6 DEMOGRAPHICS

nations such as Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam and Burma,where the income derived from tourism is low, are at-tempting to expand their own tourism industries.[38] In1995, Singapore was the regional leader in tourism re-ceipts relative to GDP at over 8%. By 1998, those re-ceipts had dropped to less than 6% of GDP while Thai-land and Lao PDR increased receipts to over 7%. Since2000, Cambodia has surpassed all other ASEAN coun-tries and generated almost 15% of its GDP from tourismin 2006.[39]

Indonesia is the only member of G-20 major economiesand is the largest economy in the region.[40] Indonesiasestimated gross domestic product (nominal) for 2008 wasUS$511.7 billion with estimated nominal per capita GDPwas US$2,246, and per capita GDP PPP was US$3,979(international dollars).[41]

Stock markets in Southeast Asia have performed betterthan other bourses in the Asia-Pacic region in 2010,with the Philippines PSE leading the way with 22 per-cent growth, followed by Thailands SET with 21 percentand Indonesias JKSE with 19 percent.[42][43]

6 Demographics

Pie chart showing the distribution of population among the na-tions of Southeast Asia

Southeast Asia has an area of approximately 4,000,000km2 (1.6 million square miles). As of 2007, more than593 million people lived in the region, more than a fthof them (125 million) on the Indonesian island of Java,the most densely populated large island in the world.Indonesia is the most populous country with 230 mil-lion people and also the 4th most populous country in theworld. The distribution of the religions and people is di-verse in Southeast Asia and varies by country. Some 30million overseas Chinese also live in Southeast Asia, mostprominently in Christmas Island, Indonesia, Malaysia, thePhilippines, Singapore, and Thailand, and also, as theHoa, in Vietnam.

6.1 Ethnic groupsMain article: Ethnic groups of Southeast AsiaIn modern times, the Javanese are the largest ethnic

Ati woman the Negritos were the earliest inhabitants of South-east Asia

group in Southeast Asia, with more than 100 million peo-ple, mostly concentrated in Java, Indonesia. In Burma,the Burmese account for more than two-thirds of the eth-nic stock in this country, while ethnic Thais and Viet-namese account for about four-fths of the respectivepopulations of those countries. Indonesia is clearly domi-nated by the Javanese and Sundanese ethnic groups, whileMalaysia is split between half Malays and one-quarterChinese. Within the Philippines, the Tagalog, Cebuano,Ilocano, and Hiligaynon groups are signicant.

6.2 ReligionSee also: Buddhism in Southeast Asia, Hinduism inSoutheast Asia, Islam in Southeast Asia, Shenism inSoutheast Asia, Muslim Southeast Asia and Christianityin AsiaIslam is the most widely practised religion in South-

east Asia, numbering approximately 240 million adher-ents which translate to about 40% of the entire popula-tion, with majorities in Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia andin Southern Philippines. Countries in Southeast Asiapractice many dierent religions. Buddhism is predomi-nant in Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Burma, Vietnam andSingapore. Ancestor worship and Confucianism are alsowidely practised in Vietnam and Singapore. Christian-ity is predominant in the Philippines, eastern Indonesia,East Malaysia and East Timor. The Philippines has thelargest Roman Catholic population in Asia. East Timoris also predominantly Roman Catholic due to a history ofPortuguese rule.The religious composition for each country is as follows:Some values are taken from the CIA World Factbook:[44]

6.3 Languages 9

Thai Theravada Buddhists in Chiang Mai, Thailand

Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin Mosque in Brunei, an Islamic countrywith strict Syariah rule.

Religions and peoples are diverse in Southeast Asia andnot one country is homogeneous. In the worlds mostpopulous Muslim nation, Indonesia, Hinduism is domi-nant on islands such as Bali. Christianity also predom-inates in the rest of the part of the Philippines, NewGuinea and Timor. Pockets of Hindu population can alsobe found around Southeast Asia in Singapore, Malaysiaetc. Garuda (Sanskrit: Garua), the phoenix who is themount (vahanam) of Vishnu, is a national symbol in bothThailand and Indonesia; in the Philippines, gold imagesof Garuda have been found on Palawan; gold images ofother Hindu gods and goddesses have also been foundon Mindanao. Balinese Hinduism is somewhat dier-ent from Hinduism practised elsewhere, as Animism andlocal culture is incorporated into it. Christians can alsobe found throughout Southeast Asia; they are in the ma-jority in East Timor and the Philippines, Asias largestChristian nation. In addition, there are also older tribalreligious practices in remote areas of Sarawak in EastMalaysia,Highland Philippines and Papua in eastern In-donesia. In Burma, Sakka (Indra) is revered as a nat. InVietnam, Mahayana Buddhism is practised, which is in-uenced by native animism but with strong emphasis onAncestor Worship.

6.3 LanguagesSee also: Classication schemes for Southeast Asian lan-guages, Sino-Tibetan languages, Austroasiatic languages,Austronesian languages, HmongMien languages andTaiKadai languages

Each of the languages have been inuenced by culturalpressures due to trade, immigration, and historical coloni-sation as well.The language composition for each country is as follows:(ocial languages are in bold.)

6.4 Cities

The Jabodetabek area (in blue line) is the second largestmetropolitan area in the world by population.

Jabodetabek (Jakarta/West Java/Banten),Indonesia. Jabodetabek is an abbreviation ofJakarta, Bogor, Depok, Tangerang, and Bekasi,which are the satellite cities of the Special CapitalRegion of Jakarta.

Bangkok Metropolitan Region (Bangkok/SamutPrakan), Thailand

Metro Manila (Manila/Quezon/Makati/Taguig/Pasay),Philippines

Greater Kuala Lumpur/Klang Valley (KualaLumpur/Selangor), Malaysia

Ho Chi Minh City Metropolitan Area (Ho Chi MinhCity/Vung Tau), Vietnam

Yangon Region (Yangon/Thanlyin), Myanmar Hanoi Capital Region (Hanoi/Hai Phong/Ha Long),

Vietnam Gerbangkertosusila

(Surabaya/Sidoarjo/Gresik/Mojokerto/Lamongan/Bangkalan),Indonesia

10 7 CULTURE

Bandung Metropolitan Area (Bandung/Cimahi),Indonesia

Metro Cebu (Cebu City/Mandaue City),Philippines

Metro Davao (Davao City/Digos City/Tagum City),Philippines

7 CultureSee also: Southeast Asian cinema, Southeast AsianGames and Southeast Asian musicThe culture in Southeast Asia is very diverse: on main-

A paddy eld in Vietnam.

land Southeast Asia, the culture is a mix of Indian(Burma, Cambodia, Laos, western Malaysia and Thai-land) and Chinese (Singapore and Vietnam). While inIndonesia, eastern Malaysia, and the Philippines, the cul-ture is a mix of indigenous Austronesian, Indian, Islamic,Western, and Chinese cultures. Also Brunei shows astrong inuence from Arabia. Singapore and Vietnamshow more Chinese inuence[58] in that Singapore, al-though being geographically a Southeast Asian nation, ishome to a large Chinese majority and Vietnam was inChinas sphere of inuence for much of its history. Indianinuence in Singapore is only evident through the Tamilmigrants,[59] which inuenced, to some extent, the cui-sine of Singapore. Throughout Vietnams history, it hashad no direct inuence from India - only through contactwith the Thai, Khmer and Cham peoples.Rice paddy agriculture has existed in Southeast Asia forthousands of years, ranging across the subregion. Somedramatic examples of these rice paddies populate theBanaue Rice Terraces in the mountains of Luzon in thePhilippines. Maintenance of these paddies is very labour-intensive. The rice paddies are well-suited to the mon-soon climate of the region.Stilt houses can be found all over Southeast Asia, fromThailand and Laos, to Borneo, to Luzon in the Philip-pines, to Papua New Guinea. The region has diversemetalworking, especially in Indonesia. This include

weaponry, such as the distinctive kris, and musical in-struments, such as the gamelan.

7.1 InuencesThe regions chief cultural inuences have been fromsome combination of Islam, India, and China. Diversecultural inuence is pronounced in the Philippines, de-rived particularly from the period of the Spanish andAmerican rule, contact with Indian-inuenced cultures,and the Chinese trading era. The Filipinos are of indige-nous Austronesian blood with varying admixtures of In-dian, Arab, Spanish, and Chinese.As a rule, the peoples who ate with their ngers weremore likely inuenced by the culture of India, for exam-ple, than the culture of China, where the peoples ate withchopsticks; tea, as a beverage, can be found across theregion. The sh sauces distinctive to the region tend tovary.

7.2 Arts

The Royal Ballet of Cambodia (Paris, France 2010)

The arts of Southeast Asia have anity with the arts ofother areas. Dance in much of Southeast Asia includesmovement of the hands as well as the feet, to expressthe dances emotion and meaning of the story that theballerina is going to tell the audience. Most of South-east Asia introduced dance into their court; in particu-lar, Cambodian royal ballet represented them in the early7th century before the Khmer Empire, which was highlyinuenced by Indian Hinduism. Apsara Dance, famousfor strong hand and feet movement, is a great example ofHindu symbolic dance.Puppetry and shadow plays were also a favoured formof entertainment in past centuries, a famous one beingWayang from Indonesia. The arts and literature in someof Southeast Asia is quite inuenced by Hinduism, whichwas brought to them centuries ago. Indonesia, despiteconversion to Islam which opposes certain forms of art,has retained many forms of Hindu-inuenced practices,

7.2 Arts 11

culture, art and literature. An example is the WayangKulit (Shadow Puppet) and literature like the Ramayana.The wayang kulit show has been recognized by UNESCOon November 7, 2003, as a Masterpiece of Oral and In-tangible Heritage of Humanity.It has been pointed out that Khmer and Indonesian classi-cal arts were concerned with depicting the life of the gods,but to the Southeast Asian mind the life of the gods wasthe life of the peoples themselvesjoyous, earthy, yet di-vine. The Tai, coming late into Southeast Asia, broughtwith them some Chinese artistic traditions, but they soonshed them in favour of the Khmer and Mon traditions, andthe only indications of their earlier contact with Chinesearts were in the style of their temples, especially the ta-pering roof, and in their lacquerware.

7.2.1 Music

Indonesian Angklung has been recognized by UNESCO as aMas-terpiece of Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity.

Khim audio

Traditional music in Southeast Asia is as varied as itsmany ethnic and cultural divisions. Main styles of tradi-tional music can be seen: Court music, folk music, musicstyles of smaller ethnic groups, and music inuenced bygenres outside the geographic region.Of the court and folk genres, gong-chime ensembles andorchestras make up the majority (the exception beinglowland areas of Vietnam). Gamelan and Angklung or-chestras from Indonesia, Piphat /Pinpeat ensembles of

Thailand and Cambodia and the Kulintang ensembles ofthe southern Philippines, Borneo, Sulawesi and Timor arethe three main distinct styles of musical genres that haveinuenced other traditional musical styles in the region.String instruments also are popular in the region.On November 18, 2010, UNESCO ocially recognizedangklung as a Masterpiece of Oral and Intangible Heritageof Humanity, and encourage Indonesian people and gov-ernment to safeguard, transmit, promote performancesand to encourage the craftsmanship of angklung making.

A Thai boy plays the khim, a traditional Thai instrument similarto the yangqin from China.

7.2.2 Writing

Main articles: Baybayin, Jawi script, S.E.A. Write Awardand Thai alphabetThe history of Southeast Asia has led to a wealth of

dierent authors, from both within and without writingabout the region.Originally, Indians were the ones who taught the nativeinhabitants about writing. This is shown through Brahmicforms of writing present in the region such as the Balinesescript shown on split palm leaf called lontar (see imageto the left magnify the image to see the writing on theat side, and the decoration on the reverse side).The antiquity of this form of writing extends before theinvention of paper around the year 100 in China. Note

12 9 REFERENCES

The Terengganu Inscription Stone in Malaysia, written in year1303. It is the oldest written artefact with Jawi script on it.

each palm leaf section was only several lines, written lon-gitudinally across the leaf, and bound by twine to theother sections. The outer portion was decorated. The al-phabets of Southeast Asia tended to be abugidas, until thearrival of the Europeans, who used words that also endedin consonants, not just vowels. Other forms of ocialdocuments, which did not use paper, included Javanesecopperplate scrolls. This material would have been moredurable than paper in the tropical climate of SoutheastAsia.In Malaysia, Brunei, and Singapore, the Malay languageis now generally written in the Latin script. The samephenomenon is present in Indonesian, although dierentspelling standards are utilised (e.g. 'Teksi' in Malay and'Taksi' in Indonesian for the word 'Taxi').The use of Chinese characters, in the past and present,is only evident in Vietnam and more recently, Singaporeand Malaysia. The adoption of Chinese characters inVietnam dates back to around 111BC, when it was occu-pied by the Chinese. A Vietnamese script called Chu nomused modied Chinese characters to express the Viet-namese language. Both classical Chinese and Chu Nomwere used up until the early 20th century.

8 See also List of Southeast Asian leaders Northeast Asia

Southeast Asia Treaty Organization Tiger Cub Economies

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Asia Region. Nations Online Project. One World - Na-tions Online. Retrieved 10 September 2013. Nations On-line is an online destination guide with many aspects of thenations and cultures of the world: geography, economy,science, people, culture, environment, travel and tourism,government and history.

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[18] Smithsonian (July 2008). The Great Human Migration.p. 2.

[19] Morwood, M. J.; Brown, P., Jatmiko, Sutikna, T.,Wahyu Saptomo, E., Westaway, K. E., Rokus AweDue, Roberts, R. G., Maeda, T., Wasisto, S. and Dju-biantono, T. (13 October 2005). Further evidencefor small-bodied hominins from the Late Pleistocene ofFlores, Indonesia. Nature 437 (7061): 10121017.doi:10.1038/nature04022. PMID 16229067.

13

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[23] Laurence Bergreen, Over the Edge of the World: Magel-lans Terrifying Circumnavigation of the Globe, Harper-Collins Publishers, 2003, hardcover 480 pages, ISBN 0-06-621173-5

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[26] Chinese Muslims in Malaysia, History and Developmentby Rosey Wang Ma

[27] Library of Congress, 1992, Indonesia: World War II andthe Struggle For Independence, 194250; The JapaneseOccupation, 194245 Access date: 9 February 2007.

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[29] Davis, Lee (1992). Natural disasters: from the BlackPlague to the eruption of Mt. Pinatubo. New York, NY:Facts on File Inc.. pp. 300301.

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[33] 2013 Southeast Asian haze#Air Pollution Index readings

[34] Murray L Weidenbaum (1 January 1996). The BambooNetwork: How Expatriate Chinese Entrepreneurs are Cre-ating a New Economic Superpower in Asia. Martin KesslerBooks, Free Press. pp. 48. ISBN 978-0-684-82289-1.

[35] Murray L Weidenbaum (1 January 1996). The BambooNetwork: How Expatriate Chinese Entrepreneurs are Cre-ating a New Economic Superpower in Asia. Martin KesslerBooks, Free Press. pp. 2328. ISBN 978-0-684-82289-1.

[36] Sean Yoong (27 April 2007). 17 Firms to Build $500MUndersea Cable. International Business Times. Archivedfrom the original on 27 September 2007. Retrieved 28July 2007.

[37] Background overview of The National Seminar on Sus-tainable Tourism Resource Management, Phnom Penh,910 June 2003.

[38] Hitchcock, Michael, et al. Tourism in South-East Asia.New York: Routledge, 1993

[39] WDI Online[40] What is the G-20, www.g20.org. Retrieved 6 October

2009.[41] Report for Selected Countries and Subjects. Imf.org.

14 September 2006. Retrieved 28 April 2010.[42] SE Asia Stocks-Jakarta, Manila hit record highs, others

rm. Reuters. 27 September 2010.[43] Bull Market Lifts PSE Index to Top Rank Among Stock

Exchanges in Asia | The Manila Bulletin Newspaper On-line. Mb.com.ph (24 September 2010). Retrieved on 17October 2011.

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[45] Indonesia The World Factbook[46] http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/208472.

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BuddhaNet.Net. buddhanet.info.[48] {http://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/

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on 17 October 2011.[50] CIA The World Factbook Cambodia. Cia.gov. Re-

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Retrieved on 17 October 2011.[52] CIA The World Factbook Cocos (Keeling) Islands.

Cia.gov. Retrieved on 17 October 2011.[53] CIA The World Factbook East Timor. Cia.gov. Re-

trieved on 17 October 2011.[54] CIA The World Factbook Laos. Cia.gov. Retrieved

on 17 October 2011.[55] CIA The World Factbook Malaysia. Cia.gov. Re-

trieved on 17 October 2011.[56] CIA The World Factbook Thailand. Cia.gov. Re-

trieved on 17 October 2011.[57] CIA The World Factbook Vietnam. Cia.gov. Re-

trieved on 17 October 2011.[58] http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001478/

147804eb.pdf[59] http://www.microsite.nl.sg/PDFs/BiblioAsia/BIBA_

0303Oct07a.pdf

Tiwari, Rajnish (2003): Post-crisis Exchange RateRegimes in Southeast Asia (PDF), Seminar Paper,University of Hamburg.

Rand, Nelson (2009). Conict: Journeys throughwar and terror in SouthEast Asia. Dunboyne: Mav-erick House Publishers. ISBN 978-1-905379-54-5.

14 11 EXTERNAL LINKS

10 Further reading Osborne, Milton (2010; rst published in 1979).

Southeast Asia: An Introductory HistoryAllen & Un-win. ISBN 978-1-74237-302-7

Fletcher, Banister; Cruickshank, Dan (1996; rstpublished in 1896). Sir Banister Fletchers a His-tory of Architecture, Architectural Press, 20th edi-tion. ISBN 0-7506-2267-9. Cf. Part Four, Chapter27.

11 External links Topography of Southeast Asia in detail (PDF)

(previous version)

CityMayors.com article Southeast Asian Archive at the University of Cali-

fornia, Irvine Southeast Asia Digital Library at Northern Illinois

University Documenting the Southeast Asian Refugee Experi-

ence, exhibit at the University of California, Irvine,Library

Southeast Asia Visions, a collection of historicaltravel narratives Cornell University Library DigitalCollection

www .southeastasia .org Ocial website of theASEAN Tourism Association

Southeast Asia Time Lapse Video Southeast AsiaTime Lapse Video

Southeast Asia eCommerce Southeast Asia eCom-merce

Art of Island Southeast Asia, a full text exhibitioncatalogue from The Metropolitan Museum of Art

List of Southeast Asia eCommerce

15

12 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses12.1 Text

Southeast Asia Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southeast_Asia?oldid=672968871 Contributors: AxelBoldt, The Anome, Alex.tan,SimonP, Hephaestos, Olivier, Chuq, Patrick, Earth, Mic, Ixfd64, TakuyaMurata, Looxix~enwiki, Ahoerstemeier, DavidWBrooks, Nan-shu, Jpatokal, Theresa knott, Nikai, Jiang, Caelice~enwiki, Samuel~enwiki, Tobias Conradi, Popsracer, Charles Matthews, Andrew-man327, WhisperToMe, Tpbradbury, Marshman, Nv8200pa, Quoth-22, Christopher Sundita, Waerth, Moriori, RedWolf, Yosri, Schmuck-yTheCat, DHN, Hadal, Conrad Leviston~enwiki, Ancheta Wis, Nikodemos, Halda, Meursault2004, HangingCurve, Michael Devore,Paploo, Duncharris, Alensha, Macrakis, Bobblewik, Stevietheman, Gadum, Bact, Geni, Antandrus, Kvasir, Al-Andalus, Kevin B12,Borameer, Slivester, Talrias, Cynical, Neutrality, Ukexpat, Trevor MacInnis, Andylkl, Bluemask, Ryuu, Mike Rosoft, CALR, Andy Smith,Rdb, A-giau, Moverton, Diagonalsh, Discospinster, Brutannica, Florian Blaschke, Autiger, ESkog, Fenice, Brian0918, Bennylin, El C,Kwamikagami, Hayabusa future, Matthewprc, Bobo192, Dralwik, Tran Van Ba, Apyule, Jimmyvanthach, Of~enwiki, Hintha, Krellis,Pharos, Confusedmiked, Jumbuck, Stephen G. 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Own work Original artist: Bjrn Christian Trrissen File:Around-Kota-Bharu-(19).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/Around-Kota-Bharu-%2819%29.

jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: http://proetnicum.blogspot.com Original artist: Igor Laszlo File:Ati_woman.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/Ati_woman.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors:

Ati Original artist: Ken Ilio from Chicago, USA File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Een_Koranschool_op_Java_TMnr_10002385.jpg Source: https://upload.

wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a3/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Een_Koranschool_op_Java_TMnr_10002385.jpgLicense: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Tropenmuseum Original artist: unknown

File:Chiangmai-market3.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/Chiangmai-market3.jpg License: CC BY2.0 Contributors: Flickr Original artist: Steve Evans from Bangalore, India

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File:Flag_of_East_Timor.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/Flag_of_East_Timor.svg License: Publicdomain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

File:Flag_of_India.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg License: Public domain Contributors:? Original artist: ?

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File:Flag_of_Malaysia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/Flag_of_Malaysia.svg License: Publicdomain Contributors: Create based on the Malaysian Government Website (archive version)Original artist: SKopp, Zscout370 and Ranking Update

File:Flag_of_Myanmar.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Flag_of_Myanmar.svg License: CC0 Con-tributors: Open Clip Art Original artist: Unknown

File:Flag_of_Singapore.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/Flag_of_Singapore.svg License: Public do-main Contributors: The drawing was based from http://app.www.sg/who/42/National-Flag.aspx. Colors from the book: (2001). TheNational Symbols Kit. Singapore: Ministry of Information, Communications and the Arts. pp. 5. ISBN 8880968010 Pantone 032 shade fromhttp://www.pantone.com/pages/pantone/colorfinder.aspx?c_id=13050 Original artist: Various

File:Flag_of_Thailand.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a9/Flag_of_Thailand.svg License: Public do-main Contributors: Own work Original artist: Zscout370

12.2 Images 17

File:Flag_of_Vietnam.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Flag_of_Vietnam.svg License: Public do-main Contributors: http://vbqppl.moj.gov.vn/law/vi/1951_to_1960/1955/195511/195511300001 http://vbqppl.moj.gov.vn/vbpq/Lists/Vn%20bn%20php%20lut/View_Detail.aspx?ItemID=820 Original artist: Lu Ly v li theo ngun trn

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File:Flag_of_the_Philippines.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Flag_of_the_Philippines.svg Li-cense: Public domain Contributors: The design was taken from [1] and the colors were also taken from a Government website Originalartist: User:Achim1999

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File:Jabodetabek_map.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/94/Jabodetabek_map.jpg License: CC BY-SA4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Putri siska

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File:LocationAfrica.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/LocationAfrica.png License: Public domainContributors: map adapted from PDF world map at CIA World Fact Book Original artist: see above

File:LocationAsia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/LocationAsia.svg License: Public domain Con-tributors: Image:LocationAsia.png Original artist: Kudo-kun

File:LocationEurope.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/LocationEurope.png License: Public domainContributors: own work - map adapted from PDF world map at CIA World Fact Book Original artist: user:Cumhur

File:LocationNorthAmerica.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/LocationNorthAmerica.png License:Public domain Contributors: own work - map adapted from PDF world map at CIA World Fact Book Original artist: Dado

File:LocationOceania.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/LocationOceania.png License: Public domainContributors: ? Original artist: ?

File:LocationOceans.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/LocationOceans.png License: Public domainContributors: ? Original artist: ?

File:LocationPolarRegions.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/LocationPolarRegions.png License:Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

File:LocationSouthAmerica.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/02/LocationSouthAmerica.png License:Public domain Contributors: map adapted from PDF world map at CIA World Fact Book Original artist: Central Intelligence Agency,Maximaximax, Ghalas, Huhsunqu, E Pluribus Anthony, Cogito ergo sumo, and Snoopen82 (via Image:LocationSouthAmerica2.png per thisrequest)

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File:Royal_Ballet_Camboda_Apsara_Mera.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4a/Royal_Ballet_Camboda_Apsara_Mera.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/dalbera/5068738233/ Original artist:'dalbera' (Flickr user, no real name given)

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18 12 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

File:The-belt1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/Golden_Belt_usually_worn_by_the_Hindu%2C_Brahmi_Caste%2C_found_in_Butuan_Archeological_Digs.jpg License: CC0 Contributors: Inquirer Philippines Original artist: JobersBersales

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