Volume4 Issue12(3)

Volume 4, Issue 12(3), December 2015 International Journal of Multidisciplinary

Educational Research

Published by Sucharitha Publications 8-21-4,Saraswathi Nivas,Chinna Waltair Visakhapatnam – 530 017 Andhra Pradesh – India Email: [email protected] Website: www.ijmer.in

Editorial Board Editor-in-Chief Dr.K. Victor Babu Faculty, Department of Philosophy Andhra University – Visakhapatnam - 530 003 Andhra Pradesh – India

EDITORIAL BOARD MEMBERS Prof. S.Mahendra Dev Vice Chancellor Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research Mumbai Prof.Y.C. Simhadri Vice Chancellor, Patna University Former Director Institute of Constitutional and Parliamentary Studies, New Delhi & Formerly Vice Chancellor of Benaras Hindu University, Andhra University Nagarjuna University, Patna University Prof. (Dr.) Sohan Raj Tater Former Vice Chancellor Singhania University, Rajasthan Prof.K.Sreerama Murty Department of Economics Andhra University - Visakhapatnam Prof. K.R.Rajani Department of Philosophy Andhra University – Visakhapatnam Prof. P.D.Satya Paul Department of Anthropology Andhra University – Visakhapatnam Prof. Josef HÖCHTL Department of Political Economy University of Vienna, Vienna & Ex. Member of the Austrian Parliament Austria Prof. Alexander Chumakov Chair of Philosophy Russian Philosophical Society Moscow, Russia

Prof. Fidel Gutierrez Vivanco Founder and President Escuela Virtual de Asesoría Filosófica Lima Peru Prof. Igor Kondrashin The Member of The Russian Philosophical Society The Russian Humanist Society and Expert of The UNESCO, Moscow, Russia Dr. Zoran Vujisiæ Rector St. Gregory Nazianzen Orthodox Institute Universidad Rural de Guatemala, GT, U.S.A Prof.U.Shameem Department of Zoology Andhra University Visakhapatnam Dr. N.V.S.Suryanarayana Dept. of Education, A.U. Campus Vizianagaram Dr. Kameswara Sharma YVR Asst. Professor Dept. of Zoology Sri. Venkateswara College, Delhi University, Delhi I Ketut Donder Depasar State Institute of Hindu Dharma Indonesia Prof. Roger Wiemers Professor of Education Lipscomb University, Nashville, USA Dr.B.S.N.Murthy Department of Mechanical Engineering GITAM University –Visakhapatnam

N.Suryanarayana (Dhanam) Department of Philosophy Andhra University Visakhapatnam Dr.S.V Lakshmana Rao Coordinator A.P State Resource Center Visakhapatnam Dr.S.Kannan Department of History Annamalai University Annamalai Nagar, Chidambaram Dr. Barada Prasad Bhol Registrar, Purushottam Institute of Engineering & Technology Sundargarh, Odisha Dr.E. Ashok Kumar Department of Education North- Eastern Hill University, Shillong Dr.K.Chaitanya Department of Chemistry Nanjing University of Science and Technology People’s Republic of China Dr.Merina Islam Department of Philosophy Cachar College, Assam Dr. Bipasha Sinha S. S. Jalan Girls’ College University of Calcutta, Calcutta Prof. N Kanakaratnam Dept. of History, Archaeology & Culture Dravidian University, Kuppam Andhra Pradesh Dr. K. John Babu Department of Journalism & Mass Comm Central University of Kashmir, Kashmir

Dr.Ton Quang Cuong Dean of Faculty of Teacher Education University of Education, VNU, Hanoi Prof. Chanakya Kumar Department of Computer Science University of Pune,Pune Prof. Djordje Branko Vukelic Department for Production Engineering University of Novi Sad, Serbia Prof.Shobha V Huilgol Department of Pharmacology Off- Al- Ameen Medical College, Bijapur Prof.Joseph R.Jayakar Department of English GITAM University Hyderabad Prof.Francesco Massoni Department of Public Health Sciences University of Sapienza, Rome Prof.Mehsin Jabel Atteya Al-Mustansiriyah University College of Education Department of Mathematics, Iraq Prof. Ronato Sabalza Ballado Department of Mathematics University of Eastern Philippines, Philippines Dr.Senthur Velmurugan .V Librarian Kalasalingam University Krishnankovil Tamilnadu Dr.J.B.Chakravarthi Assistant Professor Department of Sahitya Rasthritya Sanskrit Vidyapeetha, Tirupati

© Editor-in-Chief, IJMER®

Typeset and Printed in India

www.ijmer.in

IJMER, Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research, concentrates on critical and creative research in multidisciplinary traditions. This journal seeks to promote original research and cultivate a fruitful dialogue between old and new thought.

C O N T E N T S

Volume 4 Issue 12(3) December 2015

S. No Page

No 1. Opinions of the Secondary School Teachers in

Developing the Good Character Among School Children in Visakhapatnam District – A Study

Nimma. Venkata Rao and G. Prasanthi Kumari

1

2. A Study to Assess the Knowledge Regarding Complications of Diabetes Mellitus among Patients with Diabetic Mellitus Residing in an Urban Community at Mangalore

G.Prathiba and R.Kanagavalli

11

3. A Comparative Analysis of Cash Flow Statements of Selected Steel Manufacturing Firms

Mukesh Babu Gupta

15

4. Evaluation of Earthquakes Design Parameters through Seismo – Statistical Analysis in Godavari River Valley, Andhra Pradesh, India

K. Venu Gopal and N.Sreedhara Naidu

26

5. Decentralized Public Service Delivery and Institutional Capacity in Urban Ethiopia

Nega Solomon Asress and Tara Kumari

38

6. A Critical Analysis of Pre-Socratic Notions of the Soul (from Thales’ to Anaxagoras)

Velpula Sunkanna

48

7. The Performance of Foodgrains Production in Andhra Pradesh : With Reference to Thirteen Districts in A.P

Surya Prakasa Rao Gedela

70

8. प व ो सवः S.S.Sivaprasad Sharma

81

9. Writer’s Magical Wand-‘Magical Realism’ Repositories in Literature

S.Prasanna Sree

90

10. A Study on Tourists Awareness and Satisfaction About A.P. Tourism

D.M. Sheaba Rani

98

11. Hazards on Ports and Mitigation Strategy Nilesh Jha and V. P. Shah

113

12. History and Development of Forest Development Policies in India: An Overview

Jogi Madhusudan

128

13. Cultural Conflict in Chitra Divakaruni’s A Perfect Life Intikhab Alam Bhat

156

14. Comparative Study on Self Confidence among Teenage & Adult Sports Players

Prasannakumar Shivasharanappa

162

15. का य य भूषणम ्

Komari Sree Chandana

168

16. Consumer Protection Awareness in Southern Rajasthan: A Study on the Basis of Level of Education Parameter

Mukesh Prajapat

181

17. Tilottama, the Rejuvenator of Inner Energy: Understanding Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni’s ‘Mistress of Spices’

S.Prasanna Sree

189

18. An Economic Analysis of Costs and Returns of Apple Cultivation in Kashmir

Hilal Ahmad Parray and P. Zearamane

194

19. A Study to Assess the Knowledge and Attitude Regarding Voluntary Counseling and Testing / Integrated Counseling and Testing (VCT /ICT) Services among the Adults in Puducherry

A. Felicia Chitra and S. Kalavathi

207

20. Role of Teacher Education in Promoting Peace Education

Suresh Chand

214

21. A Study of Computer Phobia among Senior Secondary School Teachers

Kusum

220

22. Nerchas: A Cultural Specimen of Kerala Muslims – A Historical Perspective

Shefi. A.E

233

23. Empowerment of Indian Women through Education Ch.Chalapathirao

245

Dr. K. VICTOR BABU M.A.,M.A.,M.Phil.,Ph.D.,PDF,(D.Lit)

Faculty of Philosophy and Religious Studies & Editor-in-Chief International Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research (IJMER) & Sucharitha: A Journal of Philosophy and Religion Andhra University, Visakhapatnam Pin - 530 003 , Andhra Pradesh – India

ISSN : 2277 – 7881 Impact Factor : 3.318(2015)

Index Copernicus Value : 5.16

Editorial……

You will be happy to know that we have entered the fourth year of publication of IJMER, since its inception in April 2012. Focusing on many interdisciplinary subjects, the published papers are spreading the knowledge with fervent hope of upholding the holistic approach. With all my heart, I reiterate to echo my sincere feelings and express my profound thanks to each and every valued contributor. This journal continues to nurture and enhance the capabilities of one and all associated with it.

We as a team with relentless efforts are committed to inspire the readers and achieve further progress. Aim is to sustain the tempo and improve. We acknowledge with pleasure that our readers are enjoying the publications of Sucharita Publishers. We solicit to receive ideas and comments for future improvements in its content and quality. Editor –in-Chief explicitly conveys his gratitude to all the Editorial Board members. Your support is our motivation. Best wishes to everyone.

Dr.K.Victor Babu

Editor-in-Chief

SOCIAL SCIENCES, HUMANITIES, COMMERCE & MANAGEMENT, ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY, MEDICINE, SCIENCES, ART & DEVELOPMENT STUDIES, LAW

www.ijmer.in

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 3.318; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 12(3), DECEMBER 2015

OPINIONS OF THE SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHERS IN DEVELOPING THE GOOD CHARACTER AMONG SCHOOL

CHILDREN IN VISAKHAPATNAM DISTRICT – A STUDY

Prof. Nimma Venkata Rao Professor& Head

Department of Education Andhra University

Visakhapatnam

G. Prasanthi Kumari Guest Faculty

Department of Education Andhra University

Visakhapatnam

INTRODUCTION

Character is the sum of total of one’s ways of responding that have become fairly well established or set. Character in determined largely by the choices one makes. Character is a matter of stimulus and response. The environment is the stimulus; one’s relation or behavior constitutes the response. One begets the other.

Character education involves teaching children about basic human values including honesty, kindness, generosity, courage, freedom, equality and respect.

Many crucial life situations of the child arise in connection with his daily lessons. If he is failing in one or several of his subjects, he is certain to make unsatisfactory adjustments to many of his life situations.

But the most significant and far – reaching query is what does

this failing child think of himself? Have these experiences increased or diminished his faith and confidence in himself’ have they quickened or slowed his dreams of future victory and conquest. Not the knowledge itself is so significant; but rather the child’s attitude and his estimation of himself are significant. Teaching which helps the child succeed, which enables him to realize his possibilities insures wholesome character development. Thus the selection of subject matter and its

www.ijmer.in 1



presentation in ways that assure success become vital factors in the development of the strong character, the poised personality.

Any constructive character education program for children must provide opportunity for

The forming of right concepts and ideas as to rightness and wrongs of conduct, truth and falsity of standards.

Making and practicing daily choices in conduct and

Judging and being judged for these choices all to the end that

good choices will be rewarded with satisfaction and wrong choices rewarded with annoyance.

Character is one of the chief aspects of integrated personality. Personality devoid of character may be considered to be null and void. Character is always formed on the anvil of action.

However, good reading exerts its influence upon character in indirect ways.

It provides the child with an outlet for his impulses and hence becomes a wholesome interest. It not only holds his interest while he is reading but is choice food for active imagination in reliving again and again in his thought life the gripping experiences portrayed in the story.

It affords him much wholesome, interesting material for the gang’s education, and it may incite him to plan and carry out

certain reforms in his own and in his group life.

It may reinforce certain much needed motive drives for right conduct; and it should be used by him as reliable standards of what is right and what is wrong.

The value of a good reading as a character molding agency is that it becomes another stimulation interest filing the child’s

www.ijmer.in 2



time and mind with many interesting pictures and ideals that challenge him to make right choice, in this way causing the undesirable habits to die from disuse.

Besides adding to a child’s fund of knowledge and creating a desire for further reading a good book should be cultivate in the child an appreciation for the beautiful and inculcate worthy ideals of conduct, which help him make right choices in trying life situations.

NEED OF THE PRESENT STUDY

As present times all values are deteriorating. Political, social individual spiritual, intellectual, higher, lower values have place in the

life of the present generation. Everybody is interested in making money and for material benefits. The components of good character like respect, cooperation, caring, justice, honesty, self discipline, citizenship and responsibility have lost their grace and glamour by the present youth. Good character is challenged by the people of the present society and sometimes maintaining good character is at the risk of life of an individual.

www.ijmer.in 3



Therefore in the present day situation there is every need to

study the role of teacher in developing good character because teacher is the incarnation of God to his students.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The purpose of the present investigation is to study a role of the teachers in developing the Good Character among the school children. With special reference to respect, cooperation, caring, justice, honesty, self – discipline, citizenship, and responsibility.

In this study an attempt is made to highlight the opinions of teachers on the different aspects in relation to the above said eight

areas. The chief concern of the present study is to study the opinions of teachers in developing good character.

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

To study the opinions of teachers towards character development among school children.

To find out the differences of opinions of men and women teachers about character development.

To find out the difference of opinions of PG teachers and degree teachers about character development.

To find out the difference of opinions of urban and rural teachers about character development.

To find out the differences of opinions of above 10 years and below 10 years experiences about character development.

To identify whether the following variables are associated with this study of “Role of a teacher developing good character.”

HYPOTHESIS OF THE STUDY

The investigation in to a problem without a hypothesis is

www.ijmer.in 4



aimless in the word of Debold Dvan Van Deless. A hypothesis serves as a powerful beacon. That lights the way for the research worker. The following hypothesis has been formulated for the present work.

There is a significant difference of opinion among male and female teachers towards developing good character among school children.

There is a significant difference of opinion among PG teachers and degree teachers towards developing good character among school children.

There is a significant difference of opinion among urban teachers and rural teachers towards developing good character among school children.

There is a significant difference of opinion among teachers having above 10 years and below 10 years experience towards developing good character among the children.

METHOD OF INVESTIGATION

In this study survey method was used. Through the spinier method gather data from of teacher at a particular time about what happened till then and what is available at the present time

SAMPLE AND SAMPLING

A sample of 100 teachers from the Secondary schools in Visakhapatnam district has taken. The variables taken for selecting the samples are stratified random sampling the stratification factors are gender qualification locality and experience.

TOOLS USED IN THE STUDY

A questionnaire is prepared covering the areas of attitudes and practice with 40 items. Tool selected for this study is the questionnaire; it is considered the appropriate tool for the study.

www.ijmer.in 5



THE STATISTICAL TECHNIQUES USED

Mean scores calculated variable wise for all the areas.

Standard deviation calculated variable wise for all eight areas.

Critical Ratio to know the significance of the difference of Mean scores of opinions for the different variables in all eight areas is calculated.

Graphical representation.

TABLE – 1

TABLE SHOWING THE OBTAINED MEAN VALUES IN RESPECT OF DIFFERENT SAMPLES

S.No. Variables Category Size of the Sample(N)

Mean Value

1 Gender Male 50 86.50 Female 50 87.10

2 Qualification U.G Level 60 87.25 P.G. Level 40 87.37

3 Experience

Below 10 years

70 87.90

Above 10 years 30 87.01

4 Locality Urban 60 88.33 Rural 40 87.50

MAJOR FINDINGS

1. 94% of teachers expressed favorable answers regarding developing good character among the children through telling the moral

stories. Remaining 6% of teachers expressed unfavorable answers.

2. 99% of teachers expressed favorable answers regarding developing good character among the school children through celebrating of national festivals in our schools.

3. 88% of teachers expressed favorable answers regarding developing

www.ijmer.in 6



good character among the school children through inculcate the spirit of helping others. Remaining 12% of teachers expressed unfavorable answers.

4. 91% of teachers expressed favorable answers regarding developing good character among the school children through teaching them human right makes them aware of justice. Remaining 9% of teachers expressed unfavorable answers.

5. 92% of teachers expressed favorable answers regarding developing

good character among the schoolchildren through teachers treat the students will learn good or bad values. Remaining 8% of teachers expressed unfavorable answers.

6. 95% of teachers expressed favorable answers regarding developing good character among the school children through treat the students equally in the classroom. Remaining 5% of teachers expressed unfavorable answers.

7. 93% of teachers expressed favorable answers regarding developing good character among the school children through to teach students to act sincerely. Remaining 7% of teachers expressed unfavorable answers.

8. 81% of teachers expressed favorable ensure regarding, developing good character among the school children through, yoga and meditation. 19% of teachers expressed unfavorable answers.

9. 87% of teachers expressed favorable regarding developing good character among the school children through, by providing opportunities for genuine academic and social challenge and achievement. Remaining 13% of teachers expressed unfavorable answers.

10. 91% of teachers expressed favorable answers regarding developing good character among the school children through create a code of

www.ijmer.in 7



behavior for your classroom which students and teachers agree. Remaining 9% of teachers expressed unfavorable answers.

11. 90% of teachers expressed favorable answers regarding developing good character among the school children through telling the personalities of who ever sacrificed their lives for country. Remaining 10% of teachers expressed unfavorable answers.

12. 97% of teachers expressed favorable answers regarding developing good character among the school children through conducting of

social awareness programs students will develop responsible citizens. Remaining 3% of teachers unfavorable answers.

13. 95% of teachers expressed favorable answers regarding developing good character among the school children through conducting of social problems, programs students will develop as a responsible person. Remaining 5% of teachers expressed unfavorable answers.

14. 97% of teachers expressed favorable answers regarding developing good character among the school children through involve all school members in the shared responsibility of general cleanliness and order. Remaining 3% of teaches expressed unfavorable answers.

15. 95% of teachers expressed favorable answers regarding developing good character among the school children through conduct the NSS program. Remaining 5% of teachers expressed unfavorable answers.

SUGGESTIONS

The main aim of education is the character building among children. It is the challenging job of the teacher to help the child meet

his life situations like his tasks, duties and conflicts successfully. Therefore, character education is the sum total of one’s ways of responding that has become fairly well established. The teacher has to train the child to learn to adjust physically, intellectually and emotionally to overcome maladjustment’s, helping him to adjust

www.ijmer.in 8



normally, healthfully and successfully to his many life situations.

The teacher should provide situations for self-choosing, self-judging, self-controlling for self-governing. The teachers should make the child to participate in training of good citizenship, encourage accepting standards of right and wrong, learning by doing with intelligence and satisfaction. The teacher can transform the school into laboratories of rich experiences for character building that develops habits of truth – telling. Open –mindedness, justice, choosing the right,

cooperation, caring, honesty, self – discipline citizenship, responsibility and respect.

Therefore it is the duty of the teacher to make the child really grow in character so that he can live in a continuously and consistently wholesome environment. The end of all knowledge must be building of good character.

CONCLUSION

In this paper most of the teachers expressed favorable answers regarding developing good character among the children through telling the moral stories is appropriate activity. Majority of the teachers expressed favorable answers regarding developing good character among the school children through celebrating of national festivals in our schools is very useful and cultivating the good values in children. All teachers are expressed favorable answers regarding developing good character among the school children through treat the students equally in the classroom and get the identified in many times

facing the children in their lives. Most of the teachers expressed favorable answers regarding developing good character among the school children through to teach students to act sincerely91% of teachers expressed favorable answers regarding developing good character among the school children through create a code of behavior for your classroom which students and teachers agree. Remaining 9% of

www.ijmer.in 9



teachers expressed unfavorable answers. Moreover, the teachers expressed favorable answers regarding developing good character among the school children through conducting of social awareness programs students will develop responsible citizens.

As per the results of this paper most of the teachers expressed their opinions towards the character building and development of the school children. Teachers need to inculcate the skills to improve character building to children. The government also to take necessary

action for implementing value education oriented programmes for teachers in the name of character development to the children in the schools.

References

1. Arthur, J., (2003) Education with Character: The Moral Economy of Schooling, London: Routledge. Arthur, J., with Bailey, R., (2001) Schools and Community: The Communitarian Agenda in Education, London: Falmer Press.

2. Arthur, J., with Bailey, R., (2001) Schools and Community: The Communitarian Agenda in Education, London: Falmer Press.

3. Department for Education and Employment (2001) Schools: Building on Success, London: HMSO.

4. Department for Education and Skills (2001) Schools: Achieving Success, London: HMSO.

5. Hunter, J. D., (2000) The Death of Character: Moral Education in an age without good or evil, New York: Basic Books.

6. Nielson Jones, E., Ryan, K, and Bohlin, K. E., (1999) Teachers as Educators of Character: Are the Nation’s Schools of Education Coming Up Short?, Washington DC: Character Education Partnership.

7. Ryan, K. and Bohlin, K. E., (1999) Building Character in Schools, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

www.ijmer.in 10



A STUDY TO ASSESS THE KNOWLEDGE REGARDING COMPLICATIONS OF DIABETES MELLITUS AMONG

PATIENTS WITH DIABETIC MELLITUS RESIDING IN AN URBAN COMMUNITY AT MANGALORE

Ms.G.Prathiba Associate Professor

Zulekha Nursing College Mangalore

Dr.R.Kanagavalli Principal

Zulekha Nursing College Mangalore

INTRODUCTION

According to WHO, India today heads the world with over 32 million diabetic patients and projected to increase to 79.4 million by the year 2030. Recent survey indicates that diabetes now affecting

10-16% of urban population and 5-8% of rural population in India. There is very little data on the level of awareness and prevalence about diabetes in developing countries like India. Such data is important to plan the public health program. Also, currently more than 70% of people with diabetes live in low and middle income countries. An estimated 285 million people corresponding to 6.4% of the worlds adult population is living with diabetes, among that 20% of the current diabetes population resides in south East Asia region. The overall goal of diabetes management will provide an opportunity to the patients to live out their normal life expectations with minimal complications.

PROBLEM STATEMENT

A study to assess the knowledge regarding complications of diabetes mellitus among patients with diabetic mellitus residing in an urban community at Mangalore.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the knowledge regarding complications of diabetes

mellitus among diabetic patients.

www.ijmer.in 11



To find an association between knowledge of patients regarding

complications of diabetes mellitus with selected demographic variables.

To prepare health education booklet on prevention & complications

of diabetic mellitus.

METHODOLOGY

A non-experimental approach and descriptive design was adopted for the study. Non-probability purposive sampling technique was used to select the samples. sample consists of 30 diabetic patients. The data was collected by administering knowledge questionnaire to assess the knowledge regarding prevention of complications of diabetic mellitus.

DATA COLLECTION TOOL

Demographic Performa which included age , sex ,religion, education ,occupation, income ,type of family, and source of information on complication of diabetes mellitus. The knowledge questionnaire consists of 30 multiple choice items related to prevention & complication of diabetes mellitus.

DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURE

A formal permission was obtained from concerned authority and the data was collected by administering knowledge questionnaire. The health education booklet was issued to the subjects selected to improve their knowledge on management of diabetic mellitus and to prevent the complication of diabetic mellitus.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The majority (36.6%) of samples were between 46-50 years and ( 23.4%) of samples with 41-45 years, ( 23.4%) were above 51 years of age and (16.6 %) were below 40 years.

www.ijmer.in 12



The majority of samples (53.4%) were females and (46.6. %) were

males.

Majority of samples (66.6%) were Muslims and (20%) were Hindus and (13.4%) were Christians.

Majority of the subjects, 60% were completed the high school education and 23.4 % of subjects had primary education and 16.6% of them were graduates.

20% of the samples were working in private sector ,56.6 % were

coolie workers and 23.4% were self employed.

50% of the subjects family income was between Rs 10001-

15000/,33.4 % of them were earning between Rs. 5001 -10000/- and 10% of them were earning below Rs.5000/- and 6.6% of samples were earning more than 15000/-.

56.6% of the samples were belongs to nuclear family, 43.4 % were

belongs to joint family.

46.6% of people got information from their friends and relatives,

40% were got from mass media and 13.4% of people got from health care personnel.

The mean knowledge score was 13.6% and inadequate mean percentage of knowledge on prevention on diabetes mellitus ( 45.4% ).

The study findings revealed that there was an significant association between level of knowledge with age of the patient.

CONCLUSION

The finding of the study concluded that the samples were having inadequate mean score percentage ( 45.4% ) knowledge on prevention on diabetes mellitus . Hence diabetic patients must primarily pay attention towards prevention of the complication of diabetes mellitus.

www.ijmer.in 13



There was a strong need for developing educational program me by the community health nurses and nursing students to create general awareness on prevention of complication of diabetes mellitus.

References

1. American Diabetes Association ;economic costs of diabetes in the U.S.in 2007.diabetis care 2007;596-615

2. Chinthamani. lewis ,Medical surgical nursing.New Delhi.Elsevier Publication;

2011

3. Diabetismanagementandprevention;http//www.medvarsity.co.nz/ab

out us/.

4. Nandan.deoki,tawari,a.k.diabetes time look beyond gluttony and perception,

Indian journal of community medicine vol-36

5. Rachel and mr.rajmohan, risk factor, knowledge and health status in diabetic patients.saudi med volume-24.

6. Yanak and tango,influence of education and occupation on knowledge about diabetis control.natimed india.volume-13

www.ijmer.in 14



A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF CASH FLOW STATEMENTS

OF SELECTED STEEL MANUFACTURING FIRMS

Mukesh Babu Gupta Senior Research Fellow

Faculty of Commerce Banaras Hindu University

Varanasi Introduction:

Cash flow analysis is another important technique of financial analysis; explain the reasons for such inflow or outflow of cash as the case may be and helps management in making plans for immediate future (Maheshwari, 2006).Income statement and balance sheets are based on accrual methods of accounting, which means that revenues and expenses are recognized at the time of a sale even if no cash has yet been exchanged. In contrast, cash flow statement traces the cash

implication of transactions (Bodie, Kane, Marcus, & Mohanty, 2009). Cash flow statement deals with the provision of information about the historical changes in cash and cash equivalent of an enterprise and summarises the causes of changes in cash position of a business enterprises between dates of two balance sheets (Gupta & Sharma, 2011). In fact cash is both the beginning as well as the end of business operations. Hence, while analysing the results of any business concern it becomes useful to know that what were the balances of cash in the beginning and at the end (Gupta K. L., 2005).Without adequate cash to pay obligations on time, to fund operations and growth and to compensate owners, the firm will fall (Megginson, Smart, & Gitman, 2007). No business can operate successfully and efficiently without adequate cash. At the same time, cash is an idle asset not earning anything in itself and therefore excessive cash would have negative effect on the profitability of the firm (Gupta, 2013).

www.ijmer.in 15



Research Methodology:

Objective of the study:

This study aimed to analyses the cash flow pattern in selected firms of

Indian steel industry. Beside this, determinant ofcash and bank balance of firms also be accessed in the study.

Sample size:

This study is conducted on sample of two firms i.e. Tata Steel Limited (TSL) and JSW Steel (JSW). Both the firm are engaged in steel production and fallen under category of private sector of Indian Steel Industry.

Study Period:

Period of study is started form 2005-06 and covers up to 2014-15. Thus study is based on the span of ten years.

Tools of Analysis:

Study used accounting as well as statistical tools. Coefficients of correlations have been applied to measure the correlation between the variables. Regression analysis was also applied to check the effects of independent variables on dependent variables.

Limitation of the Study:

The study used annual data collected form annual reports of concern firms. A more depth study can be conducted by taking quarterly or monthly data.

For the purpose of analysis, the study used accounting (ratio analysis) and statistical tools (mean, t-test, correlation and regression analysis). Therefore, the findings and inferences of the study are

heavily dependent on the strengths and weaknesses of the so used accounting and statistical tools.

www.ijmer.in 16



Variable identified:

For the determination of level of cash and bank balance, Cash and bank balance has beentaken as dependent variable while cash flow from operating activities (COA), cash flow inventing activities (CIA) and cash flow from financing activities (CFA) have been taken as independent variables.

Table No. 01

Cash Flow from Operating Activity (Amount in crore)

Year TSL JSW

2005-06 3631.39 1574.96

2006-07 5118.10 2822.26

2007-08 6254.20 3552.70

2008-09 7397.22 4056.12

2009-10 8369.22 3297.76

2010-11 8542.72 2042.98

2011-12 10256.47 2139.32

2012-13 11068.67 3924.66

2013-14 12432.80 5274.18

2014-15 4851.89 6360.48

Average 1stFive Years

6154.03 3060.76

Average 2ndFive Years

9430.51 3948.32

Average 7792.27 3504.54

Source: Annual Report of Concern Firm

Cash flow from operating activities of TSL and JSW was shown in table no 01. During the period of study (i.e. 10 years) cash flow from operating activities of TSL was exposed increasing trend except in year 2014-15.In the first half of the study i.e. 2005-06 to 2009-10, average

www.ijmer.in 17



cash from operating activities of TSL was Rs. 6154.03 crore and follow increasing trend. During the same period, average cash from operating activities of JSW was Rs. 3060.76crore.Cash from operating activities of JSW exposed fluctuating trend for the first five years.In the second half of study period, there was increment (in terms of absolute value) in mean of cash from operating activities of both firms. Mean value of cash from operating activities of TSL’s was increased by Rs. 3276.48 crore. Cash from operating activities of JSW was also increased during this period and increased to Rs. 3948.32 crore. Comparison of cash from operating activities shows that TSL procure more cash under this head in compare to JSW.

Table No. 02

Cash Flow from Investing Activities

Year TSL JSW

2005-06 -2464.6 -1304.1

2006-07 -5427.6 -2244.6

2007-08 -29319 -5636.4

2008-09 -9428.1 -5834.9

2009-10 -5254.8 -3147.8

2010-11 -13288 -7160.3

2011-12 -2859.1 -3928.1

2012-13 -8522.4 -4451.2

2013-14 -9837.4 -4737.5

2014-15 -2382.1 -4169

Average 1stFive Years

-10379 -3633.5

Average 2ndFive Years

-7377.8 -4889.2

Average -8878.3 -4261.4


www.ijmer.in 18



Cash flow from investing activities of both firms during the period under review shows outflow of cash. In the first half of the study period, TSL’s average outflow of cash was Rs. 10379 crore which was more than JSW’s average cash (out)flow from investing activities during same period of time. In recent five years (2010-11 to 2014-15) TSL’s average flow of cash from investing activities was declined to Rs. 7377.8 crore. Contra to TSL, JSW’s average cash flow under this heads was increased during second half of study and accumulated to Rs. 4889.20. In spite of increment in cash flow of in second half, JSW was still behind to TSL in investing fund. It is revels form the Table No. 02 that TSL’s average investment was more than 2 times of JSW’s investment.

Table No. 03

Cash Flows from Financing Activities

Year TSL JSW

2005-06 -1125.13 265

2006-07 7702.46 -384.39

2007-08 15848.1 2124.93

2008-09 3156.42 1848.53

2009-10 -1473.13 -261.78

2010-11 5562.81 5279.39

2011-12 -7599.35 1967.6

2012-13 -4281.59 123.98

2013-14 -3825.98 -366.37

2014-15 -2957.21 -1805.37

Average 1stFive Years 4821.738 718.458

Average 2ndFive Years -2620.264 1039.846

Average 1100.737 879.152


www.ijmer.in 19



Cash from financing activities of both firms follow fluctuating trend during review period. In the first half of the study TSL’s average cash flow from financing activities was Rs. 4821.74 crore which was greater than cash inflow of JSW for the same period as it was just Rs. 718.46.In later half part scenario was totally different with former period. During this period TSL was manage to produce cash inflow from financing activities only in 2010-11 after it financing activities are the responsible for cash outflow and leads to an average cash outflow of Rs. 2620.26 crore.In later part of study JSW was succeed to procure cash inflow under this head. During this period average cash flow of JSW’s was measured Rs. 1039.85 crore. In overall comparison of cash inflow under this heads revel that TSL is ahead of JSL in spite of not doing well in recent years.

Table No. 04

Net Changes in Cash& Bank Balances

Year TSL JSW

2005-06 41.67 5.85

2006-07 7392.96 193.32

2007-08 -7216.3 41.27

2008-09 1125.56 69.79

2009-10 1641.25 -111.8

2010-11 907.4 162.06

2011-12 -201.99 178.79

2012-13 -1735.3 -402.59

2013-14 -1230.6 170.27

2014-15 -487.42 386.16

Average 1st Five Years -549.59 98.938

Average 2nd Five Years 597.026 39.686

Average 23.72 69.312

www.ijmer.in 20



Net changes in cash flow reflect inclusive impact of cash

inflow/outflow. In the first half, highest changein TSL was noticed in 2006-07 when it comes positively and accounts for cash inflow of Rs. 7392.96 crore. During the same year JSW also witnessed of such change and its cash flow affected positively by Rs. 193.32 crore. During the second half net cash flow of TSL’s was improve and stood at average of Rs. 597.03 crore. While JSW’s average for last five years were reduced to Rs. 39.94 crore. But average of ten years of JSL (i.e. Rs. 69.31 crore) was far ahead of TSL (i.e. Rs. 23.72 crore)

Multiple Regressions and Multiple Correlations of Sample Firms

Table No. 06

Correlation matrix of TSL

Variables COA CIA CFA NCC

COA 1.000

CIA -0.062 1.000

CFA -0.440 -0.786 1

NCC -0.194 0.656 -0.161 1

CBB 0.032 0.227 0.119 0.767

Correlation matrix of TSL revels that Cash flow from operating activities (COA) was negatively correlated with CIA (cash flow from investing activities), CFA (cash flow financing activities). Cash flow from investing activities (CIA) was also found highly negatively

correlated with cash flow from financing activities (CFA). While net changes in cash (NCC) depicted high degree of positive correlation with cash and bank balance (CBB). A moderate positive correlation was exists between cash flow from investing activities and net changes in cash.

www.ijmer.in 21



Table No. 07

Regressions Analysis and Multiple Correlation of TSL

(Regression Equation: CBB=β1+ β2 COA+ β3CIA+ β4CFA+ e)

Variables Coefficients Standard

Error t Stat P-value

Intercept -230.619 1543.518 -0.149 0.886

COA 0.922 0.259 3.554 0.012*

CIA 0.593 0.135 4.398 0.005*

CFA 0.742 0.172 4.307 0.005*

Multiple Correlation Coefficient (R) 0.877

Coefficient of multiple Determination (R2)

0.768

Adjusted R2 0.653

Standard Error 1368.335

*significant at 5% level of significance

Theabove table depicted the result of multiple correlations (R), multiple coefficient of determination (R2) and the regression coefficient of CBB on COA, CIA and CFA. Multiple correlation of coefficient (R) of CBB on COA, CIA and CFA is 0.8777. Which described that cash and bank balance is highly influenced bythesethree variables (COA, CIA &CFA). Regression result indicted that change in COA, CIA and CFA leads to increment in balance of cash and bank in same direction. Cash and bank balance most affected by COA while CIA influenced it (CBB) least. According to coefficient of multiple coefficient 76.8% changes in cash and bank balance are due to jointly affected cash and bank balance by 76.8%.

www.ijmer.in 22



Table No. 08

Correlation Matrix of JSW

Variables COA CIA CFA NCC

COA 1

CIA -0.220 1

CFA -0.570 -0.667 1

NCC 0.236 -0.079 -0.010 1

CBB 0.519 -0.0274 -0.380 0.0767

Correlation matrix of JSW revels that cash flow from operating activities is negatively correlated with cash flow from financing activities (CIA) and cash flow from financing activities (CFA). Negative correlation was also existed between CIA and CFA, NCC and CBB. Net changes in cash (NCC) are also highly correlated with cash and bank (CBB) balance as in case of TSL.

Table No. 09

Regressions Analysis and Multiple Correlation of JSW

(Regression Equation: CBB=β1+ β2 COA+ β3CIA+ β4CFA+ e)

Variables Coefficients Standard

Error t Stat P-value

Intercept 0.657 782.435 0.001 0.999

COA -0.044 0.936 -0.047 0.964

CIA -0.229 0.885 -0.259 0.804

CFA -0.276 0.918 -0.301 0.774

www.ijmer.in 23



Multiple Correlation Coefficient (R) 0.536

Coefficient of multiple Determination (R2)

0.288

Adjusted R2 -0.068

Standard Error 668.261

Multiple correlation coefficient and coefficient of multiple determination result of JSW is presented in Table No 09. Correlation coefficient of CBB on COA, CIA and CFA was 0.536. Regression result revels that COA, CIA and CFA have a negative impact on CBB. Coefficient of multiple determination is just 0.288. According to result, impact of COA, CIA and CFA is only 28.8 % on cash and bank balance of JSW.

Conclusion:

Cash flow analysis shows that cash from operating activities was more consistent in TSL than JSW. Cash used in investing activities shows that TSL invested more funds in investing activities than JSW. It was seen that cash flow from financing activities was higher in TSL. It can be concluded from the analysis of net changes in cash that on

average cash inflow of JSW was not only higher but alsomore stable than of TSL. Correlation results indicated that cash and bank balance washighly positively correlated with net changes in cash. Whereas cash flow from investing activities are found negatively correlated with cash flow from investing activities. Regression result of TSL was better in case of TSL as it is found statistically significant at 5% level.

www.ijmer.in 24



References

1. Bodie, Z., Kane, A., Marcus, A. J., & Mohanty, P. (2009). Investment. New Delhi: McGraw Hill Education (Inida) Private Limited.

2. Brigham, E. F., & Ehrhardt, M. C. (2005). Financial Management: Theory and Practice. Thomoson South-Western.

3. Gupta, K. L. (2005). Management Accounting. Agra: Sahitya Bhawan Publications.

4. Gupta, S. K., & Sharma, R. K. (2011). Financial Management Theory and Practice. New Delhi: Kalyani Publishers.

5. Gupta, S. P. (2013). Financial Management. Agra: Sahitya Bhawan Publications.

6. Kishore, R. M. (2003). Financial Management. New Delhi: Taxmann's.

7. Maheshwari, S. N. (2006). Financial Management Principles and

Practice. New Delhi: Sultan Chand & Sons.

8. Megginson, W. L., Smart, S. B., & Gitman, L. J. (2007). Principles of Corporate Finance. New Delhi: Cengage Learning India Private Limited.

9. Richards, V. D., & Laughlin, E. J. (1980). A Cash Conversion Cycyle Approach to Liquidity Analysis. Financial Management.

www.ijmer.in 25



EVALUATION OF EARTHQUAKES DESIGN PARAMETERS

THROUGH SEISMO – STATISTICAL ANALYSIS IN GODAVARI RIVER VALLEY, ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA

K. Venu Gopal Professor

Dept. of Civil Engineering Sri Indu College of Engg. and Technology

Seriguda(V), Ibhrahimpatnam (M ) Rangareddy District

N.Sreedhara Naidu Assistant Professor

Dept. of Civil Engineering Sri Indu College of Engg. and Technology

Seriguda(V) , Ibhrahimpatnam (M ) Rangareddy District

Introduction:

The Proposed Polavaram project within Godavari Rift Valley in Andhra Pradesh State is aimed to harness the waters of the river Godavari by building a 45,72m , high and 2.32 km long earth and rock –filled dam. As a result, a reservoir of 551 mcm capacity would be formed for irrigation and power generation.

The Godavari Rift Valley is recognized for seismic activity and it falls in Seismic Zone III, as Classified by Bureau of Indian Standards ( No 1893 of 1984 ) There are several existing deep seated

seismic source regions /fault planes/ lineaments etc,. Mostly trending N.W – SE directions ( Rastogi 1986 and Rao 2012 ). Therefore, study of seismicity in this region, in particular to up - coming Polavaram project area, is felt imperative. In View of this short term micro earth quake observations are done around the project area at a few sites of geological importance.

Consequently, an earthquake catalogue of seismic events recorded for a span of 6 years ( 1988 to 1994 ), in broken periods , was prepared and analysed for estimating epicentral distances and magnitudes (CWPRS Technical Report, 2001). However, as the seismo- statistical analysis of such recorded seismological data enables to understand environmental effects on the existing seismo – tectonic features and also as it is one of the powerful tools that facilitate

www.ijmer.in 26



earthquake resistant design parameter ( Gupta- 2012 ) which can be applied for optimal seismic design of different proposed engineering structures in this project.

Accordingly , of the total recorded seismological data from eight observatory sites of the project only the dense/ interpretable data of six observatory sites were considered for analysis in order to find out the daily seismic energy release patterns and the probable

maximum magnitude of the earthquake that is likely to be experienced during the life time of the dam and thereby to incorporate the same within the design. Initially , the short term micro earthquake (MEQ) data of these six observatory sites (i.e. I-Polavaram , Polavaram , Kapavaram , Puliramunigudem , Kondamodalu and Gopalapuram sites) was analysed for determining the epi-central distances and magnitudes ( M) of recorded events using empirical relations . Later, the daily seismic energy release patterns are computed for each site to determine the resultant daily Maximum Magnitude (M max) .

The recurrence relation ( i.e Log N=3.80 – 0.50 M; Mmax=5.4 ) determined for I Polavaram site , was considered appropriate for Polavaram Project area as design earthquake . The seismicity patterns in different seismic source parameters Viz . Seismic Energy Release (E),

Seismic Moment ( Mo), Stress Drop (∆ߪ ) and Circular Source Radius (r) are computed from these observations that can be used as earthquake Precursors.

Geographical Location and Tectonic features:

(1).Location:

The Polavaram project, named after Polavaram Village on Godavari River bank , is situated in West Godavari district, Andhra Pradesh State ( 17015’0” North , 810 38’0” East ) Fig 1 Depicts the project location.

www.ijmer.in 27



Fig-1. Location Map of Polavaram Project, Andhra Pradesh.

(2) Tectonic Features:

The Proposed Polavaram Project site is within the NW –SE trending Godavari Rift Basin. The area comprises geological structures like lineaments ( NE , NW and EW), faults ( WNW-ESE) of neo-tectonic signatures and folds; reflecting the tectonic activity in the region, Fig-2 depicts deep – seated/ major/ minor faults, anticline and synclinal fold axis etc. The major fault planes are denoted as F1-F1 to F6-F6. The symbolization of epicentres of historical earthquakes, having different magnitudes (M) is also illustrated in this figure, elucidated seismic activity.

www.ijmer.in 28



Fig 2 : The main tectonic features and epicentres of historical earthquakes

Methodologies:

The b- value derived from distribution of microearthquake size is the log-linear slope of the frequency-magnitude distribution of

microearthquakes (Utsu1965). The Gutenberg – Richter law, that expresses the relationship between the magnitude and total number of earthquakes in a given region and time period is applied for determining the maximum magnitude (Mmax) from the micro earthquake catalogue and as well from the historical data by using the

www.ijmer.in 29



below given formula (Guha 1979, Gupta and Pagare 1986) Padale et al (1994) and Rao and Prasannalakshmi (2005)

Log N = a-b M

Where

N. is the number of events having a magnitude > M

a and b are constants.

M max = (1./1.5)(-11.8 – log ∑E).

Where;

∑E is the total energy in a day.

The thus obtained M (max) value is considered as design earthquake and the same has been considered for computing the various seismic source parameters such as 1 Seismic Energy Release (E), 2. Seismic Moment (M0), 3. Stress Drop (∆ߪ) and 4 Circular Source Radius (r). While computing these parameters, various empirical relations (Brune 1970 and Scholz 1990 ) are adapted as detailed below:

1. Seismic Energy Release(E in ergs) Log10(E) =11.8+1.5 M or

E=10(11.8+1.5 M)

2. Seismic Moment (Mo in dyne – cm) Log10 Mo= 1.018M+17.597 Or Mo=10(1.018M+17.597).

3. Strees drop (∆ߪ in bars): log Mo - 3744.70 1.76.72 = ߪ ∆

4. Source radius (r in meters ): Log Mo = 14.48+3.04 log (r) Or r = 10 ((logMo-14.48)/3.04)

From the above relations, seismic source parameters are computed for each central value of the magnitude range assumed.

www.ijmer.in 30



Beneioff plots are generated from daily number of earthquake (N) and daily seismic energy release patterns ( ∑E) .The ‘Recurrence Relations “ are then obtained using the Gutenberg Richter formula for the entire period of Survey.

Data Analysis and Interpretations:

The MEQ catalogue, spanning the 6-year period 1988-1994, at Polavaram short duration surveys was used for quantification of micro – earthquakes and thereby to obtain the daily variations in seismicity patterns (Keilies – Borok et al 1980 ) . The data of six sites

out of eight observatory sites was considered in this approach since in the rest of two sites the data is sparse for isolating spatio – temporal patterns viz Bursts of aftershocks, Swarm of activity, Cumulative seismic energy release etc. In this, the different magnitude ranges are taken and a central value is chosen and for each central value, the different seismic source parameters are computed. Then the central Value is incremented by 0.5 and the process is repeated. In this fashion source parameters are computed from 2.5 to 6.0 and these parameters for each Magnitude are tabulated (Table-1). Benioff plot is generated for one site (fig.3). In which the M being maximum (M = 5.4), from daily number of earthquakes (N) and daily seismic energy release patterns (∑ E). However, this analysis on Benioff plot is unable to define focal region of the predicted event because of the use of single station. The two constants ( ‘a’) and ‘b’) in the Gutenberg – Ritcher

relation are obtained from the graphical analysis of the Frequency – Magnitude Recurrence Relation for the same site ( Fig,4).

From the above analysis it can be interpreted that the highest magnitude value of M = 5.4 is at one of the six sites ( I-Polavaram ) , which is very close to the project dam site and which is also near to the value assigned for Seismic Zone III ( M = 6.0) by the BIS , is due to tectonic/ natural seismicity as the possibility for induced seismicity is

www.ijmer.in 31



remote owing to the fact that impoundment of the reservoir was not taken place during the study period.

Results and Discussions:

(1) Results:

Table -1 gives different Seismic Source Parameters computed from magnitude (M), using the related empirical formulae as shown in methodology part of this paper. It shows that the magnitude ranges from 2.5 to 6.0 as mid values within the range ±0.2.

Table:2 gives the Recurrence Relations, computed from the observed seismological data. As the Study of this table suggests that the

number of shocks are maximum (N=210) in the smallest duration ( 87 days ) at I- Polavaram site, besides highest value of M (max) = 5.4, only, this site is concentrated in elaborating the results by considering the Beneioff plot (Fig-3) and Recurrence Relations plot (Fig4) also as given below :

N is varying between 0 and 8 and the maximum number of earthquakes is on 49th day. Daily maximum Magnitude is varying between 2.2 and 5.3. Daily Seismic Energy Release ( E) is maximum on 46th day and it amounts to 1.0 X 1020 Ergs and where as the total seismic energy amounts to 1.90X10 20 Ergs . The daily seismic moment (Mo) is maximum on 46th day, amounting to 1.0x 1023 dyne-cm. The cumulative seismic moment shows a rise on 11th & 46th days. The dynamic stress drop (∆ߪ) is maximum on 45th day and 60th day amounting to 644 and 460 bars respectively . The daily changes in source radius ( r) is maximum on 45th and 60th day amounting to

1350 m and 1074 m . Seismic volume changes are also following the same pattern.

www.ijmer.in 32



(2) Discussions:

The NW – SE trending Godavari Rift Basin , with in which the polavaram project is to come up , is bounded by two major tectonic domains with a few local faults / or lineaments . Hence seismic activity in such a tectonic province is obvious. Recording of several micro earthquakes in MEQ observatory sites, the presence of cluster of epicentres ( as denoted in the historic seismicity catalogue of the area ) etc., support this view.

The Frequency – Magnitude relation (Log N=3.80 – 0.50 M) applied for I Polavaram site has given rise to Mmax = 5.4. From this it can be inferred that the region is seismically active and heading for a small earthquakes in future also.

The study of Beneioff plot of I- Polavaram site is indicative of uniform stress relese in space and time and therefore there is likeliness for contribution of larger earthquakes in this area.

In assessing the design magnitude, possessing the highest value of Mmax, computed from the relation: M max=(1/1.5 ) (-11.8+log∑E) , is suggestible . However, the project area is already classified under Seismic Zone –III, where the possibility for occurring earthquakes of the order of M=6.0 and even above cannot be ruled out.

Conclusion:

The study of tectonic features, historic earthquakes, and the results of the present analysis of the micro earthquake data reveal that

the Polavaram project site is prone for seismicity. The different Seismic Source Parameters, computed from Magnitude , resulted to reach the value of M max=5.4 and hence this value may be considered as the design magnitude , Moreover this value is nearer to that of

www.ijmer.in 33



seismic Zone -III, in which the Godavari Basin ( encompassing the project), is failing

References :

1. Brune J.N (1970) “Tectonic Stress and spectra of shear of waves from Earthquakes” J Geophysics .Res , 75, 4497-5009.

2. CW&PRS Technical Report( 2001): “A Report on Micro, – earthquake Studies at and around Polavaram Project Site , Andhra Pradesh” Technical Report No 3807 dt 31/7/2001 ( 36 Pages )

3. Gupta I D and V.S Pagare( 1986 ): “ B- value as a Pre- monitory parameter for earthquake prediction , an example study for Bhatsa Dam region ( India )” Earthquake prediction- present status , july 1986 University of Poona , Pune , India . P.P 75 – 77.

4. Guha S.K ( 1979) “Premonitory deformation, strins and seismotectonic features ( b- Values) Proc ; Koyana Earthquake TechnoPhysics 52, 549.559 .

5. Keilis Borok V .I Knopoff L, Rotvain I.M and Sidorenko , T.M ( 1980) “ Bursts of Seismicity as long term precursors of strong earthquakes” J. Geophys. Res .85 , 803-811.

6. Padale J.G, Wedpathak . AV and Guba . S.K ed. (1994) “ Micro earthquakes Acoustic Emissions and their Applications“ Technical Monograph, Central Water and Power Research

Station , Pune , Ministry of Water Resources , Government of India , 120p .

7. Rao MVMS and Prassanalakshmi K.J(2005) “ Analysis of b- Value and improved b. Value of acoustic emissions accompanying rock fracture “ Current Science Vol .89 ( 9) pp 1577 – 1582 .

www.ijmer.in 34



8. Rastogi B.K , B.R. Rao , C.V.R.K Rao ( 1986) “ Microearthquake

investions near Sriramsagar reservoir , Andhra Pradesh State , India , Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors “ Vol 44 ( 2) pp.149-159.

9. Scholz C.H ( 1990) “ The Mechanics of Earthquakes and Faulting “ Cambridge University Press , Cambridge,.

10. Utsu. T. ( 1965) , “ A Method for Determining the Value ‘b’ in

the Formula log N = a-bM , Showing the Magnitude Frequency Relation for Earthquake “ Geophys Bull. Hokkaido . Uni.13.99-103.

Table – 1 : Different Seismic Source Parameters Computed from Magnaitude

Magnitude (M)

Central Value

Energy Release ( E. , Dynes/ Cm 2)

Seismic Moment ( M, Dyne-Cm )

Streess Drop (∆α bars)

Sources radius

(r- meters)

2.3- 2.7 2.5 3.55E+15 1.41E+20 12,5 73.0

2.8-3.2 3.0 2,00E+16 4.57E+20 13,0 106.0

3.3-3.7 3.5 1.12E+17 1.48E+21 14,5 159.0

3.3-4.2 4.0 6.31 E+17

4.79E+21 86.6 234.0

4.3-4.7 4.5 3.47E+18 1.55E+22 176.7 344.0

4.8-5.2 5.0 2,00E+19 5,01E+22 266.8 506.0

5.3-5.7 5.5 1,12E+20 1.62E+23 357.0 744.0

5.8- 6.2 6.0 6.31E+20 5,25E+23 447.0 1096.0

www.ijmer.in 35



Table -2 : Recurrence Relations’ computed from observed Seismological Data

S.no Name of Seismic Station

Geographical Coordinates

Period Seismic survey

Duration

(days)

Number

Of

Shocks

(N)

Reccurence Relation and Mmax

LogN=a-bM

(1) I- Polavaram (17.42N,81,80E)

22-06-1988 to 17-09-1988

87 210 LogN=3.80-0.50M

Mmax=5.4

(2) Polavaram (17,30N.81.65E)

22-06-1988 to 28-02-1989

252 13 LogN= 1.40- 0.18 M Mmav=3.41

(3) Kapavaram (17,08N,81.73E)

02-10-1988to 19-02-1989

141 6 Log N=3.90-0.90 M

Mmax=3.94

(4) Puliramunigudem

(17.27N 81.43E)

21-02-1989 to13- 10-1989

235 6 Log N=1.50-0.30M

M max=2.8

(5) Kondamodalu (17.45N81.55E)

25-02-1989 to 14-03-1990

384 26 Log N=2.20 -0.30M

Max=3.7

(6) Gopalapuram (17.08N81.55E)

22-06-1988 to 28-02-1989

384 3 Log N=1.00 -0.30M

Mmax =2.5

www.ijmer.in 36



Fig-4: Gutenberg – Ritcher relation Graphical analysis of the Frequency – Magnitude

www.ijmer.in 37



DECENTRALIZED PUBLIC SERVICE DELIVERY AND

INSTITUTIONAL CAPACITY IN URBAN ETHIOPIA

Nega Solomon Asress Research Scholar

Department of Economic Andhra University

Visakhapatnam Andhra Pradesh

Prof. Tara Kumari Head of Department

Department of Economics Andhra University

Visakhapatnam Andhra Pradesh

Introduction

Service delivery is considered as the major function of any

government to its people through different arrangement. According to Tesfaye (2007), service delivery can be defined as "a systematic arrangement of activities in service giving institutions with the objective of full fling the needs and expectations of service users and other stakeholders with the optimum use of resource."

Currently, in many countries, decentralization is considered as

better institutional arrangement for better result in service delivery. For this reason, local level service provision is identified as one of the main objectives of decentralization. Boex and Yilmaz (2010) defined decentralization as the empowering of the local people over the public sector so as to achieve improvements in the delivery of public services. Devarajan, Khemani and Shah (2005) also argued that the reason for decentralization is the failing of the state responsibility to deliver the basic service such as education, health, and sanitation to its citizens especially to the poor.

Starting from the 1980s, decentralization has been initiated as a reform in most African countries against their weak background in service delivery. Average (2010) defined Decentralization as a transfer of legal, administrative, and political authority to manage public function from the central government to lower tiers of government,

www.ijmer.in 38



which can be at province, district, or village level. There are many justifications to how decentralization increases public service provision. Ekpo (2007) argued that lower tier of government is better to respond for the demand and desire of the local people for their public service provision. Robinson (2003) also argued for the quality gains of decentralization in terms resource and decision- making devolution to local government for services delivery. That is local government is efficient for the allocation of scarce resources and local demand priorities.

In most cities of the developing country, providing urban service to their residents becomes the major challenge of governments. UN-HAITAT (2002) stated that providing urban service and facilities has become the major problem in developing countries because of their rapid urbanization. The reasons are related to the inability of urban

local authorities to fulfill the demand of their increased population due to limited political framework, financial constraints and poor urban management system.

Ethiopia has adopted decentralization when the1995 FDRE constitution declared the country as a federal state with nine national regional states and two self-administrating cities. According to the World Bank (2008), decentralization process in Ethiopia is implemented in to two phases. The first phase of decentralization was creating a four-tier governance structure consisting of the center, the regions, the zones and Woredas. The first phase of decentralization gave the responsibilities of service delivery such as education and health to regional governments. The second phase of decentralization process was initiated in 2002/3 with due emphasis on legal, fiscal and administrative reform. The objectives of this reform are to improve local democratic governance, to empower local community and to

enhance the scope and quality of the delivery basic service at local level.

www.ijmer.in 39



The second phase of decentralization process also established urban administration with Woreda status and responsibility.

Statement of the Problem

In Ethiopia Urban local government is the result of the second wave of decentralization that began in 2002. One main objective of the local government is service provision to the local community at closest level. However, studies indicated that lack of capacity at the local government level hampered the provision of service in Ethiopia. Kumera, cited in Tegenge and Kasahun, (2007) found that even though decentralized service delivery at local government level is well articulated as official policy, lack of capacity in terms of availability of skilled and experienced personnel become the main constraints for the implementation. UN-HABITAT (2008) found that the provision of service in Ethiopia is characterized by inadequacy, inefficiency, and ineffectiveness of the actors involved on the provision.

Yilmaz and Venugopal (2008) stated that local government

should have administrative autonomy for flexible service delivery, however, the local governments in Ethiopia lacks this attribute. In 2006, a research conducted by Ministry of Work Urban Development on the reform revealed that though many key institutional element of urban governance are in place much has to be remaining in terms of implementing and expansion of these elements. According to Meheret (2007), the recent Woreda decentralization has not fully achieved its target due to insufficient administrative capacity and institutional capacity such as lack of well-trained local government personnel.

Methodology

This research employed both qualitative and quantitative methodsand use primary and secondary sources of data.

www.ijmer.in 40



Primary data type and source

The instrument for gathering primary qualitative data was

semi-structured interviews while the quantitative data was collected using a closed-ended questionnaire.

Interviews were conducted from April 1 to April 30 2011 with different the local administration officials and other key informants from Mekelle city council and the Kebelles of the local administration. The questionnaires also collected from the employee of the local administration

Secondary source of data

Available and existing data from Mekelle city administration and local administration annual reports, internal publications, manuals and documents various documents and reports of were used as secondary data to assess the local administration capacity, role, mechanism and constraints in social service delivery.

Methods of data collection

The local administration of KedamayWoyane was the unit of this study since it is the closer tier government for local people demand in social service delivery. Therefore, the study population comprises the local people of KedamayWoyane local administration, local officials

and local employees. The target population was believed to give the full picture in assessing the local administration’s capacity, role, mechanism and constraints in social service delivery.

Sampling technique and Sample size

Respondents for the interview are selected using purposive sampling technique to get relevant and enriched information. Closed-ended questionnaires are prepared for employees of the local administration. The reason to prepare questionnaires for employees is to enrich the responses from the top officials on the roles, capacity and

www.ijmer.in 41



mechanism of social service delivery. The sampling technique used for selecting the employees is purposive sampling and the sample size includes the employee of the social service department in the local administration and at lower level

Data processing and analysis

Data processing is done both manually and using computer software SPSS. The semi-structured interview is processed manually while the questionnaire is using computer based software SPSS to see the percentage and distribution on the employeeUnder the major thematic area of capacity, and the data was analyzed qualitatively in descriptive style.

Result

Decentralization is assigning both responsibility and resources to lower tier of government / administration. Ekpo, (2003), defined decentralization as a process of assigning responsibilities and resources to lower tier of governments. Both the FDRE and TNRS constitution stated that adequate power and capacity should be given to the lower tire of government / administration. Boex and Yilmaz (2010) argued

that the scope of functions and the level of resources that are assigned to lower tier of government play a significant role on achieving decentralization.

Hence, local administration should have enough capacity to deliver public service to its local people. However, in Ethiopia studies indicate that local government suffers from lack of institutional capacity such as human resource and budget. Yilmaz and Venugapal (2008) found that in Ethiopia local government lack minimum set of power and capacity to initiate critical issues in their area. In the same line Nigusse (2009) stated that decentralization in Ethiopia suffer from lack of finance and skilled human resource that led to weak organizational and

www.ijmer.in 42



institutional capacity. This is also true in Mekelle city, especially in the KedamayWoyane local administration.

Lack of adequate number and skilled human resources is the main setback for the local administration in social service delivery. To begin, the human resources problem of the local administration is evident from the structural organization of the sector offices. Both health and education sectors are organized under one office. All the mandates and functions given to the local administration on health and education are performed with one office. The local administration permanently administrated ten employee for delivering both health and educational services. In the interview, all respondents’ mentioned lack of human resource as one of the main problems in the local administration social service delivery. That is, the local administration did not have the required number of employees and skilled experts to enforce its

mandate on social service delivery.

There is critical human resources shortage in the KedamayWoyanelocal administration. Most sector offices are run by two or three employees and, like health and education, two sector offices also run under one office. This implies a critical lack of human resources on the local administration. The lack of human resources hasan implication on the delivery of social service such as health and education. Most of the key informants in the interview believed that lack of human resources prevented the local administration to achieve its educationalgoal. They also believed that most tasks on health remain unfinished due to lack of human resources. Lack of capacity especially lack of capable human resources severely affect social service delivery of health and education. From the interview, it is evident that the local administration do not directly administered and controlled human resource. That is, all the employees are directly administrated by the zone not by the local

administration. In the same manner Ahmad etal (2005) found that, in most developing countries, administrative decentralization lag behind

www.ijmer.in 43



since it is characterized either by de concentration ( local service provider continue to be full employee of the upper tier) or delegation

( local government has limited ability to hire and fired employees).

S.No Description Strongl

y agree

Agree Undecid

ed Disagree

Strongly disagree

1

The local administration human resource has the necessary qualification to deliver social services

No

% No

% No

% No % No %

1 3.3 7 23.3 1 3.3 18 60 3 10

2

The local administration has the required number of personnel’s to deliver social services 1 3.

3 12 40 2 6.7 11 36.7 4 13.3

From the total employee who participated in this study, 21 (70%) disagreed on the idea that the local administration has the required number of personnel for delivering social services. In terms oflocal employee’s qualification, 15(50%) believed that they do not have the necessary qualification to deliver social services 2(6.7%) remain undecidedand the rest agreed on the local employees havingthe required qualification to deliver social service. Based on the interview most of the participants believed that relative to the mandate the local administration assigned, the local administration has limited human

resources in terms of both number and skill.

Within the local administration there are lower tier of government known as the Kebelle that serves as main unit for citizen mobilization and participation. These administration units hardly established as public institutions since they are characterized by absence of human resource and financial means to run their daily activity. The study found that Based on the interview, Kebelles do not have adirect role on

www.ijmer.in 44



education or health assigned by the local administration. Their main responsibility is to mobilize the local community to participate on health and education plan. One such activity on education is to coordinate the Parent Teacher Association (PTA) meeting between the local administration and the local community. In health, Kebelles are engaged on mobilizing and registering the local community to participate in the health extension packages. However compared to their responsibilities, Kebelles suffer from both lack of required number and skill of human resources. Based on table 4.5, 17 (56.7%) believed that Kebelles lack the required staff number to perform their function and 17 (56.7%) also agreed that Kebelles lack the required administrative capacity to fulfill their function and responsibilities.

A Local government / administration should have its ownrevenue and finance to provide social services to its local people. Ekpo (2007), stated

that decentralized administration need enough financial and staff resources and legal authority to raise revenue to support its expenditure requirements. Ahmad etal (2005) also argued that the assignment of responsibility between different tiers of government must be balanced with the assignment of finance in order to have a direct impact on service delivery. The KedamayWoyane local administration does not administer its revenue and expenditure to run the social service delivery. It is dependent on the city administration for its entire health and education expenditure requirement. Based on the interview sample, most of the top officials agreed that the local administration is completely depending on the city administration for any of its expenditure on social service delivery requirement. This implies that the local administration do not have any financial empowerment to perform its social service delivery.

As a conclusion, Ethiopia urban public institutions are characterized by

dare shortage of human and financial resources. There is a visible gap the mandate assigned to the public institutions and the resource they

www.ijmer.in 45



have at disposal. Public service delivery of health and education are vital to any citizen and should have the priority any government. However in the urban local administration of Ethiopia poor organizational design and lack of skilled human resource with lack of financial resource hamper the delivery of this basic public service. Proper delivery of such service needs proper institutional capacity equipped with qualified human resource and adequate financial resource.

Reference

1. Akpan H. Ekpo(2007) Decentralization and Service Delivery; A Framework . African Economic Research Consortium, Nairobi, Kenya.

2. Chigweyna Average(2010) Decentralization Without Devolution and its Impact on Service Delivery; the case of Masvingo Municipality in ZimbabweJournal of Sustainable Development in Africa vol.12 No. 1, 2010

3. Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopa Constitution(1995)

4. JmieBoex and SerdarYilmaz(2010) Analytical Framework for Assessing Decentralized Local Governance and the Local Public Sector. Urban Institute Center on International Development and Governance

5. KumeraT.K(2007) Decentralized Service DeliveryIn Decentralization in Ethiopia. Forum of Social Science, AdisAbeba, Ethiopia

6. Mark Robinson (2003) Participation, Local Governance, and Decentralize Service Delivery. Institute of Development Studies, Sussex, UK

www.ijmer.in 46



7. MeheretAyenew(2007) Rapid Assessment of Woreda

Decentralization. In Decentralization in Ethiopia. Forum of Social Science, AdisAbeba Ethiopia

8. MeheretAyenew(1999) The City of Addis Ababa: Policy Options

9. for the Governance and Management of a City with Multiple Identity

10. Ministry of work and urban development (2007) plan for urban development and urban good governance.

11. Ministry of work and urban development (2008) urban local government development project; operational manual

12. SerdarYilmaz and VarshaVenugopa(2008) Local Government

Discretion and Accountability in Ethiopia. The World Bank,Andrew Young School of Policy Studies,International Studies Program, Georgia State University September 21-23, 2008

13. Tegeng egebreg zeabher and Kassahun Berhanu(2007) Decentralization in Ethiopia. Forum of Social Science, Adis Abeba, Ethiopia

14. Tesfaye (2007) Decentralized Service delivery in Education. In Decentralization in Ethiopia. Forum of Social Science, Adis Abeba, Ethiopia Tigray Regional State Constitution(1997)

15. UN-HABITAT(2002) Local Democracy and Decentralization in East and Southern Africa. Experiences From Uganda, Kenya, Botswana, Tanzania and Ethiopia . UN-HABITAT, Nairobi, Kenya

16. UN-HABITAT (2008)Ethiopia Urban Profile. United Nations

human settlement program, Nairobi, Kenya.

www.ijmer.in 47



A CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF PRE-SOCRATIC NOTIONS OF

THE SOUL (From Thales’ to Anaxagoras)

Velpula Sunkanna Department of Philosophy

School of Humanities Hyderabad Central University

Gachibowli, Hyderabad

In contemporary philosophical world, whether it is western or Indian or any parts of the world, it is very hard to find the soul in philosophical discussions. Though the word soul faded from philosophical discussions but still it occupied central place in spiritual

world. All the great philosophers and their philosophies have had their periods of popularity and all are being challenged in later period. They were not only challenged but also refuted; in the same way the notion of soul was challenged and refuted.

But philosophically no one would attempt to deny that the Greeks have left an imperishable legacy of literature and art to the European world. To understand the legacy of Greeks I want to analyze their way of explaining mental phenomena. But one important thing I want to mention here is that “in every department of Grecian speculation we find that mental inquiries were viewed through the

medium of theological principles.”1

At the same time a kind of Animism2 was very much popular and widely spread in ancient Greek. It was not limited to any particular region or religion; it was there in every corner of the world. Whether it was an “Innate Idea” or this kind of idea was “simultaneously developed in all the regions of the world” is an unanswerable question. But it was one of the central issues of that society, without which neither philosophical, nor political, nor religious and nor even social issues were shaped.

www.ijmer.in 48



Though it is a common thing in all religious, philosophical,

political and cultural issues but we will get different answers from different parts of the world when we ask certain questions like, what is the soul? Whether human beings only have souls or all other animals too? If there are souls, what are the features of the soul? What about death? Whether the soul survives death or not? If the soul survives death then either it goes to heaven or transmigrates into another body? What do they look like? Where are they located? All these questions were terrifying the ancient people.

The Hebrew authors of the Old Testament and the Homeric author of the Iliad and the Odyssey repeatedly call attention to the

cognitive and affective aspects of human nature which indicate an inner, personal dimension, something which is hidden from others but open to one’s own awareness.3 This is the period from which we have received the concept of the soul. The Hebrews are one of the earliest people to formulate such a concept. The ancient Hebrews say that it is the soul in a body which makes it alive, makes it a living thing rather than a dead thing.

The Psyche (Soul) was not new thing for ancient Greek thinkers; pre-philosophical Greek attitude toward the soul and its

prospects for surviving bodily death found expressions in Homer. For Homer, Psyche life principle which keeps the human being alive. Concerning the Psyche Homer says that it leaves the Body at the moment of death, and then it flutters about in Hades; “The Psyche of the living and of the dying man; for one thing, it leaves its owner when

he is dying, or when he loses consciousness.”4

According to this fragment consciousness is not the quality of Psyche, which is the central entity in contemporary philosophy of Mind. According to the Homeric poems the Psyche leaves the Body through the mouth or through the wound. Homeric writings show that the

www.ijmer.in 49



Psyche is similar to the breath. Animals too possess the Psyche; the way the Psyche enters and leaves the human Body in the same way it enters and leaves the animal Body. In case of consciousness a clear-cut division was made by Homer between the Self, Psyche and the Body. Body alone cannot hold consciousness, at the same time the Psyche too

cannot hold consciousness alone but as an animating principle the Psyche can only keep Body alive and also keep it motion.

Like Psyche, there are two other words which were used in Homer writings to explain the non-physical activities of the man, they are Thymos and Nous. Some philosophers as well some philologists claim that the word Thymos stands for ‘motion and emotion’ whereas

the word Nous stands for ‘the recipient of images or understanding.’ The Nous may be generally said to be in charge of intellectual matters and Thymos is the in charge of emotional things. Plato’s Phaedrus and The Republic discuss Thymos as one of the three constituent parts of human Psyche. Though some available fragments contradicts with each

other in some issues but one thing is very clear; the motion, emotion, life, consciousness, intellect, etc. are attributes of the Psyche, Thymos and Nous.

The philosophical notions of the Soul

Thales of Miletus:

We are not sure whether there were any philosophical notions of the soul before Ionians but Ionians notion of the soul had become the base for the philosophical investigations of further generations. We believe that the philosophical understanding of the soul and mental phenomena begins from Thales. He was the 7th century B.C. philosopher who tried to explain the nature of the world without appealing to the wills and whims of anthropomorphic and Homerian Gods. Thales was considered as one of the Seven Sages of Greece; he

was also regarded by many philosophers as the father of philosophy,

www.ijmer.in 50



most notably Aristotle5. Bertrand Russell also says that philosophy begins with Thales.6 Though none of his writings transmitted directly from him but we have some information regarding his philosophy through some of his successors. Plutarch, a Greek historian from 1st century A.D, defines Thales notion of the soul as it is a thing possessing self-conditioned or perpetual motion. Aristotle also attributes the same feature in ‘De Anima’, that, “Thales, too, apparently conceived soul as a cause of motion, if it be true that he affirmed the loadstone to possess soul, because it attracts iron.”7

But Strabo, another Greek historian from 1st century B. C., attributes motion to the Nous (Mind) but not to the Psyche. He says; “that Mind, according to Thales, was that which contained self-will or motion.”8 Though these statements are contradicting with each other but we do not have further evidences to understand it exactly. Aristotle says that, the Soul is intermingled in the universe, which is perhaps the reason why Thales also thought that all things are full of Gods.9 Here we have to add another important thing that the Nous of the world is God.10

This whole thing allows us to suppose that Mind and God were used to refer to one thing only. There is a possibility to conceive that the Mind/God is the source of knowledge. This Mind (Nous/God) can animate the Self or awake the Self but cannot hold consciousness. So neither Body, nor Soul, and nor Mind alone can have consciousness.

According to Thales, water is the principle of things, water is the origin of all things, everything emerges from water and everything will return to water; moreover, all things ultimately are water. Without water there will be no life, without the soul there will be no motion and without Mind there will be no self-will. The eternal principle moist cannot hold consciousness because Body cannot have motion without the soul, so if a motionless Body holds consciousness then all other

things, which do not have motion, also should have consciousness which is absurd. Without moist there can be neither cognition nor

www.ijmer.in 51



perception. So the integration and coordination of the Mind, Body, Soul and Moisture is responsible for the operation of cognition and perception. In the available fragments there is nothing about the word ‘Self’ but for the understanding of consciousness I want to apply here. It would seem that Thales might have thought that the Self has Mind, Body, Soul and Moisture as integral parts and has consciousness of its

own and of the external world. It seems these four are necessary conditions to have consciousness. Attributing consciousness to either one of the four integral parts of the Self may lead us away from Thales’ point of view. Thales was the first person to hold the soul as immortal.

Pherecydes of Syros:

Pherecydes was 6th Century B.C. Greek Philosopher. Though some sources shows that Thales was the first person to hold the soul as immortal but some other sources shows that; “Pherecydes centuries later was routinely recognized by Latin writers as the first author to

hold that the human soul was immortal.”11 The Greek historian Herodotus says that for the first time it was Egyptians who embrace the Psyche of man as immortal. It is very difficult to identify who were the first to hold the soul as immortal. But I feel that, what they have said about it is more important for philosophy than who said it first. The immortal soul, according to Pherecydes, passes from one Body to another after the death of the flesh. The human soul can enter into an animal and vice versa.

What we can understand here is that there is not much difference between Thales and Pherecydes. Pherecydes brought a change in Greeks thought by claiming that the soul transmigrate from one Body to another. Though some myths and religious beliefs involved in Thales and Pherecydes philosophical explanations of the soul but their contribution means a lot for further philosophical investigations. Though Thales and Pherecydes explanations of evolution portray them

www.ijmer.in 52



as materialist philosophers but they did not give up the non-materialistic aspects of the man and other beings. Thales holds the immortality of the soul in Hades which was the traditional view of ancient Greek whereas Pherecydes holds the immortality of the soul in this world itself by transmigrating from one Body to another Body. Since they are giving importance to both, materialistic and non-materialistic aspects of man, they remained in the realm dualism.

Anaximenes:

Anaximenes (556 B.C.), a companion of Anaximander, holds the view that the underlying nature is one. He followed Anaximander and said that the first principle of all things is infinite. But Anaximenes has taken a step forward and specified what that first principle is; he has

taken Air as the underlying principle of the universe, from which all things are engendered, into which all things are resolved. Like Thales, Anaximenes also has taken materialist stand in explaining evolution by taking Air as the first principle. But it doesn’t mean that he was totally away from the myth-based beliefs because at that time there was a traditional belief that Air or Breath is the soul-stuff, which is the carrier of consciousness.

The relation which he explains between the individual Psyche and worldly Psyche is totally an abstract conception. The inside Breath (Psyche) and outside the Wind (worldly Psyche) are the synonyms of the vivifying principle Air but whatever he said about their relation and their functioning is totally an abstract notion. But he believed that the breath is connected to Psyche because the Air is nothing but Psyche;

“Our Psyche, being Air or breath, holds together and controls us (our bodies) like Wind (breath) or Air enclose the whole world and controls it. The Air holds us from inside and the world from outside.”12 This way of understanding the soul and the nature was also flourishing in ancient Indian tradition. In Vedas, the oldest scriptures of Hinduism, the

www.ijmer.in 53



Atharva Veda says that Prāna (life or breath) personified as the supreme spirit. This Sanskrit word Prāna is equivalent of Greek word Pneuma, stands for the principle, which supports the entire universe. “Prāna, in whose power is this all, who is the Lord of all, on whom all is based……in air is what has been and what is to be; everything is based

on air” (Atharva Veda 11.4). Even if we go back to the Homeric period we can see the traditional or the religious aspect of the concept of the Psyche. Homer also explains the Air/Breathe as Psyche.13

Though Homeric way of understanding Air/Breath was not philosophical but it seems to me that the traditional view of the Psyche has been repeated once again by Anaximenes from a philosophical

perspective. The life principle and motive force of man is, traditionally, Pneuma;14 Pneuma is being treated as Wind in external world, so the life-principle of the external world is Pneuma. Therefore, Wind, Breath, Air is the life and substance of all things. Here Air holds the Body means that the Psyche possesses the Body, that is, it permeates the whole Body and thus controls it.

Hermotimus:

Another philosopher Hermotimus (520 B.C) was a distinguished early metaphysician, and first proposed the idea of soul being fundamental in the cause of change. He proposed that physical entities are static, while the soul causes the change. That is why Robert Blakey mentioned that Hermotimus entertained the idea that the soul often quits the Body, and wanders to a great distance from it, in order to obtain that knowledge which is denied to it whilst residing in its earthy tenement.15

Here we have to seriously look into the idea that the soul often quits the

Body. It doesn’t mean that the soul frequently leaves the Body, but it only mean that it leaves the Body at the time of death. Then it wanders far from the earthly attachments. After the wandering it returns back

www.ijmer.in 54



to the earthly attachments by entering in another Body. According to him the soul is animating principle that brings motion into the Body. For him the soul is immortal and transmigrates from one body to another.

Pythagoras of Samos

Pythagoras (570-c. 495 BC) was a Great Philosopher, mathematician and founder of great religious movement called Pythagoreanism. Though Pythagoras inspired legends but personally wrote nothing. We have very little reliable information about Pythagoras from the secondary sources. The central purpose of Pythagoras was to purify the soul of man and to guarantee a happy immortality by a special discipline.

They believed that physical sensuality contaminates the soul; the noblest means of purification is intellectual activity that liberates the soul. Purification partly consisted in the observance of ascetic rules of abstinence from certain kinds of food. Pythagoreans are not only known for their theory of the transmigration of souls but also know for the theory of numbers that constitute the true nature of things which is connected with the human life and the universe at large. Pythagoras proposed divine Fire as the cosmogenetic God, the source of immortal life and the substance of the universe.

On Earth we men are imprisoned, being surrounded by bodies, by constant change and imperfection; but we have Life (Psyche) within us,

and are therefore akin to the One Fire. The One, mixture of everything, is being treated as God. According to Pythagoras the purest part of the life or soul within us is Mind (Nous) or reason, and we may speak of it as a fragment of the One which is the source of all order.16 Mind has been treated as part of the divine One and the source of knowledge; One produces many particular things.

www.ijmer.in 55



Our souls are immortal but the portion of the One that they contain is too feeble to make this binding with our bodies permanent. Its dissolution is the ‘release’ in death. All souls come from the One divine source and runs through all human forms of life. Each soul involved in the conflict of good and evil seeks to escape from the purgatorial round of lives and deaths into a better world of unity and rest. If Body is capable of having life could serve as the home of Soul and the Soul

comes from the divine and returns to the divine. The Soul that is the center of the personality during life.

They believe that the Soul after withdrawing from one Body will transmigrate into another. The activity of transmigration will be going on as long as the soul has bodily attachments and worldly desires. But there is a possibility to overcome the wheel of transmigration. “The power of mental concentration, and of metaphysical abstraction, are

therefore the highest intellectual gifts, and quietism, or the absorption of our nature in God, is the last stage of virtue. ‘The end of man,’ said Pythagoras is God.”17 The soul persists when Body dies; those persisting souls that were pure remain permanently with God. But death, in the wheel of transmigration, is merely withdrawal of the

animating force from the Body. On the basis of the above reference also we can establish the end of the man is God and the purity of the soul means making itself like the One supreme God, who is perfect purity. In this way there will be possibility for Soul to attain purity.

“Our Souls are deathless; when they leave their former home, always new habitations welcome them to live afresh.”18 But this wheel of

transmigration is to help the Soul to become pure to join with the perfect purity that is One supreme God. After the transmigration whether it will get higher order life or lower order life will depend on the purity of the soul. Every entrance of the soul into a Body is a punishment imposed by the One supreme God, and resembles entrance

into a tomb or a prison; if the soul fails in purity, it may be sent into

www.ijmer.in 56



the Body of a lower animal, and if its failure be grave, it will undergo especial punishment in Hades. The whole school of Pythagoras made chastity one of its leading virtues, and even labored for the creation of a monastic system.19 That’s why the whole school of Pythagoras objected to sacrifices.20 The division of Mind (Nous), Body (Soma) and Soul (Psyche) is clearly seen in Pythagorean philosophy. Not only the

division but also the attributes of the Mind, Body and Soul are shown such as that the Soul as psychic faculty, Mind as the rational faculty and the Body as having sensations and thought.

Heraclitus of Ephesus:

Heraclitus (535–475 BC) for the first time in the history of Greek thought gave much importance for the Self; a single, vital faculty through which sense-perception, language, ethical behavior, and ultimately death, must be understood. He was concern about the Self that is why he declared that; I have searched myself (Fragment-101)

and learned everything about myself. Though he was titled as dark philosopher or weeping philosopher due to his loneliness and misanthropy of his philosophy but his philosophical notions were very deep; his statement that “you cannot step into the same river twice” (Fragment 91) was the fundamental argument for his philosophy. It means everything is in a constant flux, all is becoming. It is similar to

the teachings of the Buddha who flourished around the time of Heraclitus.

If we want to talk about any aspect of his philosophy then first of all we have to talk about the notion of Logos. Logos, the central principle of his philosophy, is the dynamic unity of reality; “Logos was a

commonly used Greek word. It basically meant ‘what is said,’ that is, ‘word’ or ‘story’; however, even in ordinary Greek speech it had rich ramifications of meaning.”21 The Logos, through which all things come to be, is eternal; it is a pattern or law, or a directing force. The

www.ijmer.in 57



apprehension of the Logos is wisdom, and the chief content of the Logos is that all things are one. According to Heraclitus the human nature has no real understanding but the divine nature only has (F-78). The divine nature of man Psyche, which is inseparable from the Logos, can have the real understanding of Logos. There are few fragments which give us clear view of Logos; “Listening to the Logos rather than to me, it

is wise to agree that all things are in reality one thing and one thing only.”22 “Things which are put together are both whole and not whole, brought together and taken apart, in harmony and out of harmony; one thing arises from all things, and all things arise from one thing.”23 “As a single, unified thing there exists in us both life and death, waking and

sleeping, youth and old age, because the former things having changed are now the latter, and when those latter things change, they become the former.”24 Finally, we can conclude that the Logos is not only a speech but also a Speaker.

It is obvious to Heraclitus that the world is uncreated; “World no god or man made, but it always was, is, and will be, an ever living fire,

being kindled in measures and being put out in measures.”25 If we take it in this sense it has so much of similarity with the New Testament of Bible, which says that: In the beginning there was the word, and the word was with God, and the word was God.26 One group of Christian

people identifies this Logos as Theos.27 Some others identify Jesus as the incarnation of the Logos. “The Logos can ‘hold’ and be ‘heard’ and ‘understood’ and things ‘come to be in accordance with it’ (F.1), that it is ‘common’ (F.2), that it is wise to ‘listen to it’ (F.44), and that it can be ‘so deep’ (F.104) that its limits can never be discovered.”

Man consists of Body (Soma) and the soul (Psyche); the soul is endowed with qualities which differ radically from the physical qualities. The Psyche itself is Fire and it is distributed throughout the Body and it is un-measurable. Changes in it are manifested by waking, sleeping, and death; these conditions depend on the ration of moisture

www.ijmer.in 58



to fire in the soul. Like cosmic fire, soul fire is in some ways nourished by moisture, although how this happens is not explicitly described. It seems likely that Heraclitus envisions two kinds of death for the Psyche: one by fire for those cut down by violence in the prime of life (whose Psyche is fiery) and the other one is by water for those whose Psyche gradually become moist through disease and degeneration. Aristotle says that, “Heraclitus identifies it with the vapour from which

he derives all other things, and further says that it is the least corporeal of things and in ceaseless flux.”28 The soul is Fire and the Fire is endowed with rationality, which has the fullest expression in the existence of the soul.

Since Logos is inherent in everything including the soul, we cannot discover the limits of the soul, not even if you travel every road: so deep is its Logos. Since the Fire is ever-living and constitutes the states of

Psyche, it will be there as eternal life-force. That is why Heraclitus says that the soul is exhalation of which everything else is composed. The exhalation must be dry because Aristotle assumes that there are two kinds of exhalation. Heraclitus’s statement also supports the assumption of Aristotle that a dry soul is wisest and best. And it follows

that “a drunken man has to be led by a boy, whom he follows stumbling and not knowing whither he goes, for his soul is moist” (F-117). It is death to souls becoming Water, and it is death to Water to become Earth. Conversely, Water comes into existence out of Earth, and Souls out of Water (F-36). Fire lives in the death of Earth, Air in the death of

Fire, Water in the death of Air, and Earth in the death of Water (F-76). The Human nature (Body) has no real understanding; only the divine nature (Psyche) has it (F-78).

Understanding comes when one turns from the outward, from the objects of inquiry, and contemplates oneself; in so doing one discovers one's true nature, the key by which all else makes sense. On the other hand the dry souls only reach to the Heads. The immortal souls become

www.ijmer.in 59



mortal when joined with mortal bodies and they live the death of these mortal bodies; that is, because human life always meets with death, human life is life unto death, human life is death. Knowing the Logos is the ultimate wisdom for the soul. If the soul fails in understanding the Logos then it cannot attain immortality after the departure from the Body, otherwise it turns into physical matter.

The soul will attain afterlife only if it is pure at the time of departure from the body. The soul’s purity determines what happens to it at

death. When it comes to the matter of dead Body then Heraclitus says that, corpses should be thrown out quicker than dung. One important statement I want to make here is that though the Soul departs from the dead Body, but the Logos still remains in it because Logos is inherent in every matter or the object of the world.

Parmenides:

Parmenides (515-450), follower and disciple of Xenophanes,29 was another important philosopher of ancient Greek. He was the first person in the history of ancient Greek who proposed the problem of Being. “Plato saw in Parmenides a forerunner of the ontological and

epistemological distinctions central to his own philosophical outlook.”30 On Nature is the only know work of Parmenides and the central theme was that “only Being is; not-being cannot be.” This “Being that is” turns out to be a single, undivided whole, alike in every direction and throughout, one and unchanging. His deduction of the nature of reality led him to conclude that “the reality (is), and must be, a unity in the

strict sense and that any change in it (is) impossible and the world as perceived by the senses is unreal.”

But here we have to observe an important aspect which was adopted by Parmenides that radically differs with Heraclitus’s point of view. “Being is an expression for saying ‘what is’ and, as Parmenides

saw it, what is, simply is, and what is not, simply is not.”31 The Being is

www.ijmer.in 60



the representation of the reality. The fact of Being manifests itself in that which is; if there is that which is, then the fact of being is assumed and what is not there is simply not the reality. He further says that, “Without the fact of being, there would not be things that are.”32 So Being is the word which Parmenides wants to use as a synonym for the ancient Greek use of ‘to be.’ He used it to refer that there is or that

exists, or that is, or that is being, or that there is (a) presence. But, what is that there is? His intention was not to refer to the primordial entity or the root of the present nature through this Being.

There is a commonsensical way to define it in a ordinary sense: there is being (just as “it is raining” means “there is rain—now”), it is to say that the fact of being is present. The exact concept of ‘Being’ we possess even in another way too, which is, the negation of not-being. So

the concept of Being can be understood through these two formulas namely, impossibility of non-existence and necessity of existence. Being is ungenerated and the world is full; it consists of one undivided block, since any division into parts could only be due to separation of the parts by the void. In this full world there is no room for motion.

When it comes to the matter of what is, according to Parmenides,

is what can be spoken and thought of. The whole subject of Parmenides’s philosophy lies between what is and what can be talked and thought about. Parmenides believed that the soul is Earth and Fire. For him the soul and Mind are the same. Thought is the essence of the Mind/Soul. He speaks of sensation and thought as the same. We can put it in another way that the ‘thinker’ and the ‘thought’ are one and

the same.

Hence memory and forgetfulness too are due to these two elements through their mixture. In general, everything that exists has some awareness.33 Perception and understanding have entirely physical causes, and their clarity or otherwise depends on the condition of the

www.ijmer.in 61



Body. Preponderance of Fire or Light in the perceiving subject brings about better and clearer perception, and since like is known by like, this means the perception of more light and less darkness.34 However, it must not be forgotten that all this takes place in the deceitful world of seeming. On the nature of the Psyche there are only a few fragments of indirect information, not altogether consistent. But it is said to be Fiery, as one would expect, but also, as I have quoted, to be made of Fire and Earth, and located in the breast. This ought to be taken with

the statement that Parmenides, Empedocles and Democritus identified Mind and Psyche, and according to them all living creatures are with reason.35

Mind present to humans; it is the constitution which thinks and thinking is governed by excess. Aristotle quotes these lines to support his claim that Parmenides did not distinguish between thought and perception. Parmenides affirms that Nous, or the cognitive organ of

being, is capable of knowing all there is of Being. The transcendent can be grasped by the Nous because the Nous is an organ of Being, just as the Logos in an attribute of Being as well.36 For thinking and Being are the same. Thought and Being exist eternally in his formulation, and whatever is possible for a human being to think is identical to what is possible to be because the Nous is a faculty of Being through which its

Logos is articulated.37 The important formulation here is that Nous for Parmenides lies outside the narrow confines of human attribute. The Nous is similar in kind to the idea of Universal Mind. It seems like the purely Fiery part is reason, and every living creature possesses some quota of warmth, rationality may have been thought to be only question of degree.

Anaxagoras

Anaxagoras (500-428 B.C.) is also an important pre-Socratic

philosopher and Scientist. His views on Mind (Nous) are few and

www.ijmer.in 62



limited, and they are handed down to us by Aristotle and Sextus Empiricus. The way we treat Descartes as the first person who introduced extremely a unique dualistic approach in philosophy of Mind, in the same way, even though the concept of Mind was there before Anaxagoras, the great importance was brought to the notion of Mind by Anaxagoras. But his concept of the Mind is totally different from the present concept of the Mind. Anaxagoras’ theory of Mind follows from his theory of cosmology. By using Mind in the material

sense, like Parmenides, he makes us to think and find the essence of Life, essence of the Motion and the Emotion, essence of the Knowledge and the Self in the matter itself through the Mind. One of the main concerns of Anaxagoras is to refute the views of Pythagoras and Heraclitus. He asserts that physical matter is infinitely divisible, that is, it is composed of all sensible bodies, and that the principles of all things were infinite in number. He gave up the idea of the oneness of a primary substance and accepted a plurality of ultimate elements of the world. According to Anaxagoras things neither come into existence nor annihilated, but remain everlasting; “coming-to-be and passing-away

are combining and dissociating; no thing comes to be or passes away, but is mixed together and dissociated from the things that are. And thus they would be correct to call coming-to-be mixing-together and passing-away dissociating.”38 It’s all about interdependence of the elements, the interdependence of the elements implies that no particles exists alone,

and that each belongs to a molecular union (as we should call it today) in which all the elements are represented. There are in all the grown-together (molecule) many and manifold seeds (Moiras) and seeds39 of all elements.

Anaxagoras introduced the cosmological notions of Mind. We can even call Anaxagoras the father of philosophy of Mind. No single philosopher before him gave this much importance for the notion of Mind. Though they have attributed some activities to the Mind but the

www.ijmer.in 63



main focus and importance was given to the Psyche. Anaxagoras made Mind as an important element in his cosmic speculation as Heraclitus made Psyche. For Anaxagoras, “Nous is itself infinite in extent, self-ruled, and mixed with nothing, alone by itself. It is the finest and purest of all things, it has knowledge about and power over all things and its

power is manifest through its control of movement in living things.”40 He imposes Nous over the other elements as a ruler element. It is the only one beyond the relation of interdependence. Nous is the only element thoroughly pure, not mixed with any of the others. “Nous likewise, exactly as the other elements, has spatial extensiveness. Hence

Nous can readily be called, in a quite literal sense, not only the purest, but even the “thinnest” of all the elements.”41 Nous is not a creator, everything is there as eternal. No element comes into existence nor is annihilated. Every (piece of) Nous is homogeneous, a larger as well as a smaller one. Nothing else, however, is homogeneous in itself, but its homogeneity does not depend on the unit of measurement. The elements are penetrable to each other means that they do not resist

each other. If Nous is mixable with the other elements, that is to say, if they are penetrable to Nous, it would not be able to rule over them, i.e., to move them. Anaxagoras maintains that there is nothing equal to Nous in power. The motive power of Nous is just an ingredient of Nous sovereign nature, it belongs to Nous. Nous is a being that rules out of an original plenitude of power of its own that is why it is an autocratic

being. Nous is not omnipotent; it is only the most powerful and its power has limitations. Nous is cognizant of all the possibilities of development; that is why Nous has knowledge of itself and of all the other things. Nous is a being that works consciously. Nous, not being a creator, is only cognizant of what will result from his interferences. There are no isolated Nous-individuals; that the whole, boundless

Nous is still one and infinitely large being; that Nous is the only person in the whole Universe. Nous is the Life principle and is a regulating

www.ijmer.in 64



thing. “In everything there is a share of everything except Nous, but there are some things in which Nous, too, is present.”42

Nous is a rational moving principle, in a fragment (B12) Anaxagoras says that Nous controls all things that have Souls, and this suggests that it is therefore in those things. Nous is not to be

considered as simply one more ingredient among all the other or on an equal footing with them. Its role as mover and knower makes it significantly different form every other things. Nous is not the part of the original mixture as an ingredient, but is rather the ruler and controller of the ingredients. Anaxagoras, even though admitted that both Mind and Soul as of one nature and the power of knowing and that of moving both are one principle but distinguished the Soul from the Mind. "Psyche" is a designation for breath; not for the air exhaled

and inhaled, but for the respiratory movement, for breathing. From the linguistical standpoint, also, "psyche" is not a designation for a thing, originally, but a substantival designation for an occurrence.”43 All those having Psyche, a larger one as well as a smaller one, are ruled over by

Nous. Psyche served also as a representative name for the total of the somatic activity of Nous, for the total of the working-functions preserving the organism from decay. Touching (without penetrating) is a condition to Nous not only for moving the mereias (elements), but also for knowing and cognizing. Nous not only moves the things and not only knows the moved or touched, but also perceives and discerns

all possibilities hidden therein, and resolves accordingly. Anaxagoras maintains that the senses by themselves discern nothing, but transmit (all) to the Nous, as he makes Nous the principle of all. Which means that to Anaxagoras the senses are mere messengers, incompetent to discern and cognize the messages they convey to the Nous confined in the hollow spaces of the brain, and that these messages become sensations not until they are discerned and cognized by the little Nous-individual. According to Anaxagoras the only difference between death

www.ijmer.in 65



and sleep is that in death the embedding World-Nous entirely ceases to exercise Psyche, the working-functions, thereby abandoning the organism to decay; while sleep is conditional only upon a temporary relaxation of those functions exercised by the embedding Nous. Anaxagoras Nous functions very much like a God.

Conclusion:

As I have discussed the soul is an animating life principle for ancient Greeks. Though there are differences in attributing certain

features but they do not deny the soul as an important element. The features like, life, motion, emotion, reason, consciousness and transmigration are attributed to the soul alone in some philosophers’ point of view but according to some other philosophers point of view they are the features of Nous or Self. But one thing is true that the philosophy of Mind had its roots in ancient Greek philosophy and it emerged very slowly. In pre-Socratic era itself the philosophy of Mind has emerged but due to certain religious and cultural circumstances didn’t allow it to flourish. Parmenides and Anaxagoras reduced the importance of the soul and tried to ascribe the attributes of the soul to the Mind. Though the word Nous was used before Anaxagoras but, I believe that, the real foundation for the philosophy of Mind began from

Anaxagoras. For which purpose the word Mind is being used in contemporary philosophy of Mind, for the same purpose it was used in Anaxagoras philosophy around 2500 years ago.

Endnote

1. Robert Blakey. A.M., History of the philosophy of mind (London: Longman, Brown, Green and Longmans, 1850), vol. 1, p. 06. 2. Animism (belief in soul) derived from a Latin word called ‘Anima’ which means ‘Soul’ or ‘Self’. 3. Paul S. Macdonald, History of the Concept of Mind (USA: Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2003), p.2.

www.ijmer.in 66



4. Bruno Snell, The discovery of the mind: in Greek philosophy and literature (New York: Unabridged Dover Republication, 1982), p.08. 5. Metaphysics, Alpha, 983b18. 6. Bertrand Russell, The History of Western Philosophy (New York: Simon & Schuster, Inc., 1967), Chapter – 1. 7. R. D. Hicks, Aristotle’s De Anima (Cambridge: Cambridge University press, 1907), p. 17. 8. Robert Blakey. A.M., History of the philosophy of mind, Vol. 1 (London: C. F. Hodgson, Printer), p.08. 9. Aristotle, De Anima, 411a7. 10. Paul S. MacDonald, History of the Concept of the Mind (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2003-2007), p. 25. 11. Paul S. MacDonald, History of the Concept of the Mind (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2003-2007), p. 23. 12. Paul S. MacDonald, History of the Concept of the Mind (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2003-2007), p. 27. 13. Paul S. MacDonald, History of the Concept of the Mind (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2003-2007), p. 27. 14. An ancient Greek philosophical word for Breath and in a religious context it is used for Spirit or Soul. 15. Robert Blakey. A.M., History of the Philosophy of Mind, Vol. 1 (London: C. F. Hodgson, Printer), p.13. 16. Roy Kenneth Hack, God in Greek Philosophy To the Time of Socrates (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1969), p. 53. 17. William Edward Hartpole Lecky, History of European Morals from Augustus to Charlemagne, Vol. 1(New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1869), p. 347. 18. Charles H. Kahn, Pythagoras and Pythagoreans: A Brief History (Indianapolis/Cambridge: Hackett Publishing Company, Inc. 2001), p. 147. 19. William Edward Hartpole Lecky, History of European morals from Augustus to Charlemagne, Vol. 1 (New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1869), p. 109. 20. Ibid, p. 167. 21. The Cambridge Companion to Early Greek Philosophy, Edit. A.A. Long (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999), p. 91.

www.ijmer.in 67



22. Heraclitus, Fragments, Trans. Robinson. T.M. (London: University of Toronto Press, 1987), p.37. 23. Heraclitus, Fragments, Trans. Robinson. T.M. (London: University of Toronto Press, 1987), p.15. 24. Heraclitus, Fragments, Trans. Robinson. T.M. (London: University of Toronto Press, 1987), p.50. 25. Heraclitus, Fragments, Trans. Robinson. T.M. (London: University of Toronto Press, 1987), p. 25. 26. Bible, New Testament, John, Chapter 1, Vers-1(King James Version). 27. It is a Greek term which means Deity or God. 28. R. D. Hicks, De Anima: by Aristotle (Cambridge: Cambridge University press, 1907), p.17. 29. Xenophanes, a near contemporary of Pythagoras and fellow immigrant from Ionia to the Greek, was a groundbreaking thinker with wide-ranging interests who subsequently came to be seen as the founder of the “Eleatic School” of philosophy. 30. John Palmer, Parmenides & Presocratic Philosophy, (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009) p. 1. 31. Oliva Blanchette, Philosophy of Being: A Reconstructive Essay in Metaphysics (The Catholic University of America Press. 2003), p. 12. 32. Nestor-Luis Cordero, By Being, It is: The Thesis of Parmenides (Las Vegas: Parmenides Publishing, 2004), p. 60. 33. W.K.C. Guthrie, A History of Greek Philosophy, Vol. 2 (Great Britain: Cambridge University Press, 1965), p. 67. 34 . W.K.C. Guthrie, A History of Greek Philosophy, Vol. 2 (Great Britain: Cambridge University Press, 1965), p. 68. 35. W.K.C. Guthrie, A History of Greek Philosophy, Vol. 2 (Great Britain: Cambridge University Press, 1965), p. 69. 36. Richard G. Geldard, Parmenides and The Way of Truth (New York: Monkfish Publishing, 2007), p. 44. 37. Richard G. Geldard, Parmenides and The Way of Truth (New York: Monkfish Publishing, 2007), p. 44. 38. Patricia Curd, Anaxagoras of Clazomenae: Fragments and Testimonia (Canada: University of Toronto Press, 2007), p. 27.

www.ijmer.in 68



39. The term “Seeds” is not synonymous with “elements” but is used in its other meaning, that is, as a term for the particles of the elements. 40. Paul S. MacDonald, History of the Concept of the Mind (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2003-2007), p.31. 41. Felix M. Cleve, The Philosophy of Anaxagoras (New York: King’s Crown Press, Columbia University, 1949), p. 21. 42. Felix M. Cleve, The Philosophy of Anaxagoras (New York: King’s Crown Press, Columbia University, 1949), p. 97. 43. Felix M. Cleve, The Philosophy of Anaxagoras (New York: King’s Crown Press, Columbia University, 1949), p. 83.

www.ijmer.in 69



THE PERFORMNCE OF FOODGRAINS PRODUCTION IN

ANDHRA PRADESH: WITH REFERENCE TO THIRTEEN DISTRICTS IN A.P

Surya Prakasa Rao Gedela Associate Professor

G.V.P. College for Degree and P.G. Courses (A) Visakhapatnam

The era of 1990s can be marked as a decade of complete departure from the restriction and controlled economic system when Government of India introduced a number of new economic policies in the form of structural adjustment and macroeconomic stabilization programme to integrate the national economy. Though, the Indian economy had got its way of rapid economic growth right from the beginning of the 1980s, however, acceleration in the growth rate of GDP and per capita income have been realized only after 1991. This continuous and accelerated high growth of Indian economy provides a large base for being the 4th largest economy of the world in terms of PPP. But the main problem with this high rate of growth of GDP and per capita income is that it has been as explicit growth of the economy. The growth rate of agriculture production is generally judged by the performance of food grains and non-food grains production. From these both items of agriculture production of food grain is more significant due to two reasons. Firstly, it provides the base for subsistence by supplying basic food items and secondly, it is the only group of agricultural produce where Green Revolution was introduced firstly and more successfully. Its importance has also increased due to the inception of World Trade Organization (WTO) in 1995. At the time of independence agriculture occupied the most dominant place in the Indian economy by providing livelihood to about 70 percent of population and contributing about 48.6 percent of GDP (Sharma, P.N., 2005). After the introduction of Green Revolution, the scene has completely changed about the Indian agriculture has transformed from food shortage to self-reliance. This has become possible because of technological changes as well as the Government initiatives in form of various programmes. The new method of agricultural practice brought

www.ijmer.in 70



a drastic change in the productivity and production. More and more agricultural land is brought under cultivation with the help of improved irrigation facilities (with the help of assured means of irrigation) cheaply available chemical fertilizers and supply of high yield varieties of seeds in the market. Farm mechanization has also shortened the period of ploughing, sowing and harvesting process of agriculture. The implementation of land reform has further added a new dimension in Indian agriculture. Therefore, the successful implementation of Green Revolution and Land Reform not only increases the productivity but also increases the area under cultivation that paved the way for a higher growth of the agricultural sector

With the passage of time as the fruits of green Revolution and land reform reaped, the Indian agriculture moved from food shortage to self-sufficiency and from self-sufficiency to surplus agricultural produce. The period of 1980s has witnessed a higher increment in food grain population in comparison to increase in the population that increases the supply of food grains in the economy over the demand (Yadav Krishna Nand, 2005). Consequently, the items of food grains failed in attracting the appropriate prices in the market and therefore India was in a great need of new market for the food grains. The opening up of the economy in 1991 and the establishment of WTO in 1995 once again changed the life of Indian farmers. On the other hand, the new economic policies have increased the cost of agricultural inputs due to rise in the prices of high yielding of varieties of seeds (HYVS) fertilizers, insecticides, pesticides and water and electricity while on the other hand, WTO regime has opened the world agricultural market for Indian food grains.

Table-1: MAJOR FOODGRAINS PRODUCED STATES IN INDIA

State

2012-13

2013-14

Production (in Million

tonnes) Production % in India



Uttar Pradesh 50.75 19.73 50.05 18.9

www.ijmer.in 71



Punjab 25.54 9.93 28.9 10.92 Madhya Pradesh 23.69 9.21 24.24 9.15 Andhra Pradesh 18.66 7.26 20.1 7.59 INDIA 264.77 100 257.13 100

It can be observed from the Table-1 that the major food grains produced states in India during 2012 to 2014. The State of Uttara Pradesh has occupied a major role in production of major food grains, and it is interestingly observed that the Andhra Pradesh is noticed only 7.26 percentage of production among the four states.

TABLE-2: ANDHRA PRADESH SHARE IN PRODUCTION OF

FOOD GRAINS

It can be observed from the Table-2 that the share of production of Andhra Pradesh is declining trend for the period of 2012-13 to 2013-14. The state of Uttar Pradesh among the major states producing food grains is an increasing trend. With regard to Area, the share of Andhra Pradesh is increases from 5.70 percent to 6.04 percent during the period from 2012-13 to 2013-2014. (Table-3)

State

2012-13

2013-14





Uttar Pradesh 50.05 18.9 50.75 19.73 Punjab 28.9 10.92 25.54 9.93 Madhya Pradesh 24.24 9.15 23.69 9.21 Andhra Pradesh 20.1 7.59 18.66 7.26 INDIA 257.13 100 264.77 100

www.ijmer.in 72



TABLE-3: ANDHRA PRADESH SHARE IN INDIA’S AREA OF

FOOD GRAINS

2012-13 2013-14

Area (Million

Hectares)

Production (Million tonnes)

Yield (kg per

Hect.)

Area (Million Hectares)

Production (Million tonnes)

Yield (Kg per Hect.)

Andhra Pradesh 6.99 18.66 2670 7.61 20.1 2641

INDIA 5.70% 7.26% 6.04% 7.59%

In this context the study measured the change and instability in area, production and yield of food grains in Andhra Pradesh based on secondary data during 1994-95 to 2013-14.

The studies undertaken by research workers at various times mostly related to cereal crops like paddy and wheat and other crops. Thus considering the importance and need, the present study has been taken up to analyse the trends in the production of food grains in Andhra Pradesh.

Objectives:

The specific objectives of the study are as follows:

1. To study the trend and growth of area, production and productivity of food grains in Andhra Pradesh.

2. To examine the contribution of area, productivity towards increasing the production, the magnitude and instability for food grains.

Methodology and Sources:

The study is mainly based on secondary data. The time series data on area, production and yield of food grains for thirteen districts of Andhra Pradesh from 1994-95 to 2013-14 were collected from various publications and websites of Directorate of Economics and statistics at

www.ijmer.in 73



a glance and Statistical Abstracts of Andhra Pradesh, Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Andhra Pradesh.

Analytical Procedure:

In order to examine the nature of change of instability and degree of relationship in area, production and yield of food grains in Andhra Pradesh, various statistical measures such as mean, correlation coefficient and coefficient of variation were worked out.

The production of food grains is likely to be influenced by the area in order to estimate the parameter, simple linear regression models were fitted to examine the change of production by change of area.

The model can be expressed as

Y = α+ β X + u

Where Y= Production

α= Intercept

β = Regression coefficient

X = Area in hectares.

Compound Growth Rate Analysis:

The exponential function Yt = A Bt Ut was fitted the data to compute the compound growth rates.

Where Yt = Dependent Variable for which growth rate was estimated

A= Intercept

B= Regression coefficient

t= Years which takes values 1, 2,3,……….n

Ut= Disturbance term for the year t

www.ijmer.in 74



The equation was transformed into log-linear form for estimation purpose and was estimated using ordinary least squares technique. The compound growth rate (CGR) in percentage was then computed from the relationship.

Compound growth rate = (Antilog B – 1) *100

The compound growth rates were tested for their significance by student t- test.

An index of instability was computed for examining the nature and degree of instability in area, Production and productivity in Andhra Pradesh. The coefficient of variation (CV) was worked out for area, production and yield to measure of variability. However, simple coefficient of variation does not explain properly the trend component inherent in the time series data. Alternatively, the Coefficient of variation around the trend line rather than coefficient of variation around the mean was suggested by Cuddy-Della Valle (1978) as a better measure of variability.

Instability Index (IX) is given by the formula:

IX = CV (1 - R 2 )1/2 Where, CV – Coefficient of Variation (in percent)

R 2 – Coefficient of determination from a time trend regression adjusted by the number of degrees of freedom.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS: In order to overcome the problem of different units of physical

output while analysing the growth pattern of food grains crop Index numbers were constructed. Table.1 shows the index numbers of area, production and productivity of food grains of Andhra Pradesh during the period 1995-96 to 2013-14 with the base year as the triennium 1995-96 to 1997-98. These indices provide an idea about the growth in area, production and productivity of food grains in Andhra Pradesh.

It can be seen from the Table-4 that the indices provide an idea about the growth in area, production and productivity of food grains in Andhra Pradesh showed a decreasing trend over the study period i.e.1994-95 to 2013-14. The percentage change over the year during the

www.ijmer.in 75



study period for the area of food grains in Andhra Pradesh had negative values except 9 years i.e. 1997-98, 1999-2000, 2001-02, 2002-03, 2004-05, 2008-09 to 2012-13. The percentage change over the year during the study period for the production of food grains in Andhra Pradesh had negative values except 5years i.e.1997-98, 2002-03, 2009-10, 2011-12 to 2012-2013. The percentage change over the year during the study period for the productivity of food grains in Andhra Pradesh had negative values except 6 years i.e. 1997-98, 2002-03, 2005-06, 2009-10 to 2012-13.

Table-4: AREA PRODUCTION AND PRODUCTIVITY OF FOODGRAINS OF ANDHRA PRADESH OVER THE PERIOD FROM 1994-95 TO 2013-14 BASE YEAR INDEX TRIENNIUM 1994-95 TO 2013-14

YEAR Area

% Change

over the

Year Production

% Change

over the

Year Productivity

% Change

over the

Year 1994-95 98.64

96.54

97.90

1995-96 99.08 0.44 97.37 0.82 98.30 0.40 1996-97 102.26 3.18 106.08 8.71 103.76 5.46 1997-98 94.48 -7.77 92.40 -13.67 97.83 -5.93 1998-99 99.16 4.67 99.71 7.30 100.59 2.76

1999-2000 97.58 -1.57 107.01 7.30 109.70 9.11 2000-01 104.22 6.64 115.59 8.58 110.94 1.24 2001-02 100.62 -3.60 117.85 2.26 117.15 6.22 2002-03 87.08 -13.54 84.94 -32.90 97.57 -19.58 2003-04 91.70 4.62 100.02 15.07 109.10 11.52 2004-05 90.62 -1.09 116.84 16.82 128.98 19.88 2005-06 97.05 6.44 119.32 2.48 122.98 -6.00 2006-07 101.16 4.11 133.64 14.32 132.14 9.17 2007-08 105.27 4.11 147.97 14.32 140.60 8.45 2008-09 102.66 -2.61 154.18 6.21 150.22 9.62 2009-10 96.61 -6.05 131.83 -22.35 136.49 -13.73 2010-11 110.24 13.63 139.99 8.16 127.02 -9.47 2011-12 100.50 -9.74 138.05 -1.94 137.40 10.38 2012-13 99.93 -0.57 132.93 -5.12 133.06 -4.34 2013-14 102.96 3.03 147.72 14.79 143.52 10.46

www.ijmer.in 76



Correlation Analysis: A commonly employed method for

measuring the changing attitude of two variables i.e. Area and production is correlated. This procedure built on the rationale that if area influencing the production. The numerical evidence of this relationship is in the Table-5. The correlation coefficient of area and production of food grains over the period i.e.1994-95 to 2013-14 is 0.639, which is significant at 1% level of significance and it implies that the increment of area influence the production of food grains to increase.

Table-5: RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN AREA AND PRODUCTION OF FOOD GRAINS

Criteria Correlation

Coefficient Value P value Correlation 0.639** 0.002

** Significant at 1% level of significance and for two tailed test.

Regression Analysis: The simple linear regression was fitted for estimating the response of production of food grains due to change of their respective area. It was observed the Table-6 that the production of food grains was significantly increase by 4.718, a unit change in area in the study period.

Table-6: TESTING DEPENDENCE OF PRODUCTION ON FOODGRAINS AREA

Criteria constant Regression Coefficient P

value Regression -100.491 4.718** 0.002 ** Significant at 1% level of significance and for two tailed test

Compound Growth Rates:

Compound Growth rates gives an idea about the trend in the production.Table-7 shows that area, production and productivity of rice in Andhra Pradesh have no negative trends of 1.002, 1.025 and 1.022 percent per annum respectively over the study period.

www.ijmer.in 77



Table-7: GROWTHRATES OF AREA, PRODUCTION AND

PRODUCTIVITY OF FOODGRAINS

Growth Rates Area Production

Productivity

CGR Value 1.002 1.025 1.022

Coefficient of variation:

Coefficient of variation gives an idea about variability in agricultural production consists of variations in area, yield and their interactions. Variation in area under crop occurs mainly in response to distribution, timeliness and variations in rainfall and other climatic factors, expected price and variability of crop-specific inputs. All these factors also affect the variations in yield. Further, yield also affected by the outbreak of diseases, pests and other natural or man-made hazards like floods, droughts and many other factors. Different events may affect the crop area and yield in the same, opposite or different way. The instability of food grains, production and productivity are shown in Table-8.It is observed from the table that instability in area is lower compared to production and productivity of food grains in Andhra Pradesh.

Table-8: INSTABILITY IN AREA, PRODUCTION AND PRODUCTIVITY OF FOODGRAINS

Statistical tool Area Production Productivity

Arithmetic Mean 41.21 93.96 2273.2 Standard Deviation 2.218 16.38 332.52 Coefficient of Variation (CV) 5.38 17.43 14.63 Instability Index (IX) 5.38 13.11 9.23

www.ijmer.in 78



Conclusion:

From the above analysis, it can be concluded that about the growth in area, production and productivity of food grains in Andhra Pradesh showed a decreasing trend over the study period i.e.1994-95 to 2013-14. . The correlation coefficient of area and production of food grains over the period i.e.1994-95 to 2013-14 is 0.639, which is significant at 1% level of significance and it implies that the increment of area influence the production of food grains to increase. The Compound Growth rates of area, production and productivity of rice in Andhra Pradesh have no negative trends of 1.002, 1.025 and 1.022 percent per annum respectively over the study period. The instability in area is lower compared to production and productivity of food grains in Andhra Pradesh.

References:

1. Sharma ,P.N. (2005), ‗Globalisation of Indian Agriculture; Challenges and future Prospects‘ in Globalisation and contemporary Economic Scenario, Abhijeet Publications, New Delhi [4] Yadav, Krisha Nand (2005), ― An Assessment of Indian Agriculture Under WTO Regime in Sharma ,P.N. (2005), Globalisation and contemporary Economic Scenario, Abhijeet Publications, New Delhi

2. Cuddy. J.D.A.and Della. V.P.A.1978. Measuring of Instability of TIME Series Data. Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics.40 (1): 79-85

3. Shadmehri, M.T.A.2008. Estimating growth rates and decomposition analysis of agriculture production in Iran (1970-2000). Trends in Agriculture and Economics.1 (1): 14-26.

4. Siju, T. and S. Kombaraju, 2001. Rice production in Tamil Nadu: a trend and decomposition analysis. Agriculture Situation in India, 58(4): 143-145.

www.ijmer.in 79



5. Sikka, B.K. and C.S.Vaidya, 1985. Growth rates and cropping

pattern changes in agriculturein Himachal Pradesh.Agriculture Situation India, 36 (6):479-484.

6. Singh.A.J.and Byerlee.D.1990. Relative Variability in Wheat Yields across Countries and Over Time. Journal of Agricultureal Economics. 14(1): 21-32.

7. Ramesh Chand, S.S.Raju, Sanjeev Garg, lal ma ni pandey. Instability and regional variation in Indian Agriculture. National Centre for Agricultural Economics and Policy Research. New Delhi. Policy paper (26): page no. 30-31.

www.ijmer.in 80



प व ो सवः S.S.Sivaprasad Sharma

Research Scholar Department of Agama

R.S.Vidya Peettam, Tirupati

प चकृ यपरायणः िन यः िन कलः शा तः िन वक पः िनरामयः िनर जनः परमे रः भवित । त यानु हमेव मु ः इ यागमशा ेण ायते ।

आगमो नाम

आग यते मीयते हता हत ाि प रहारौ अनेन इित आगमः । परमे र य मुखप चके यः कािमका ा वंशित शवैागमाः आ वभूताः। ते वागमेष ुानयोग याचया इित च वारः पादाः व नते् ।

ानपादे – पदाथ या तगत ष ंश विन पणं व ते ।

योगपादे – यमिनयमा द अ ा गयोगमागण भगवतः सा न य साधन ंसु प ीकृतम ्।

कयापादे –कषणा-अचन-उ सव- ित ा ताः अंशाः ितपा नते्।

चयापादे – योपयोिगपा ाणां ल ण ंआलयिनमाणा द मान मान वषया किथताः।

एत म नेव यापादे सकलिन यनैिम को सवाराधनेषु समजिनत यूनाित र देष दू रकरणक प व ो सवः ितपा दतः।

उ सवः नाम—

www.ijmer.in 81



सवक याणिम यु ं उ सवं ान सभंवम।्

त मादु सवमा यातं व सरं ितव सरम ्1 ।। इित

एवं – उ द कृ वचनं सवो य उदा तः।

त मादु कृ य वादु सवः प रभा यते 2।।

एवं पेण उ सवश दाथः ा नैः सु प मिभ हतम ्

उ सवभेदाः ----

िन य-नैिम क-का यभेदै यते एष उ सवः ।

िन यं नाम – िन यं यमानष वधकालाचणा द याः एव िन यो सवः।

नैिम कं नाम – व सरे आयणे मासे प े वारे उपरागकाले यजमान य न े पव दनेषु यमानो सवः निैम को सवः।

का यो सवः – जीवानां वमनोभी फलमाि य यामानो सवः का यो सवः।

अघोरिशवाचाय वरिचत या म ोितकायाम ्----

एता शषेु वधो सवेषु अ यतमो भवित प व ो सवः । ननु प व ो सव य िन यनैिम कका य ाय ा येषु सवेषु कतम म न तभावः इित चेत ्उ यते –

प व ो सवकम िन यम ् उत ्न ताव न यम ्। न थमः सू रोपण य य दमनु ेय वेs प यहमननु ेय वात ्देववशा न या ैल ण य स वात ्

न िन यम ्।

www.ijmer.in 82



नाs प नैिम कम-् द ा ित यो योरेवनैिम कं इित द ा ित योः नैिम कयोः अकरण ाय य विचद प अ वा च।

ननु िनयतकाल वानैिम किमित चे न । अिनयतकाल य द ादेर प नैिमक व वणात ्उ ल ण याs प आप ेः । ातरा द िनयतकालकत यानां स याव दनाद नाम प नैिम क व स गात ् अित या े । एवं प व ो सवंकम न निैम कम ्।

न च का यम ्–

प व ो सव य कामनानधीन वात।् त ु अिभल षत साधनम ् । तदु म ्– अिनमा द सी यथ का य तद प व तरम ्इित

नाs प ाय म ्–

व हतेतर आचरण प य कमणः अन कुर सवतामा जनकम ् । न तु पूरकम ् । इदं प व ो सवकम तदभुयजनकम ् । तदु ं वा षका मु यते कृ य व लवात ्पूरणं वधेः इित । अतः प व ो सवः िन या गमेव भवतीित सारः । अत एव एवं िस ा ततं सकलागमसारस हे -----

िन यं का यं के प नैिम क च ाय ं त धेः पूरण च ।

इ थं ाहुदिशका ािभयु ाः िन या ग वा यमेत प व म ्।।

प व श दिन ः –

मनसा कमणा वचा य यूनं कमणाम प ।

पतना ायते य मात ्प व किमहो यते3 ।।

www.ijmer.in 83



एक मन ् संव सरे अनु ीयमनेष ु कमस ु मनसा कमणा वाचा वा य क च यूनं भवित चेत ् नरकपतनं जयते । त मात ् पतनात ् यते एत प व रोहणकम इित प व श दाथः । प व यः व समाने यः दोषे यः ायते अनेनेित प व म ्4 । एता श प व धारणया सहकृतोः उ सवः

प व ो सवः ।

प व भेदाः –

विस ः सविस ः इित प व रोहणकम य भेद य ंवतते ।

आ माथयजनमु यानु ीयमाना या विस ः इित। पराथयजनमु यानु ीयमाना सविस रित च भदे यं ितपा ते5 ।

प व ो सवकालः –

एता शप व कमणोनु ानं ादशमासेष ु म ये आषाढा दका का तमासे वेव कत यम ्। चतुद यामथवा अ यां प व कम कत यम ् । आषाढमासे चतुद यां अनु ीयते चेत ् पूवप े एवानु ेयम।् अविश ेषु मासेषु उभयोर प प योः कतु श यते । त ा प कृ काद पतः प ा नानु ेयिमित प व रोहण य कालः ितपा ते6 ।

प व त तुस या –

प व ारोहणकम युपयु यमानं प व पदवा यं माला प ं व तु ौमसू ेण वा कापाससू ेण वा िनमात यम ्। तत ्सू ं गुण ं गुणीकृ य

अ म ेण रोमा दकमपसाय ा य दयम णे शोषणं कत यम ् । वामा नवश यः नवसू ािधदेवताः । सा च माला अ ो रशतत तुिनिमता उ मा । ादशत तुनामिधदेवाः ादश द याः । प चाश तुना िनिमता म यमा । प च वंशितत तुिभिनिमता क यसा । अथवा अ य कारेणा प

www.ijmer.in 84



त तुस या कतु श यते । एका ेकैकवृ या इ सं यया वा कतु श यते ।

प व माला त तुसं या थयुता वा इ थयुता वा कतु श या । थमानं तु एक - – य गलुं वा भ वत यम ् । थीन ् इ देश े वा

क पयेत ्। एवं ल णसंयु ं ग धप व म ्।

महाप व ं ग गागौयवतारकम ् । ग गावतारप व य त तुसं यासमाना थयः । गौयवतारप व य अ शत थयः । आ माथयजन य ग गावतारप व ं पराथयजन य गौयवतारप व म ् च वधीयते । आम णप व ं प च थयु ं भवित । दवूा तैः संयु ं िन यप व म ् ।

थम ये गै रका द यैः र जनीयम ् । आ म व ािशवम ैः िशवमू न प व तयं दात यम ् । एवमवे प डकायाम प ।

प रवारदेवानाम ् एकमेव प व म ् । महेश े िशरोमाला,उरोमाला,बाहुमाला, उपवीतकम,्म णब धः इित प व समपणे वशषेः । सकलबेरे व प एवमेवाचरणीयम।् अ येषां एवमेव प व ं वधीयते । ासाद य यागशालायाः ाकार य पचनालय य च त तंु गुणीकृ य वे नीयम ्7।

प व ो सव या विधः

िन त दनात ्पूवम कुरापणं कृ वा ासाद या े वा उ रे द णे वा वे दकां क य वे दकायाः

पुरोभागे कु डं िनमाय म डपमलंकृ य त थ डलं कृ वा दभः पु पैः प र तीयालंकृ य आचायः पूव ुः अिधवासनकम कुयात ्।

www.ijmer.in 85



अिधवासन दवसे श भमुिभ ष य नैवा ा दकं सम य प व कम व ा य भा वा दगु पय तं म डपपूजां िनव य वे दको व िशवं स पू य िशवकु भ य म ये प व ं थापयेत ् । सं हताम ैः उदकेन स ो य कु भ यो रदेश े ग धप व ं व यसेत।् आम णप व ं कु भ या े विन पेत ् । िन यप व ं कु भ य प मभागे व यसेत ् । ततः अ ेण स ो य कवचेनावकु य अ य य धेनुमु ा ं द य नवव ं सम य अघोरम मनु मरन ् स पू य प म े प े व तके गौर ितलके ष णवितिल गे वा म डले िशवं समचयेत ्।

ततः कु डा तकं ग वा अ नकायमाचरेत ् ।

सिमदा य दसवहोम या ण हु वा थालीपाक वधानो वत ् च ं पाचिय वा त धा वभ य िशवांशम ् एकं, अ यंशम ् एकं ,ब यथम ् एकम ् इित भाग यं क पिय वा या ितिभहु वा अ म ेण शतवारं च मूलम ेण अ शतं च जुहुयात ् । ततो भा वा दच डपय तं ग धप व ं द ात ् । ततो गभगहंृ व य मूलम ेण ग धप व ं समपयेत ्। ततः स याशषें समा य

अन तर दवसे ातराचायः ना वा अघोरम ेण प व मवरोपयेत ्।

तान ् प व ान ् पा े च डेशाथ गृ अ पु पकया देवं सम य य यागशालां व य भा वा दगु पय तमचयेत ्। ततः कु डम ेण स ो य दयम ेण स पू य त पु षम ेण वा य अघोरम ेणा शतम ्

अ म ेण अ शतं च हु वा मूलम ेण गौयवतारम ् आ येन हु वा संपातहोमं प च वंशितवारं हु वा अ ते सव या ण समा य व कृ ोम ंसमा य नैवे धूपद पा दकं कृ वा भा वा दगु पय तं तथा कु भे वध यां च गौयवतारकं प व ं द ात ्।

www.ijmer.in 86



ततः प चग यं प चामतंृ नपनं च क पिय वा व ने रपूजां कृ वा ारपूजां च वधाय गभगेहं व य िल गपीठं चा म ेण सं ा य िशवम ैः समचयेत ्8।

प व ो सवे दशनीय या ण म ा ---

ततः िशव य प रतः चतु व प द ु मशः

पूवभागे --- मृ कां ,द तका ं, तालुशोधनी,ं सूिचकां, ो शोधनी,ंनखशोधनीं, च त पु षम मु चरन ् व यसेत ्।

द णभागे ---- कौपीनं, ख डव ं, तैलम,् आमलकं, रचनीं, प चग यं, प चामतंृ च अघोरम मनु मृ य व यसेत ्।

प मभागे ----- ली ाहरं, यूकहरं, केशशोधनम,् अ जनं, व ं, य ोपवीतं, पु पम,्

आभरणं, च दनं च स म मनु मृ य थापयेत।्

उ रभागे ---- ओ याणं, योगप टं, िभ ापा ं, कम डलुं, या ा जनं, वेणदु डं,

चामरं, छ ं, दपणं, भिसतं, पादकुां, मा ाद डं, ख गं, च वामदेवमनु मरन ्व यसेत।् सव या ण अ म ैः अचयेत ्9।

य विनयोगम ाः

पूवभागे था पतािन या यानीय – दयम ने मृ कां, िशरोम ेण द तका ं, िशखाम ेण तालुशोधनीं,कवचम ेण सूिचकां,ने म ेण ो शोधनीम ्, अ म ेण नखशोधनीं च द ात ्।

www.ijmer.in 87



द णे भागे थापनीयािन या यानीय – कौपीना दरज यनं स द शा तम ैः द ात ्।

योम या पनीम मु चरन ् प चग येन प चामतेृन च सं ना य नपनैरिभ ष य िल गपीठं च व ख डेन संमाजयते ्।

प मे भागे था पतािन या यानीय – म णे ली ाहरं, अ म ेण यूकाहरं, अघोरम ेण केशशोधनीम,् अ जनं च द वा युवं व ेितम ेण आ छादयेत।् दयम ेण य ोपवीतं,पु पं, आभरणं च द ात ् । ग ध ारेितम ेण च दनेन लेपयेत ्।

उ रभागे था पतािन या यानीय – ईशानम ेण ओ याणं, त पु षम ेण योगप टं, अघोरम ेण िभ ापा ं, वामदेवम ेण कम डलुं, स ोजातम ेण या ा जनं, दयम ेण वेणुद डं, िशरोम ेण चामरं, िशखाम ेण छ ं, कवचम ेण भिसतं, ने म ेण पादकुां, अ म णे मा ाद डं, मूलम ेण ख गं च द वा िन यप व ा ण अ म ेण द ात ्10 ।

ततः श भोः नैवे ं धपृद पा दकं च सम य म डपं व य म ेण षोडशवारं होमं कुयात ् । ततः प रचारकमाहूय प व ेण सह ह य द ण ंकृ वा ारदेश ं ा य स पू य गौयवतारप व ंद ात ् । ततो गभगेहं ा य परमे रम ् आ म व ािशवत वैः स पू य गौयवतारप व ं द ात ् । प रवारामराद नां ाकारबिलपीठाद नां च ग गवतारप व ं द वा भूतह विनवे धूपद पा दकं द ात ् । प ात ् िन या नकाय दस याशषें

समा य महे रं स पू य बिलदानान तरमु सवं कुयात ् । एत च प व ारोहणकम एक मन ् दने अथवा – प च – स – नव दनेषु वा एवमेव ित दनं कत यम ् । िल गात ् प व मु ा य अ म ेण ा य तेनैव म ेण सिमदा या नःै सह जुहुयात ्। एवं शतं तदध वा जुहुयात ्।

www.ijmer.in 88



एवं ित दनं कृ वा यामेनां समाचरेत ् । अवरोह दने ा े िन यपूजां कृ वा जया ा दहोममाचरेत ् । ततः कु ड था नं वसृ य कु भम य ेयोजयेत ् । प ात ् कु भं समु ृ य गभगेहं व य देवेश ं सं ना य भूतह वषं द ात ् । त ा ावेव च डेशाय प व ं दात यम।् अ ते

व हेमा गुलीयकैः आचाय पूजयेत ्। एवं यः कु ते स पु यां गितमा नोित। इित प व ो सव य वैिश यम ्11 ।

पाद ट पणी 1.कारणागमः

2. वैखानसागमे(य ािधकारे)

3.सू मागमः

4.वैखानसागमः


6. करणागमः 35.4-5

7.कारणागमः 122.12-20

8. सू मागमः

9. कारणागमः 122.34-38

10.कारणागमः122.66-70


www.ijmer.in 89



WRITER’S MAGICAL WAND-‘MAGICAL REALISM’ REPOSITORIES IN LITERATURE

Prof S.Prasanna Sree

Professor of English Department of English

Andhra University ,Visakhapatnam

Literature represents a daring yet also smooth and spontaneous

interaction between various worlds and ways of existence, those considered as “real” and those considered as “supernatural” or “imaginary.” In her article "Magic Realism, New Objectivity, and the Arts during the Weimar Republic," Guenther suggests that by following the development of this term one can observe that in Austria, the Australian artist and writer Alfred Kubin who was seen as a "precursor of traits found in Magical Realism” provided a "link between literary narrative and graphic art."(57). Perhaps, and in accordance with Roh, the most important Italian Magical Realist was Giorgio de Chirico (1888-1978), who pioneered the Magical Realism movement of the 20's with his "clarity of color, his precision and ordering, his use of sharp contrasts, his ability to make the real appear unreal, the unreal real." ( Zamora 38) Most of his paintings from 1910-

14 are considered to be examples of Magical Realism.

Through magical realism a writer conveys a reality that incorporates magic, superstition, religion and history which are

unquestionably infused into the world. Hence magic realism is an aesthetic style or genre of fiction in which magical elements blends with real world, Myth and magic has also become a perennial source of themes for literary writers. Magical occurrences become part of everyday life, “…the supernatural … is an ordinary matter, an everyday occurrence – admitted, accepted, and integrated into the rationality and materiality of literary realism” (Zamora, 3). In the i r

www.ijmer.in 90



novel s , writers do depict the mysterious world of fantasy in (magic) realistic ways to show the psychological reality of modern man of today.

Zamora and Wendy Magical Realism: Theory, History, Community opine that Carpentier as well as other critics, have

theorized that Magical Realism can be seen as a combination of reality, myth, magic, and fantasy, terms that Latin Americans often identify with, because all these terms are important elements in the diverse but unique cultures created by the sudden juxtaposition of the primitive cultures with those of modern society(Zamora78) .The term Magical Realism has been used in Europe, Africa, Australia, the United States and Latin America for many years; however, the first "official" use of the term was in 1925, by the German Franz Roh an art critic who applied the term to some of the paintings he studied. In Germany there arose a large number of artists in this new 'movement,' which as referred to as the New Objectivity. Among them were Carl Franz Radziwill, Otto Dix and George Grosz, who expressed many political themes of the time,

and Adolf Ziegler, Hitler's favourite artist and President of the Third Reich's Chamber of Fine Arts.

Magical Realism was also noticed in America. The term Magic Realism began to be known in Latin America with the introduction of the partial translation of the book Post- Expressionism, Magic Realism of Roh published in the Spanish magazine Revista de Occidente in 1927. Edward Hopper, according to art historian Robert Arnason, wrote in his History of Art (1968) that Hopper is considered

the first and one of the finest representatives of Magical Realism during the 1920's in United States. The use of Magical Realism is worldwide. It started in 1928 with the translation of Roh's book into Spanish by Fernando Vela. In Germany it appeared as escapist and reactionary in the 1940's and its use waned during World War 11,

www.ijmer.in 91



apparently because of its suppression by the Nazis. It is now even being applied anew to a genre of contemporary literature and art criticism. This term appeared in Belgium in 1943 in the writings of Johan Daisne, a Belgium writer (1912-1978) and the concept was rapidly spreading not only through Europe but also in Latin America due to the arrival of many European immigrants during the 30's and 40's. As Argentina was one of the first Latin American countries to open its doors to these Europeans, the existing intellectual group of

the country was greatly enriched.

Throughout the 1940's and 50's and up to today many writers and artists continued to explore themes approaches related to Magical Realism. In 1940, Jorge Luis Borges wrote about the "FantBstico." Alejandro Carpentier from Cuba wrote about the Real Maravilloso Amencano (American Marvelous Real) in 1949. Also, in 1955 Angel Flores used the term Magic Realism. Among other famous Latin American artists, writers, and critics whose work contains elements of Magic Realism are beside those the focus of this paper Miguel Angel Asturias, Gabriel Garcia Miirquez, Enrique

Anderson Irnbert, and Isabel Allende.

Within the separate post-colonial cultures themselves, this approach to magic realism can operate in such a way that this seemingly new mode of fiction can be recognized as continuous with apparently dissimilar works of fiction in which an oppositional style, and a consequent privileging of pluralism, also echoes against the post-colonial legacy. Read as post-colonial discourse, then, magic realism can be seen to provide a positive and liberating response to the codes of imperial history and its legacy of fragmentation and discontinuity. This process, they tell us, can transmute the "shreds and fragments" of colonial violence and otherness into new "codes of recognition" in which the dispossessed, the silenced, and the marginalized of our own dominating systems can again find voice,

www.ijmer.in 92



and enter into the dialectic continuity of on-going community and place that is our "real" cultural heritage.

Surveys of the critical use of the term appear in Alejo Carpentier, based on his readings of Roh, “devises his own term, Lo Real Maravilloso Americano, to describe what he argues is a uniquely

American form of magical realism” (75). Carpentier’s essay, “On the Marvelous Real in America,” sets up a discussion of Magical Realism

as a distinctly Latin American art form, in that it serves as an “amplification of perceived reality required by and inherent in Latin American nature and culture” (75). His essay takes us along literarily on his worldly journeys to China, the Soviet Union, and Europe, among others. As he tells us in this essay, “The practitioners of magical realism cling to reality as if to prevent ‘literature’ from getting in their way, as if to prevent their myth from flying off, as in fairy tales, to supernatural realms” (Flores 115-16).

Today, perhaps the most encompassing attempt to define magical realism comes from Wendy B. Faris in her essay “Scheherazade’s Children: Magical Realism and Postmodern Fiction.” She defines five primary and nine secondary characteristics of magical realism, seeking to acknowledge the definitions of magical

realism’s originators while giving them a decidedly modernistic spin. Faris tells us that for a novel to be magical realist, it must first contain an “irreducible element of magic,” second, “the descriptions in magical realism detail a strong presence of the phenomenal world;” third, the reader may experience some unsettling doubts in the effort to reconcile two contradictory understandings of events;” fourth, the “narrative merges different realms;” and lastly, “magical realism disturbs received ideas about time, space, and identity” (“Scheherazade” 167-73).

A determinate definition seems to get lost somewhere in all the

www.ijmer.in 93



conflicting terminology, often getting lost between the many terms

such as magic realism, magical realism and marvelous realism. As Maggie Ann Bowers tells us in her book, Magic(al) Realism: [. . .] in magic realism ‘magic’ refers to the mystery of life: in marvelous and magical realism ‘magic’ refers to any extraordinary occurrence and Magical Realism describes a genuine, spontaneous extraordinary event, experience or even an object often found in daily life among Latin American cultures. In his theory of the marvelous real the Cuban

writer Alejo Carpentier called Magical Realism the "marvelous American reality [in contrast to European Surrealism which consists of a conscious assault on conventionally depicted reality].

Alejo Carpentier explained that it is "an amplification of perceived reality required by and inherent in Latin American nature and culture and that the fantastic is not to be discovered by subverting or transcending reality with abstract forms and manufactured combinations of images. Rather, the fantastic inheres in the natural and human realities of time and place, where improbable juxtapositions and marvelous mixtures exist by virtue of Latin America's varied history, geography, demography, and politics - not by manifestation. Carpentier further affirms that these "two elements enter decisively into the nature and meaning of Latin American art,' He also states that "the marvellous real that particularly to anything

spiritual or unaccountable by rational science.” (21). The variety of magical occurrences in magic (al) realist writing includes ghosts, disappearances, miracles, extraordinary talents and strange atmospheres but does not include the magic as it is found in a magic show.

In Magical Realism and The Fantastic: Resolved Versus Unresolved Antinomy, Amaryll Chanady takes the discussion of fantasy a step further, suggesting that instead of treating fantasy as a genre we should begin to see it as a mode. Her reasoning for this

www.ijmer.in 94



distinction is that the genre is “a well-defined and historically identifiable form,” whereas a mode is a “particular quality of a fictitious world that can characterize works belonging to several genres, periods or national literatures” (Chanady1-2). Chanady also makes the argument for magical realism as its own mode of literature, one that is separate yet not entirely distinct from fantasy. Aside from these general observations, a quick look to the future of magical realism in literature and elsewhere is in order. Looking through the

literature, some arguments have actually been made that magical realism cannot be separated from other types of literature. Stephen Slemon presents this argument in his “Magic Realism as Postcolonial Discourse” article, telling readers that: In none of its applications to literature has the concept of magic realism ever successfully differentiated between itself and neighbouring genres such as fabulation, metafiction, the baroque, the fantastic, the uncanny, or the marvelous [. . .] it is not surprising that some critics have chosen to abandon the term altogether. (407)

“Magic realism often gives voice in the thematic domain to indigenous or ancient myth, legends and cultural practice and the domain of narrative technique to the literary traditions that express them with the use of non- realistic events and

images; it can be seen as a kind of narrative primitivism.” (Wendy Faris: 103)

Magical realism is generally defined in the Oxford English Dictionary as “… any artistic or especially literary style in which realistic techniques such as naturalistic detail, narrative, etc., are similarly combined with surreal or dreamlike elements”. In essence, a writer of magical realism portrays a character or place with realism but, as the writer develops the character or place, one or more elements of magic are added to that specific character or place. The

www.ijmer.in 95



theme allows the fiction writer to explore the imagination of true fiction, exercising the what if fiction tool to encourage the reader to imagine the existence of the character or place and, in the readers’ imagination, if it existed, imagine what it would be like to know the character or live in the place. The idea allows the reader to imagine an escape from the burdens of the world and to live in and explore a place that gives health and long life.

Magical Realism is not a school, nor does it belong to an

exact period. Many authors and painters in Latin America will feel an affinity with Magical Realism, and feel comfortable using it in their works. They still have a lot of material related to Magical Realism, such as the beliefs and the religion so rooted in the Latin Americans that they will not tend to change a lot; the legends and national and popular stories that entertain their citizens and others still have the current streams of socio political problems of their countries that are not resolved easily nor quickly, which is a sufficient theme to develop. Magical Realism is a style that attracts many people. Although today some young writers from the large cities are in disagreement and don't use it, believing that it is a style that does not apply to all urban life, it is most likely that Magical Realism in the future will continue to be used by writers and artists in Latin America to express their ideas and will prevail, continually appearing and disappearing

simultaneously with other styles.

References

1. Carpentier, Alejo “on the Marvelous Real in America.”

Magical Realism. Ed.Zamora and Faris, (85-86.)

2. Carpentier, Alejo. “On the Marvelous Real in America.” Magical Realism: Theory, History,Community. Ed. Wendy B. Faris and Lois Parkinson Zamora. Durham: Duke UP,1995.

www.ijmer.in 96



3. “On the Marvelous Real in America.” Zamora and Faris, 1995. 75-80,

4. Chanady, Amaryll Beatrice. Magical Realism and the Fantastic Resolved versus Unresolved Antinomy. New York: Garland Publishing, 1985. (21) Print.

5. Faris, Wendy B. “Scheherazade’s Children.” Zamora and Faris, 1995. 163-90.

6. Faris, Wendy B. and Lois Parkinson Zamora ed. Magical

Realism: Theory, History, Community. Durham: Duke UP, 1995.

7. Guenther, Irene. “Magic Realism, New Objectivity, and the Arts During the Weimar Republic.” Zamora and Faris, 1995. 33-73.

8. Bowers, Maggie Ann. Magic (al) Realism. London: Routledge, 2004.

9. Roh, Franz. “Magic Realism: Post-Expressionism.” Magic Realism 1995. 15-31.

10. German Art in the 20th Century English translation of Geschichte der Deutschen Kunst, 1968, 113.

11. Zamora L.P and Wendy B. Faris, "On the Marvelous Real in America." Magical

12. Realism, Theory, Communion. ed. Durham & London: Duke

University Press,1997 75-78.

www.ijmer.in 97



A STUDY ON TOURISTS AWARENESS AND SATISFACTION

ABOUT A.P. TOURISM

Prof. D.M. Sheaba Rani Professor

Department of Commerce and Management Studies Andhra University, Visakhapatnam

Andhra Pradesh, India INTRODUCTION

The tourist attractions of India include historical movements, places of religious importance, mountain and beaches resorts, wild life and interesting eco system places with facilities for adventure, water and winter sports etc. India has immense potential to be a leading tourist destination.The world travel and tourism council (WTTC) has recently notified India is one of the fastest growing tourist economies in the world. According to the WTTC, Indian tourism is estimated to grow at 8.8 per cent ahead of China, over the next 10 years. Since the neighboring countries as well as all states in the country are now competing with one another for increasing share of tourist arrivals, this section is becoming extremely competitor.

Andhra Pradesh has tremendous potential to become one of the foremost states in the tourism map of the country. Practically everything that people who visit India to see and experience can be seen and experienced in Andhra Pradesh alone. It is not an exaggeration to say that Andhra Pradesh is the essence of incredible India. Andhra Pradesh has a very rich heritage, monuments, forts, places, nature, hills, wildlife, beaches, mighty rivers, beautiful water bodies, holy pilgrim centers for all religions, a strong Buddhist tradition, and festivals, besides items of modern entertainment, an exquisite cuisine, fascinating handicrafts and textiles, etc.

OBJECTIVES

1. To probe into the tourists awareness about A.P. Tourism.

www.ijmer.in 98



2. To study the overall satisfaction of tourists about A.P Tourism.

3. To suggest appropriate solutions for promoting and developing tourism in A.P Tourism.

1HYPOTHESIS

1. The socio-economic variables of the respondents do not have significant impact on respondents overall satisfaction on A.P. Tourism.

METHODOLOGY

The present study was carried out in Vijayawada, Rajahmundry and Visakhapatnam of Andhra Pradesh, selecting 148 tourists by using random sampling technique. The data for the study was collected both from primary and secondary sources. Primary data was collected from

selected tourists through formal questionnaire. Secondary data was collected from the sources like books, journals, magazines, internet etc. The descriptive analyses have been mainly used to specify the consolidated opinion of tourists on various questions in the questionnaire. Analytical tests such as simple percentage and weighted ranks have been used. In addition, ANOVA test have been used to test for significant relationship between the socio-economic variables and respondents overall satisfaction about A.P. Tourism.

ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

1. Sources of information about tourist places in Andhra Pradesh.

* Professor, Department of Commerce and Management Studies, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh, India.

www.ijmer.in 99



Table no.1 Respondents opinion on sources of information about the tourist places in AP.

Sources of information about the tourist places in AP

1 2 3 4 5 6 Weighted Rank

Friends & relatives

25

(150)

31

(155)

27

(108)

34

(102)

23

(46)

8

(8)

4

(569)

Advertising & pamphlets

40

(240)

26

(130)

33

(132)

38

(114)

10

(20)

1

(1)

1

(637)

Tour operators in AP

28

(169)

34

(170)

43

(172)

25

(75)

11

(22)

7

(7)

3

(614)

Hotel chain 7

(42)

12

(60)

16

(64)

23

(69)

73

(146)

17

(17)

5

(398)

Websites 36

(216)

38

(190)

26

(104)

20

(60)

17

(34)

11

(11)

2

(615)

Others 12

(72)

7

(35)

6

(24)

8

(24)

14

(28)

101

(101)

6

(284)

Respondents gave first rank to advertising and pamphlets, second rank to websites, third rank to tour operators in Andhra Pradesh, fourth rank to friends & relatives, fifth rank to hotel chain and last rank to any other. In modern scenario the people are concentrating more on advertisement and pamphlets, internet services etc. As such advertisement and pamphlets, websites were considered to be effective avenues for securing information about the tourist places in Andhra Pradesh, on the other hand “word of mouth” communication is not very good. (Table no.1)

www.ijmer.in 100



2. Factors attracting tourism in Andhra Pradesh

Table no.2 Factors attracting tourism in Andhra Pradesh.

S.No Factors SA A M DA SDA

1 Historical monuments

22.3 60.1 17.6

2 Hill resort 12.8 45.3 39.2 1.4 1.4

3 Beaches 13.5 46.6 39.9

4 Arts & cultures 13.5 38.5 41.2 5.4 1.4

5 Festivals. 8.8 46.6 40.5 2.7 1.4

6 Friendly people 10.1 40.5 42.6 5.4 1.4

7 Clean & comfortable accommodation

5.4 36.5 55.4 2.7

8 Variety of food 8.8 35.8 52 2.7 0.7

9 Shopping 6.8 44.6 45.9 2 0.7

10 Transport facility 8.1 45.3 43.9 2.7

11 Climatic conditions

7.4 50 39.2 2.7 0.7

12 Economical activities

6.1 43.2 44.6 5.4 0.7

13 Promotional activities

6.1 41.2 48 3.4 1.4

Respondents opinion on factors attracting tourism in Andhra Pradesh

is illustrated in table no.2.Respondents agreed response for the factors historical monuments (1), hill resorts (5), beaches (3), festivals(4), transport facility (6) and climate conditions (2) , moderate response to art & cultures (2), friendly people (6), clean and comfortable accommodations (1), variety food (2), shopping (4), economical facilities

www.ijmer.in 101



(5) and promotional activities (3).Thus different factors attracting tourism in Andhra Pradesh have got different responses. For the respondents strongly agreed, disagree and strongly disagreed the respondent’s responses are small and negligible. It is suggested that the factors which have got moderate response should be improved to make them as excellent.

3. Purpose of visit to Andhra Pradesh

Table no.3 Respondents purpose of visit to Andhra Pradesh

Purpose of Visit to AP

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Weighted Rank

Pilgrimage 13 (117)

49 (392)

33 (231)

17 (102)

8 (40)

11 (44)

8 (24)

4 (8)

5 (5)

2 (963)

Business/office 34 (306)

21 (168)

20 (140)

10 (60)

9 (45)

9 (36)

4 (12)

18 (36)

23 (23)

4 (826)

Festivals 3 (27)

19 (152)

42 (294)

39 (234)

23 (115)

8 (32)

6 (18)

4 (8)

4 (4)

3 (884)

Sports 10 (90)

5 (40)

4 (28)

7 (42)

19 (95)

25 (100)

9 (27)

31 (62)

38 (38)

8 (522)

Pleasure trip 14 (126)

11 (88)

19 (133)

36 (216)

30 (150)

11 (44)

10 (30)

13 (26)

4 (4)

5 (817)

Research work 7 (63)

8 (64)

4 (28)

7 (42)

9 (45)

10 (40)

45 (135)

28 (56)

30 (30)

9 (503)

Honeymoon trip

7 (63)

0 (0)

5 (35)

9 (54)

19 (95)

34 (136)

41 (123)

14 (28)

19 (19)

7 (553)

Study on art & archeology

5 (45)

7 (56)

6 (42)

12 (72)

25 (125)

35 (140)

15 (45)

26 (52)

17 (17)

6 (594)

To visit friends & relatives

55 (495)

31 (248)

18 (126)

12 (72)

6 (30)

4 (16)

9 (27)

8 (16)

5 (5)

1 (1035)

The respondents are asked to rank the purpose of their visit to A.P.

Respondents gave 1st rank to visit friends and relatives, 2nd rank to pilgrimage, 3rd rank to festivals, 4th rank to business office purpose, 5th rank to pleasure trip, 6th rank to study art and archeology, 7th rank to honeymoon, 8th rank to sports and 9th rank to research works. The state Andhra Pradesh has many pilgrimage places and the respondents also gave second rank to pilgrimage for the purpose of visiting A.P. (Table no.3)

www.ijmer.in 102



4. Tourist places visited in Andhra Pradesh

Table no. 4 Respondents visited different tourist places in Andhra Pradesh.

S.No Factors Yes No

1 Hyderabad 95.9 4.1

2 Warangal 58.8 41.2

3 Nagarjunasagar 25 75

4 Tirupati 73 27

5 Kurnool 21.6 78.4

6 Srisalim 41.9 58.1

7 Puttaparthi 49.3 50.7

8 Madanapalli 24.3 75.7

9 Vijiyawada 77 23

10 Kolleru 21.6 78.4

11 Visakhapatnam 92.6 7.4

12 Kalingapatnam 24.3 75.7

13 Other places 57.4 42.6

Hyderabad being the capital city of AP with more tourist spots attracted 95.9 per cent of the respondents. Next to Hyderabad, Visakhapatnam is also an important place to be visited. A whopping majority 92.6 per cent of the respondents visited Visakhapatnam. Visakhapatnam district is engraved with the places like Kailasagiri park, Rishikonda beach and other beaches, Simhachalam, Bora caves and Aruku valley etc. And the third place is Vijayawada about 77 per cent of the respondents visited Vijayawada. About 73 per cent of the respondents visited Tirupathi which is famous for Lord Venkateswara. Nearly 50 per cent of the respondents visited Puttaparti to visit Satya

www.ijmer.in 103



Sai Baba. Warangal is also one of the historical places in Andhra Pradesh with 1000 pillar temple, Kali Temple, Fort etc, visited by 58.8 per cent of the respondents. The other places like Nagarjunasagar, Srisalim, Koluru etc are also important places visited by some respondents. (Table no.4)

5. Reasons for the places not visited.

Table no. 5 Reasons for not visiting the places.

Reasons for not visting

1 2 3 4 Weighted Rank

Lack of planning 41

(164)

59

(177)

32

(64)

16

(16)

2

(421)

Time constraints 53

(212)

42

(126)

35

(70)

18

(18)

1

(426)

Previously visited 30

(120)

26

(78)

40

(80)

52

(52)

3

(330)

Others 23

(92)

21

(63)

42

(84)

62

(62)

4

(301)

Table no.5 reveals the reasons for not visiting the places. First rank is given to time constrains, second rank to lack of planning, third rank to previously visited and fourth rank to other reasons. Busy schedule and time constrain are the major reasons for not visiting the places and majority of the respondents agreed to those reasons.

www.ijmer.in 104



6. Factors influencing to visit Andhra Pradesh

Table no. 6 Factors influencing to visit Andhra Pradesh

Factors influencing to visit AP

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Weighted Rank

Advertising 9

(72)

28

(196)

33

(198)

13

(65)

23

(92)

11

(33)

9

(18)

22

(22)

3.5

(696)

Publicity 17

(136)

17

(119)

21

(126)

28

(140)

13

(52)

7

(21)

12

(24)

23

(23)

5

(641)

Personal approach

16

(128)

12

(84)

11

(66)

24

(120)

21

(84)

18

(54)

23

(46)

33

(33)

8

(615)

Word of mouth

17

(136)

10

(70)

12

(72)

13

(65)

10

(40)

32

(96)

42

(84)

12

(12)

6

(575)

Historical places

43

(344)

18

(126)

18

(108)

9

(45)

15

(60)

17

(51)

22

(44)

6

(6)

1

(784)

Pilgrimage 13

(104)

20

(140)

27

(162)

17

(105)

24

(96)

26

(78)

10

(20)

11

(11)

3.5

(696)

Beaches 25

(200)

26

(182)

16

(96)

26

(130)

23

(92)

12

(36)

7

(14)

13

(13)

2

(763)

Culture events

7

(56)

12

(84)

17

(102)

27

(135)

18

(72)

18

(54)

22

(44)

27

(27)

7

(574)

The different factors which are influencing the respondents to visit Andhra Pradesh are depicted in table no.6. Historical places in Andhra Pradesh have attracted more tourists and respondents given 1st rank to historical places, 2nd rank to beaches, 3.5 ranks to both advertising and pilgrimage, 5th rank to publicity, 6th rank to word of mouth, 7th rank to

cultural events and last rank to personal approach. The above table

www.ijmer.in 105



concludes that the historical places, beaches and pilgrimage attracted most of the tourists to visit Andhra Pradesh.

7. Overall attitude towards A.P. Tourism.

Table no.7 Respondents overall attitude towards A.P. Tourism

Mention your over all attitude towards AP tours

Frequency Percentage

Highly satisfied 13 8.8

Satisfied 121 81.8

Moderate 14 9.5

Total 148 100.0

Respondents overall attitude towards A.P. Tourism is furnished in table no. 7. The study revealed that a whopping majority of 81.8 per cent of the total respondents are satisfied with A.P. Tourism, next followed by moderate satisfaction 9.5 per cent and highly satisfied 8.8 per cent.

The table concludes that A.P. Tourism is developing day by day as opined by the vast majority of the respondents. In the modern scenario the attitude of the people are changing day by day. So A.P. Tourism

should also develop according to the changing attitude of the people if it wants to be successful in its business.

www.ijmer.in 106



8. Overall satisfaction on A.P. Tourism.

Table no. 8 Respondents’ opinion on overall satisfaction on A.P. Tourism

Overall satisfaction on AP tourism

E VG G A B

Air transport 19.6 57.4 23

Road transport. 10.8 27 56.8 4.7 0.7

Rail transport. 12.2 24.3 58.1 5.4

Water transport. 9.5 18.9 56.8 14.2 0.7

Room rent. 9.5 24.3 43.2 19.6 3.4

Clock room facility 8.8 25 33.8 23.6 8.8

Quality of food 6.1 21.6 48 23 1.4

Food price 7.4 18.2 44.6 16.9 12.8

Tour guide. 8.1 17.6 52 22.3

Security. 6.8 20.9 52 18.2 2

Tourism packages. 8.1 24.3 53.4 12.2 2

Hospitality 7.4 23 54.1 13.5 2

Respondent’s opinion on overall satisfaction on A.P. Tourism is described in table no.8. Majority of the total sample respondents revealed good opinion on road transport 56.8 per cent, rail transport 58.1 per cent, water transport 56.8 per cent, room rent 43.2 per cent,

clock room facility 33.8 per cent, variety of food 48 per cent, food price 44.6 per cent, tour guide 52.0 per cent, security also 52 per cent , tourism package 53.4 per cent and hospitality 54.1 per cent.

The above table concludes that many respondents opined for good opinion on all facilities except air transport57.4 per cent of them revealed very good opinion.

www.ijmer.in 107



Now a day’s people are tired of their routine work and need some relaxation and they are opting for tours conducted by tourism. Moreover the attitude of the people also changed and they are ready to spend money on tourism for relaxation. As such tourism in India and Andhra Pradesh is developing and attracting more and more customers into its domain.

At the outset the overall conclusion of the study is that the A.P. Tourism is offering better facilities which make tourists feel happy and

comfortable.

Table no.8a Respondents’ overall satisfaction on A.P. Tourism Vs age

Age n Mean S.D F-Value P-Value Decision

Below 20 13 3.7244 .78645 2.801 .028 N.S

20-29 47 3.3333 .64480

30-39 32 3.1719 .74744

40-49 36 3.1204 .60731

50 & above

20 3.0417 .55640

The above table represents that there is a significant difference in the opinion of the respondents who were from different age groups on the dimension “Respondents overall satisfaction on A.P. Tourism” as their F-value (2.801) and its corresponding P-value (0.028) shows significant and the scores are above 3, i.e., above the good level which illustrates that the opinion of the respondents on the said dimension is good. Further, the average score of the age group below 20 years respondents is greater than the remaining all the age categories which exemplifies

www.ijmer.in 108



that these age group has more positive corner on the said dimension when compared with the remaining categories. Table no. 8a

Table no.8b Respondents’ overall satisfaction on A.P. Tourism Vs gender

Gender n Mean S.D T-Value P-Value Decision

Male 118 3.2168 .68789 -0.880 0.380 N.S

Female 30 3.3389 .63913

The above T-value (-0.880) and its corresponding P-value (0.380) describes that there is no significant difference in the opinion of the respondents by gender on the dimension “Respondents overall satisfaction on A.P. Tourism”. Further the average opinion score of the female respondents is greater than the male respondents on the said dimension. i.e., female respondents have little bit more optimistic opinion rather than male respondents towards the A.P. Tourism. Table no. 8b

Table no.8c Respondents’ overall satisfaction on A.P. Tourism Vs education

Educational Background

n Mean S.D F-Value

P-Value

Decision

Pre metric 15 3.2167 .84151 2.541 .031 S

Metric 13 3.0897 .66793

Intermediate 11 3.4621 .62178

Technical 24 2.9236 .42486

Degree 55 3.2288 .64174

P.G 30 3.5167 .75411

www.ijmer.in 109



The above table portrays that there is a significant difference in the opinion of the respondents who were from different educational backgrounds on the dimension “Respondents overall satisfaction on A.P. Tourism”. Further, the average opinion score of post graduate background respondents is greater than the remaining all the categories followed by intermediate background which illustrate these categories of respondents opinion is little bit more affirmative rather than others categories. Table no.8c

Table no.8d Respondents’ overall satisfaction on A.P. Tourism Vs occupation

Occupation n Mean S.D F-Value

P-Value

Decision

Government employee

32 3.1458 .73507 2.417 .051 N.S

Private sector employee

58 3.2399 .63409

Own business 16 2.9375 .46398

Retired 13 3.2051 .53209

Studying 29 3.5345 .77904

The above table describes the opinion of the respondents on the dimension “Respondents overall satisfaction on A.P. Tourism”. The average opinion score of students is greater than the remaining four categories followed by the private sector employees, which gives an idea that these respondents have more optimistic opinion on this dimension, whereas the business respondents opined little bit pessimistic opinion than others. Further, the F-value (2.417) and the corresponding P-

www.ijmer.in 110



value (0.051) illustrates that there is no significant difference between these five categories of the respondents. Table no. 8d

FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS

In modern scenario the people are concentrating more on advertisement and pamphlets, internet services etc. As such advertisement and pamphlets and websites were considered to be effective avenues for securing information about the tourist places in Andhra Pradesh, on the other hand “word of mouth” communication is not very good. The study identified that respondents opinion on factors attracting tourism in Andhra Pradesh have got different response. It is

suggested that the factors which have got moderate response should be improved to make them as excellent.

The state of Andhra Pradesh has many pilgrimage places and respondents also gave second rank to pilgrimage for the purpose of visiting Andhra Pradesh. An attempt is made to know about the respondents visited different tourist places in Andhra Pradesh. Hyderabad being the capital city of AP with more tourist spots attracted 95.9 per cent of the respondents. Next to Hyderabad, Visakhapatnam is also an important place to be visited. The different factors which influencing the respondents to visit Andhra Pradesh are historical places, beaches and pilgrimage.

Respondents’ opinion on overall satisfaction about A.P. Tourism revealed that a majority of the total sample respondents revealed good opinion on rail transport 58.1 per cent and road transport 56.8 per cent.

It may be concluded that many respondents opined for good opinion on all facilities except air transport57.4 per cent of them revealed very good opinion.

Now a day’s people are tired of their routine work and need some relaxation and they are opting for tours conducted by tourism. Moreover the attitude of the people also changed and they are ready to

www.ijmer.in 111



spend money on tourism for relaxation. As such tourism in India and Andhra Pradesh is developing and attracting more and more customers into its domain. At the outset the overall conclusion of the study is that the A.P Tourism is offering better facilities which make tourists feel happy and comfortable.

Reference

1. Anand. M. (1976): Tourism in India, Prentice Hall of India Limited, New Delhi.

2. Biswanath Chosh, (1978) Tourism Management, Theory and Practice, Oxford Publications, London.

3. Maneet Kumar, Tourism Today – An Indian Perspective, Kanishka Publishing House, New Delhi, 2001.

4. Perver Korea (1996) “Resident Attitudes towards Tourism Impact”, Annals of Tourism Research, vol 23, no.3.

www.ijmer.in 112



HAZARDS ON PORTS AND MITIGATION STRATEGY

Nilesh Jha

Lecturer in Civil Engineering Government Polytechnic

Ahmedabad, Gujarat

V. P. Shah Ex. Chief Engineer & Vice

Chairman Gujarat Maritime Boar

Gujarat

Introduction

Disaster can be broadly classified into two types namely natural and manmade. Natural disaster includes flood, cyclone, draught, earthquake, flood, landslide, tsunami, whereas manmade disaster

include accidents (airways and railways), epidemic, fire which occurs frequently around the globe. India is one of the most disaster prone countries, vulnerable to almost all natural and man-made disasters. About 85% area is vulnerable to one or multiple disasters and about 57% area is in high seismic zone including the capital of the country. These disasters have a devastating impact on human life, economy, environment and national and socio economic development. Recent disasters, The Orissa Cyclone 1999, The Gujarat Earthquake 2001and Tsunami 2004 are cases in point.

Disasters not only pose a major threat to buildings, but also to lifelines. Lifelines are those systems, such as power, dams, ports and

others that are necessary for human life and urban function and with the help of which large rural and urban regions exist. The impact/damages due to disasters may be direct and indirect. Direct damages occur during or after the phenomenon that caused disaster whereas indirect damages are perceived after the phenomenon, for a

time period that lasts from weeks to months.

With the kind of economic losses and developmental setbacks that the country has been suffering year after year, the development

www.ijmer.in 113



process needs to be sensitive towards disaster prevention and mitigation aspects. In order to reduce the impact of such events through mitigation efforts it is necessary to understand how such hazards become disaster. The extent of vulnerability of area, people and property to hazard or the probability of its occurrence defines extent of risk. Vulnerability analysis and risk assessment are therefore essential forerunners for evolving the appropriate preventive measures and mitigation strategies.

Physical vulnerability relates to the technical capacity of lifelines to resist the forces acting upon them during a hazard event. Disaster prevention involves engineering intervention in buildings and structures to make them strong enough to withstand the impact of natural hazard or to impose restrictions on land use so that the

exposure of the society to the hazard situation is avoided or minimized.

Need

1. Lifelines are the arteries and veins for our economy. Proper and healthy functioning of these lifelines are utmost important for the urbanization of the state as well as country.

2. Ports are most vulnerable to the disasters either natural or man-made.

3. When disaster hits the coastal areas, it leads to the devastation of the on shore as well as off shore structures and generally accompanied with the casualty.

4. Damage to the ports results in secondary damages (due to non- functioning of ports) which may affect the community and industry at large.

5. Looking to the frequency and impact of disasters that hits the country, there is a need to develop clear cut strategies to mitigate the disasters to reduce the direct and indirect damages.

www.ijmer.in 114



Objective

The objectives of the study are as follows

1. To study the impact (direct damages) on ports due to disasters.

2. To study the secondary damages/impact due to disasters.

3. To propose suitable mitigation strategies for ports.

SCOPE

The scope of the present research work is restricted to the following:

1. Emphasis isonly on the natural disasters only, especially cyclones and earthquake as occurrence of these disasters on ports is frequent.

2. Impact of disasters on ports can be studied in variety of directions like structural, economic, social and environmental within which the work is restricted to the study of the structural and economic effect.

3. Effect of cyclone 98 and earthquake 2001 is studied as a case on major port (Kandla) and minor ports of Porbandar and Navlakhi.

Research Question

Are the strategies adopted for the port structures for mitigating

the effect of natural disasters sufficient?

Methodology and Data Collection

Objective Tasks Data collected Data Source To study the direct damages due to disasters on ports

1. Effect of cyclones on port structures

2. Economic losses due to cyclones

3. Effect of earthquakes on port structures

1. Cyclone 98 2. (Kandla,

Porbandar and Navlakhi ports),

3. Earthquake 2001 (Kandla, Porbandar and Navlakhi ports).

Port authorities, GSDMA, GMB officials, IIMA, CEPT library, GSDMA, website.

www.ijmer.in 115



4. Economic losses

due to earthquakes.

To study indirect/secondary damages due to disasters

1. Effect of cyclones on business i.e. cargo handled.

2. Losses due to non-functioning of ports due to cyclones.

3. Effect of earthquake on business i.e. cargo handled.

4. Losses due to non-functioning of ports due to earthquake.

1. Cyclone 98 2. (Kandla,

Porbandar and Navlakhi ports),

3. Earthquake 2001 (Kandla, Porbandar and Navlakhi ports).

Port authorities, GSDMA, GMB officials, IIMA, CEPT library, GSDMA, website.

To develop and propose suitable mitigation strategies

1. To generate public awareness and educate.

2. Maintain and publicize evacuation path

3. Engineering contribution in mitigation

4. Role of corporate sector

5. Risk transfer mechanism

6. To create a culture of prevention.

Analysis of the case. Self-analysis.

Table – 1 below shows the impact of disaster on ports along with tangible and intangible losses whereas table - 2 depicts the economic losses due to various hazards in India with population affected.

www.ijmer.in 116



Table – 1: Impact of Disaster on society

Consequences Measure Tangible losses Intangible losses Deaths No. of people Loss of economically

active individuals Social and psychological effect on the remaining community

Injuries No. and injury severity

Medical treatment needs, temporary loss of economic activity by productive individuals

Social and psychological pain recovery

Physical Damage

Inventory of damaged elements by no. and damage level

Repair and replacement costs

Cultural losses

Emergency Operation

Volume of labour, workdays employed, equipment and resources.

Mobilization costs, investment in preparedness activities

Stress and overwork in relief participants

Disruption to Economy

No. of working days lost, volume of production lost.

Value of lost production

Opportunities, competition and reputation

Social Disruption

No. of displaced persons, homeless

Temporary housing, relief, economic production, community moral

Psychological and social contacts cohesion

Environmental Impact

Scale and severity.

Clean up costs, repair costs.

Consequences of poorer environment, health risks, risk of future disaster.

Table – 2: Population affected in various hazards in last 15 years

Year People affected (Lakh)

Houses & Buildings damaged (No. Lakh)

Damage/Loss (Rs. in crore)

1985 595.6 24.5 40.06 1986 550.0 20.5 30.74 1987 483.4 29.19 20.57 1988 101.5 2.42 40.63

www.ijmer.in 117



1989 30.1 7.82 20.41 1990 31.7 10.2 10.71 1991 342.7 11.9 10.90 1992 190.9 5.7 20.05 1993 262.4 15.3 50.80 1994 235.3 10.51 10.83 1995 543.5 20.08 40.73 1996 549.9 23.76 50.43 1997 443.8 11.01 N. A. 1998 521.7 15.63 0.72 1999 501.7 31.04 1020.97 2000 594.34 27.16 800.00 2001 780.19 8.46 12000

Data Analysis

Ports are a crucial part of the transportation infrastructure of the country. The international experience with economic development has emphasized the development that has taken place near the coast through “gains from trade”. Total export and import of cargo from or to the India is done by various modes of transportation, in which port sector has the major role in trade and commerce(refer figure – 1). The

foreign trade to be through the maritime route is 90% by volume and 70% by value(figure – 2). Ports are classified as: Major ports (a list of named ports where the central government plays policy and regulatory functions) and Non major ports (which are guided by state governments), which are further classified as intermediate ports and minor ports. India has 13 Major Ports and 187 Non Major Ports

along 7,517 km long Indian coastline. There is lot of traffic generated by trucks carrying the cargo on the road and wagons by rail tracks because of export and import of commodities from the Indian ports. Major ports are handling almost 75% of total cargo handled at all the ports of India and non-major ports are handling 25% of total cargo (refer figure – 3).

www.ijmer.in 118



Figure – 1: Importance of Ports in development of Country

Figure -2: Business carried out by waterways (2005-2006)

TRADE BY MARITIME ROUTES

90%

10%

TRADE BY SEA

TRADE BYOTHER MODE

Coastal Region

Key Factors of Development

Infrastructure Industrialization Ports

Urbanization

Pattern of Development

www.ijmer.in 119



Figure - 3: Percentage Cargo handled by Major and Minor Ports (2005-2006)

The economic impact due to the disasters can be depicted well by studying the overall effect on society in terms of direct, indirect losses and secondary losses and particularly at ports by studying the

statistics of the traffic handled by the ports hit by disasters(table – 3).

Table - 3: Estimate of Asset losses and Reconstruction costs due to cyclone and earthquake

Sector Asset Losses ($ million)

Reconstruction Costs ($ million)

Disaster Cyclone 98

Earthquake 01

Cyclone ‘98

Earthquake ‘01

Housing 9.116 1111 9.116 1107 Health 1.02 47 1.02 60 Education 0.044 144 0.044 180 Sub-total (Social Sectors)

10.18 1302 10.18 1347

Irrigation 1.487 40 1.487 90 Rural Water Supply 7.076 50 7.076 97 Municipal Infrastructure

0.053 30 0.053 45

CARGO TRAFFICNON MAJOR PORTS

25%

MAJOR PORTS

75%

MAJOR PORTS

NON MAJORPORTS

www.ijmer.in 120



Public buildings 18.94 73 18.94 95 Power 105.9 40 105.9 98 Transport 0.129 69 0.129 77 Ports 62.86 21 62.86 26 Telecommunication 18.09 11 18.09 26 Sub-total (Infrastructures)

214.6 334 214.6 554

Agriculture 77.12 117 77.12 74 Industry 61.15 73 61.15 44 Services 63.44 250 63.44 200 Sub-total (Productive Sectors)

201.7 440 201.7 318

Environment 1.086 55 1.086 55 Grand Total 518.1 2131 518.1 9909

Figure - 4: Cargo handled by major ports of India

Cargo Handled by Major Ports of Various States of India

0102030405060708090

94-95

95-96

96-97

97-98

98-99

99-00

00-01

2001

-02

2002

-03

2003

-04

2004

-05

2005

-06

Financial Year

Carg

o ha

ndle

d in

MM

T

Gujarat

Maha

Goa

Karna

Kerala

T nadu

A.P.

Orissa

W.B.

www.ijmer.in 121



Figure – 5: Cargo handled by minor ports of India Inferences

Following are the inferences from the data collected

1. Most of the port structures damaged during the cyclone and earthquake were old structures of 1950’s.

2. Not designed as per relevant codal provisions.

3. Types of the soil existing in the vicinity of the ports are soft clay &silty clay which are prone to liquefaction.

4. Some of the structural failures were exclusively due to liquefaction.

5. Problem of soil structure interaction.

6. Warning systems not adequate and appropriate.

7. Referring the data of the cargo handled at the ports hit by disaster, it is evident that disasters have direct relations with the development of the ports.

8. Loss of business due to the disasters is considerable which is evident from the growth rate scenario of the ports.

9. Not only the business is affected, but the service sector is also affected considerably.

10. Disasters are always accompanied with the damages to the structures, loss to the infrastructural facilities which are the

Cargo handled by Minor Ports of Various States of India

020

4060

80100

120

90-91

91-92

92-93

93-94

94-95

95-96

96-97

97-98

98-99

99-00

00-01

2001

-02

2002

-03

2003

-04

2004

-05

2005

-06

Year

Carg

o Ha

ndle

d in

MM

T

GujaratMahaGoaKarnaKeralaT naduA.P.OrissaW.B.

www.ijmer.in 122



arteries and veins of our system, epidemics, and rehabilitation and restoration costs.

11. Mitigation strategies not adequate. Hence emphasis shall be laid on mitigating the disasters.

Mitigating a Disaster

1. Improve Public Awareness

a) Educate the public about hazards prevalent to their area

b) Publicize the documents associated with emergency response and mitigation

c) Maintain and publicize a current action plan for emergency response.

d) Maintain and publicize current evacuation routes

2. Minimize the Impact of All Hazards

a) Development of strategies, land use plans and maintenance of emergency infrastructure

3. Minimize the Impact of Natural Hazard Events on built structures

a) Improve the resistance of structures in the community against natural hazards

b) Reduce the impact of Natural Hazard Events on trees near built structures.

c) Decrease the potential for structural damage from wind event debris

d) Decrease the potential for the loss of critical utilities during major storm events

4. Improve the state’s Technical Capability

a) Implement a GIS/GPS Setup for the state/town/area.

www.ijmer.in 123



b) Record all structures within the cyclone prone areas.

c) Improve the area’s capability to identify areas needing future mitigation

A summary of considerations to be made in the programming, identification and appraisal stages of a new construction or strengthening project for hazard-risk reduction can be obtained by Creating a Culture of Prevention and ensuring the following steps

Stage I: Define roles and responsibilities

Stage II: Hazard assessment

Stage III: Review of legislation and good practice

Stage IV: Review of construction methodologies and local Capacity

Stage V: Set hazard safety objectives

Stage VI: Site selection

Stage VII: Design and procurement

Stage VIII: Construction

Stage IX: Operation and maintenance

Stage X: Evaluation

A method of analysis for port structures based on performance is suggested below;

Type of Analysis

Simplified analysis

Simplified dynamic analysis

Dynamic analysis

Structural modeling

Geotechnical modeling

Gravity quay wall

Empirical/Pseudo-static methods with/without soil liquefaction

Newmark’s type analysis simplified chart based on

FEM/FDM linear or non- linear analysis 2D/3D

FEM/FDM linear (Equivalent linear) or non- linear analysis

Sheet pile quay wall

www.ijmer.in 124



parametric studies

2D/3D

Pile-supported wharf

Response spectrum method

Pushover and response spectrum methods

Crane

Cellular quay wall

Pseudo-static analysis

Newmark’s type analysis

Breakwater

Table 4: Methods of Analysis for port structures

Conclusion

The rigorous study of the work, review of the literature on similar works, collection of the relevant data’s and its analysis leads to the following conclusions;

1. Developing countries like India had been ‘reactive’ in its approach towards disasters – with precious resources being spent on relief, rehabilitation and reconstruction efforts but after the Bhuj earthquake the focus has shifted to a balanced approach including pre-disaster aspects such as disaster prevention, mitigation and preparedness.

2. Disaster is always followed by casualty, injuries, physical damage, and emergency operation, disruption to economy, social disruption and environmental impact and its effect may be short term or long term depending upon the area of concentration of the disaster.

3. Case study on the ports of Kandla, Porbandar and Navlakhi clearly indicates that as and when the disaster strikes the port, it leads to the major economic impact due to the damage to the structures (on

www.ijmer.in 125



shore and off shore), damage to the machineries, non-functioning of the ports, loss to the cargo, loss of business.

4. Sufficient care shall be taken during the planning stage, designing stage, implementation stage and construction stages of the port structures.

5. Ensuring that transportation, storage, handling and usage of chemicals and other hazardous raw materials does not pose a secondary threat to the nearby areas and environment in event of disaster.

6. Performance Based Design (PBD) shall be adopted for port structures.

7. Large-scale awareness generation initiatives aimed at building the knowledge, attitude and skills of the common people for a safer

habitat.

8. New technologies like GIS, RS and GPS shall be used for mapping a hazard and formulating mitigation strategy.

9. It is also proposed to secure active participation of corporate sector in risk mapping of the area hosting the industry and in training and capacity building of the community in its disaster preparedness activities. It is also envisaged to create an industry-led voluntary force for search and rescue and first-aid etc.

10. Warning systems shall be properly designed and its effectiveness shall be checked at regular interval.

11. A group of Engineers (civil, mechanical & electrical), Doctors, Social workers, Machinery operators shall be given periodic training to work during and after disaster.

www.ijmer.in 126



References

1. Macro-Economic Impact of Disasters (2002) by Mark Pelling, AlpaslamOzerdem and Sultan Barakat, University of York, U.K.

2. Assessment of Economic Lossess due to Tsunami 2004 by Barry Coulthurst, ANZ, Australia.

3. Preliminary Report on Bhuj Earthquake by Takashi Kaminosono, 2001.

4. Economic applications in disaster research, mitigation and planning by Terry L. Clower, Associate Director, University of North Texas, USA.

5. Disaster Management by Mileti (1999). 6. 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami in South-West Coast of Sri Lanka and

Its Damage by Takashi Tomita, Taro Arikawa, Tomohiro Yasuda, Fumihiko Imamura and Yoshiaki Kawata, Japan.

7. “The Indian Ocean Tsunami: Economic Impact, Disaster Management and Lessons” by Prema-chandraAthukoralaand Budy P. Resosudarmo, Australian National University.

8. “Transportation Performance, Disaster Vulnerability, and Long-Term Effects of Earthquakes” by Stephanie E. Chang (2001), Research Assistant Professor, Dept. of Geography, University of Washington, Seattle, USA

9. Need for Setback Lines in Coastal Zone Management, A Meteorological point of view, by AntanioMasarenhas, National Institute of Oceanography, Dona Paula, Goa, India. pg. 5

10. Urban earthquake vulnerability reduction project, Vijaywada, by IIT, Kanpur.

11. Wind Damage Information related to India (2001) by Dr. SubhashYaragal

12. Ports in India and its Importance by Dr. G. Raghuram, Prof. IIMA. 13. Hazards Vulnerability on Porbandar Port, Gujarat, by IMS

Consultancy, Mumbai. 14. “Application of GIS for assessing human vulnerability to cyclone in

India” by Sheikh M. NazmulHossain and Ashbindu Singh. 15. “Hawaii country multi-hazard mitigation plan, 2006. pg. 4-5

www.ijmer.in 127



HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF FOREST DEVELOPMENT POLICIES IN INDIA: AN OVERVIEW

Dr. Jogi Madhusudan Post-Doctoral Fellow-UGC

Dept. of Rural Development and Social Work S.K.University, Anantapuramu

A review of forest development during the last sixty years would

furnish a historical background to modern Indian forestry. Forest policy encompasses both short and long-term objectives. The short-term goals are better utilization of forest resources for the betterment of the living standards, meet the basic needs of people and enhance its contribution to the national exchequer. The long-term goals of forest

policy are: (i) increasing the production and productivity of forests while protecting and conserving these essential resources; (ii) enlarging their share of socio-economic benefits accruing from forest development, and (iii) achieving a more equitable distribution of economic benefits from forest activities, particularly in rural and tribal areas. And, more importantly, to strike an equitable balance in the eco-system.

In 1921, the administration of forests came under the control of the respective Provinces (States). Following the grant of provincial autonomy in 1935, forests became the responsibility of the Provincial Government. However, forest research and education remained with the Central Government. In the post-War period, rehabilitation of the overworked forests and the need for improving future forest working were initiated. The Forest Research Institute (FRI), Dehra Dun, was

expanded and reorganized to meet the increasing needs of forest research, forest production and utilization.

www.ijmer.in 128



The need for forests and the efforts to develop them to promote forest industries and to step up exports was realised soon after inde-pendence. It was in 1952 that the government revised the earlier policy and formulated a positive policy known as the National Forest Policy of 1952, which was announced and issued as a Resolution of the Government of India.

The Forest Policy Resolution of 1952 may be considered as a landmark in the history of forests in India. The resolution is more in the nature of guidelines than a time-bound action programme, But its importance lies in the fact that, perhaps for the first time, the government has stated clearly the kind of policies it will pursue in order to develop forests in a planned manner.

The Salient Features

The salient features of this policy were:

(i) The sole object with which State forests are administered is public benefit. In general, the constitution and preservation of a forest involve the regulation of rights and the restriction of the privileges of the user in the forest by the neighbouring population;

(ii) Forests situated on hill slopes should be maintained as protection

forests to preserve the climatic and physical conditions of the country and to protect the cultivated plains that lie below them from the devastating action of hill torrents;

(iii) Forests which are the reservoirs of valuable timbers should be

managed on commercial lines as a source of revenue to the States;

(iv) Wherever an effective demand for culturabie land exists and can only be met from the forest area, the land should ordinarily be relinquished without hesitation, subject to the following conditions: (a) Honeycombing of a valuable forest by patches of cultivation should not be allowed; (b) Cultivation must be permanent and must

www.ijmer.in 129



not be allowed to such an extent that it encroaches upon the minimum area of forests that is needed to meet the reasonable forest requirements, present and prospective; and

Fig. 2.1

Evolution of the National Forest Policy in India

(v) Forests that yield only inferior timber, fuelwood or fodder, or are used for purposes of grazing, should be managed mainly in the interest of the local population, care being taken to see that the user is not exercised so as to annihilate its subject and the people are

protected against their own improvidence.

National Forest Policy 1988

Review by the National Commission on Agriculture

1976


Central Board of Forestry, 1950

Completed Vested in the State Govt. in 1935

Administration under State Control 1921


Forest Policy

Amended, 1988

Forest Conservation Act, 1980

www.ijmer.in 130



This policy was based on the desire that forests serve agricultural interests more directly than before.

Central Board of Forestry

Even before the revised National Forest Policy was introduced, the Government of India had constituted a Central Board of Forestry (CBF) in 1950 to provide guidance to the government in the formulation of forestry policies and programmes. The CBF set up its own standing committee to follow up the implementation of its recommendations. The composition and the functions of the CBF and its standing committee have been discussed in the following paragraphs.

In the context agricultural and industrial development, forestry has assumed a vital role and calls for concerted action in such state matters as soil conservation and flood control measures, the

development of industries and standardization of timbers, the evolution of forest management and legislation for the control of private forests. THE CBF is managed by 36 members, with the Union Minister for Agriculture as the Chairman. The other members include ministers in charge of Forests in States and others connected with the ministry.

Functions

The functions of the board are:

a) Coordination and integration of the forest policy pursued by States in the management of their forests.

b) The adoption of conservation measures affecting forest resources and soil.

c) Integration of plans for land use and national reconstruction in which forestry has to play a progressively important role.

www.ijmer.in 131



d) Promotion of legislation considered necessary in the various States for the management of private forests.

e) Regulation and development of forests in inter-state river valleys, which are the concern of the Central government.

f) Maintenance of adequate standards for the training of officers.

g) Coordination of the forest research conducted in central and state institutes.

The CBF is the successor to the Board of control which was set up in late nineteenth century under the chairmanship of the Inspector. General of Forests to ensure adequate standards in forestry training imparted at the Forest School at Dehra Dun. In those days, membership of the Board was confined to three Conservators of Forests

invited by the Chairman by rotation. In 1906, when the Forest Research Institute (FRI), Dehra Dun, came into being, the scope and functions of the Board of Control were enlarged and representation on it was extended to include all erstwhile British Provinces. After the introduction of the Montague- Chelmsford Reforms in 1921, doubts were expressed regarding the advisability of continuing the Board. The opinion elicited from the various Provinces on the matter, however, revealed that such an all-India body served a useful purpose in that it acted as a forum for the exchange of experience, as a clearing house of information and as a co-ordinating agency for forest research, education and standardisation of forestry practices. After Independence, the need for setting up a central forest organisation to suit the altered conditions was voiced at the Conference of the State Ministers in charge of forests on September 8 and 9,1948. It was in pursuance of the recommendations of the Conference that the CBF was

constituted in June 1950 at the Minister’s level in the belief that its deliberations would evoke universal response, inspire public confidence and win countrywide support.

www.ijmer.in 132



The CBF became the supreme advisory body for review of the national forest policy, and for the formulation of a detailed policy and for its implementation. It had in all twelve meetings between May 1951 and May 1970; the thirteenth and fourteenth meetings were held as late as in February 1973 and October 1974 respectively.

National Forest Policy

The important observations of the Estimates Committee in this respect were:

1. Effective steps should be taken by the Central Board of Forestry to increase the forest area in the various states;

2. The proportion of the area that ought to be under forests in each State/Union Territory should be clearly indicated;

3. The Central Government should accord priority to a detailed survey of all the lands as a basis for evolving a system of

balanced and complementary land use;

4. Necessary steps should be taken to demarcate forests on a functional basis and to collect statistics thereof;

5. The government should lake effective measures to ensure that simultaneous steps arc taken to afforest suitable areas, equal to those which have to be deforested by the implementation of development projects;

6. Urgent steps should be taken by the Centre to carry on a special study of forest grazing in the country, so that a sound grazing policy is evolved. In implementing a sound grazing policy, it is essential to seek the willing co-operation of the villagers;

7. In the matter of shifting cultivation, besides introducing agrosilvicultural measures with the provision of necessary op-

www.ijmer.in 133



portunities and facilities, steps should be taken to provide tribals with alternative means of livelihood;

8. The feasibility of regulating/restricting the rights of local in-habitants under customary laws in certain states by providing suitable assistance to the affected parties may be examined by the Central Board of Forestry; and

9. There is need for providing adequate funds on a continuing basis to achieve the desired results in the development of forests. The National Commission on Agriculture(NCA) was of the view that there should be two pivotal points on which the National Forest Policy should rest. One is to meet the re-quirements of goods, that is, industrial wood for forest-based

industries, defence, communications and other public purposes, and small timber, fuel wood and fodder for the rural community. The other is to meet the present and future demands for protective and recreative functions of the forests.

Since forest-based industries are dependent on forest raw materials, the interdependence of forests and forest-based industries is obvious. The policy should, therefore, indicate clearly the interrelationship of forest economy with rural and tribal economy. The factors to be considered are:

Employment;

Rights of the user; and

Involvement of the local people.

The NCA recommended that the revised National Forest Policy should be based on the following important needs of the country:

i. Managing the forest resources of the country so as to provide

maximum goods and services for the well-being of the people and ensure the economic progress of the country;

www.ijmer.in 134



ii. Checking denudation and erosion in mountainous regions and catchments of rivers on which depend perennial stream flow's, and the preservation of the fertility of land;

iii. Preventing erosion along treeless banks of rivers, and of the vast stretches of waste lands, and arresting the spread of seas on coastal tracks and of shifting sand dunes in the western deserts;

iv. Maximizing forest productivity with a view to meeting the growing demand for industrial raw materials and to augment employment potential with the ultimate aim of national prosperity;

v. Providing small timber and fuel wood requirements of the rural population;

vi. Providing grass and grazing areas for livestock in forest areas ensuring that it is not harmful to the forests.

vii. Providing recreational and tourist opportunities; and

viii. Developing an eco-system for maintaining a healthy relationship between the soil, vegetation and animal life and establishing diverse biotic complexes for minimising chances and elimination of natural enemies, such as insects and other pests which damage crop monoculture.

After the National Forest Policy was laid down in 1952, forests throughout the country have suffered serious depletion on account of intense pressures arising from the ever increasing demands for firewood, timber and fodder, as well as the inadequacy of protective measures, the sacrifice of forest lands to non-forest purposes and the tendency to look upon forests as a revenue-earning resource. In this background, the existing National Forest Policy is being revised.

www.ijmer.in 135



A revised forest policy was drafted to bring out in sharper focus the need for massive and popular afforestation programme for environmental health, social forestry, welfare of tribals, preservation of wild life etc. and general approval of the Central Board of Forestry obtained. A special meeting of the Central Board of Forestry was held in August, 1982 to consider the draft Revised National Forest Policy and proposed amendments to the Indian Forest Act.

The basic plank of forest policy, as conceived in the special meeting of the Central Board of Forestry in 1983, emphasised on securing ecological balance and environmental stability. The tone for strategies came to be set in the meeting of Forest Ministers held in the late 1982 and addressed by the late Prime Minister, Smt. Indira

Gandhi. Two themes were reiterated at the Conference:

Conservation for environmental and ecological needs and for preservation of wild life and genetic resources;

Development tor rehabilitation of forests and wild life, for en-larging the resources base through afforestation, and social and farm forestry programmes in order to meet the people’s needs, generate economic activity and employment.

The existing forest policy enunciated more than 30 years ago in 1952 is considered inadequate for the purpose and, therefore, revision has been contemplated in accordance with the draft endorsed by the Central Board of Forestry. The draft policy is under the active consideration of the government and is expected to be enunciated soon.

The National Forest Policy, 1988

The Government of India presented in December 1988 the National Forest Policy, 1988. In view of the social, economic and ecological importance of forests, considerable thought has to be given to

www.ijmer.in 136



the multifarious implications of the Forest Policy. Although the 1952 Forest Policy aimed at forest coverage of one-third of the total land area of the country, due to various constraints, this could not be attained. Rather, extensive diversion of forest land has taken place for non-forest use. The genetic diversity has also been considerably affected by the destruction of flora and fauna. The government has increasingly realised the great importance of forests in contributing to the ecological stability of the country. This has necessitated a re-examination of the Forest Policy and giving emphasis to the conserva- tional and ecological aspects.

Salient Features

The salient features of the new Forest Policy are:

1. Maintenance of environmental stability through preservation and restoration of ecological balance.

2. Conservation of the natural heritage of the country by preserving the remaining natural forests and protecting the vast genetic resources for the benefit of posterity.

3. Meeting the basic needs of the people, especially fuelwood, fodder and small timber for the rural and tribal people.

4. Maintaining the intrinsic relationship between forests and the tribal and other poor people living in and around forests by protecting their customary rights and concessions in the forests.

Approach

The main approach outlined is as follows:

a) Existing forest land and forests will be fully protected and their productivity will be improved. Emphasis will be given to enhance forest cover on hill slopes and catchment areas of rivers.

www.ijmer.in 137



b) In order to conserve biological diversity, a network of sanctuaries, national parks, biosphere reserves and other protected areas will be extended and better managed.

c) The people will be actively involved in programmes of protection, conservation and management of the forests.

It is hoped that the new Forest Policy will be able to achieve nature conservation and ecological balance, at the same time, meeting the essential requirements of the people.

The Situation

Over the years, the forests in India have suffered serious depletion. At present, the country loses around 1.5 million hectares of forests every year to meet the relentless demand for fuelwood. fodder and timber. The need to review the situation and to evolve a new strategy for forest conservation has become imperative. Conservation includes preservation, maintenance, sustainable utilisation, restoration, and enhancement of the forest cover.

www.ijmer.in 138



In this background, the National Forest Policy, 1988 is an improved version of the earlier drafts of 1984 and 1987. The revised National Forest Policy 1988 is a step in the right direction. It is an attempt to draw a balance between demand and supply. More importantly, the policy is integrated with national economic policies.

The need of the hour is first to arrest the increasing depletion by population control and evolving alterative sources of energy, timber and other forest raw materials. Even fodder has to be manufactured in an industry. On the other hand, by adopting science and technology, the forest cover and productivity have to be enhanced. It is timely to secure alternative sources of livelihood to forest dwellers and control the exploitation of forests by traders, etc.

Fig. 2.3

Forest Protection and Conservation

Conservation of Forests

Preservation

Maintenance

Sustainable Utilisation

Restoration

Afforestation

Protection of Environment

Enhancement of the Natural Environment

Inte

grat

ed S

yste

m A

ppro

ach

Fore

stry

www.ijmer.in 139



Basic Objectives

The basic objectives that should govern the National Forest Policy are as follows:

Maintenance of environmental stability through preservation and, where necessary, restoration of the ecological balance that has been adversely disturbed by serious depletion of the forests of the country.

Conserving the natural heritage of the county by preserving the remaining natural forests with a vast variety of flora and fauna, which represent the remarkable biological diversity and genetic resources of the country.

Checking soil erosion and denudation in the catchment areas of rivers, lakes, reservoirs in the interest of soil and water conservation, for mitigating floods and droughts and fry the retardation of siltation of reservoirs.

Checking the extension of sand-dunes'in the desert areas of Rajas- than and along the coastal tracts.

Increasing substantially the forest/tree cover in the country through massive afforestation and social forestry programmes, especially on all denuded, degraded and unproductive lands.

Meeting the requirements of fuelwood, fodder, minor forest produce and small timber of the rural and tribal populations.

Increasing the productivity of forests to meet essential national needs.

Encouraging the efficient utilisation of forest produce and maxi-mising substitution of wood.

Creating a massive people's movement with the involvement of women, for achieving these objectives and to minimise pressure on existing forests.

The principal aim of Forest Policy must be to ensure environmental stability and maintenance of ecological balance,

including atmospheric equilibrium which are vital to the sustenance of

www.ijmer.in 140



all life forms, human, animal and plant. The derivation of direct economic benefit must be subordinated to this principal aim.

Status of Forests in India

The forest cover of the country has been classified on the basis of the canopy density into pre-defined classes, viz. Very Dense Forest (VDF), Moderately Dense Forest (MDF) and Open Forest (OF). Scrub, though shown separately, is not counted in the forest cover. The country level forest cover is summarized in Table 2.1, and their proportion is depicted in a pie chart in Chart.2.1. The area under VDF, MDF and OF also includes mangrove cover of the corresponding density class.

Table 2.1

Forest Cover of India

Class

Area (sq.

Per cent of

Geographical Area Forest Cover a) Very Dense Forest 83,502 2.54 b) Moderately Dense Forest 318,745 9.70 c) Open Forest 295,651 8.99 Total Forest Cover* 697,898 21.23 Scrub 41,383 1.26 Non Forest 2,547,982 77.51 Total Geographical Area 3,287,263 100.00

Source: India State of Forest Report-2013, Forest Survey of India.

* Includes 4,629 sq km under mangroves

As per current assessment, total forest cover of the country is

697,898 sq km which works out as 21.23 per cent of the geographical area of the country. In terms of density classes, area covered by VDF is 83,502 sq km, that with MDF is 318,745 sq km and OF is 295,651 sq km. The VDF class constitutes 2.54 per cent, the MDF class constitutes 9.70 per cent and the OF class constitutes 8.99 per cent of total

www.ijmer.in 141



geographical area of the country.

States/UTs-wise Forest Cover

Forest cover of each State and UT of the country has been presented in the Table 2.2. Area wise, Madhya Pradesh has the largest forest cover (77,522 sq km) in the country followed by Arunachal Pradesh (67,321 sq km), Chhattisgarh (55,621 sq km), Maharashtra (50,632 sq km) and Odisha (50,347 sq km). In terms of percentage of forest cover with respect to total geographical area, Mizoram with 90.38 per cent has the highest forest cover, followed by Lakshadweep (84.56 per cent), Andaman & Nicobar Islands (81.36 per cent),

Arunachal Pradesh (80.39 per cent), Nagaland (78.68 per cent), Meghalaya (77.08 per cent), Manipur (76.10 per cent) and Tripura (75.01 per cent).

www.ijmer.in 142



Table 2.2 Forest Cover in States/UTs in India

(Area in km2)

States/UTs Geogra phical Area

2013 Assessment Per cent Of

Geographical Area

Change in Forest

Cover wrt ISFR

2011

Change

Per cent

Scrub Very Dense Forest

Mod. Dense Forest

Open Forest Forest

Total Forest Forest

Andhra Pradesh

275,069 850 26,079 19,187 46,116 16.77 -273 -0.10 10,465 Arunachal Pradesh 83,743 20,828 31,414 15,079 67,321 80.39 -89 -0.11 121

Assam 78,438 1,444 11,345 14,882 27,671 35.28 -2 0.00 182 Bihar 94,163 247 3,380 3,664 7,291 7.74 446 0.47 115 Chhattisgarh 135,191 4,153 34,865 16,603 55,621 41.14 -53 -0.04 117 Delhi 1,483 6.76 49.38 123.67 179.81 12.12 3.61 0.24 2.24 Goa 3,702 543 585 1091 2219 59.94 0 0.00 0 Gujarat 196,022 376 5,220 9,057 14,653 7.48 34 0.02 1,492 Haryana 44,212 27 453 1,106 1,586 3.59 -22 -0.05 150 Himachal Pradesh 55,673 3,224 6,381 5,078 14,683 26.37 4 0.01 298 Jammu & Kashmir*

222,236 4,140 8,760 9,638 22,538 10.14 -1 0.00 2,105 Jharkhand 79,714 2,587 9,667 11,219 23,473 29.45 496 0.62 670

www.ijmer.in 143



Karnataka 191,791 1,777 20,179 14,176 36,132 18.84 -62 -0.03 3,216 Kerala 38,863 1,529 9,401 6,992 17,922 46.12 622 1.60 29 Madhya Pradesh

308,245 6,632 34,921 35,969 77,522 25.15 -178' -0.06 6,389 Maharashtra 307,713 8,720 20,770 21,142 50,632 16.45 -14 0.00 4,157 Manipur 22,327 728 6,094 10,168 16,990 76.10 -100 -0.45 1 Meghalaya 22,429 449 9,689 7,150 17,288 77.08 13 0.06 372 Mizoram 21,081 138 5,900 13,016 19,054 90.38 -63 -0.30 0 Nagaland 16,579 1,298 4,736 7,010 13,044 78.68 -274 -1.65 2 Odisha 155,707 7,042 21,298 22,007 50,347 32.33 1444 0.93 4,424 Punjab 50,362 0 736 1,036 1,772 3.52 8 0.02 37 Rajasthan 342,239 72 4,424 11,590 16,086 4.70 -1 0.00 4,211 Sikkim 7,096 500 2,161 697 3,358 47.32 -1 -0.01 311 Tamil Nadu 130,058 2,948 10,199 10,697 23,844 18.33 219 0.17 1,212 Tripura 10,486 109 4,641 3,116 7,866 75.01 -111 -1.06 66 Uttar Pradesh 240,928 1,623 4,550 8,176 14,349 5.96 11 0.00 806 Uttarakhand 53,483 4,785 14,111 5,612 24,508 45.82 12 0.02 262 West Bengal 88,752 2,971 4,146 9,688 16,805 18.93 3810# 4.29 111 A&N Islands 8,249 3,754 2,413 544 6,711 81.36 -13 -0.16 57 Chandigarh 114 1.36 9.66 6.24 17.26 15.14 0.26 0.23 0.56

www.ijmer.in 144



Dadra & Nagar Haveli

491 0 114 99 213 43.38 2 0.41 1 Daman & Diu 12 0 1.87 7.4 9.27 8.28 3.27 2.92 0.96 Lakshadweep 32 0 17.18 9.88 27.06 84.56 0.06 0.19 0 Puducherry 480 0 35.23 14.83 50.06 10.43 0.06 0.01 0

Grand Total 3,287,263

83,502 318,745

295,651

697,898 21.23 5871 0.18 41,383

Source: India State of Forest Report-2013, Forest Survey of India. *Includes Jammu & Kashmirarea outside LOC that is under illegal occupation ofPakistan and China.

# The negative change in forest cover of Madhya Pradesh as compared to previous assessment is mainly attributed due to inclusion of some non forest area as forest cover. Similarly in West Bengal the change in forest cover in present assessment is due to exclusion of some areas as forest cover in the previous assessment due to poor quality satellite data.

www.ijmer.in 145



Change in Forest Cover

Change in forest cover between the two assessment periods, reflects the change on the ground during the intervening period. The positive change can be attributed to conservation measures or management interventions such as afforestation activities, participation of locals for better protection measures in plantation areas as well as in traditional forest areas etc., whereas the decrease in forest cover is due to harvesting of short rotational plantations, clearances in encroached areas, biotic pressures, shifting cultivation practices etc. The errors may also arise due to subjectivity involved in certain components of classification.

www.ijmer.in 146



Table 2.4 Change in Forest Cover of States/UTs between 2011 and 2013

(Area in KM2)

State/UT

Geographical Area

2011 Assessment 2013 Assessment Change

VDF MDF OF Total VDF MDF OF Total VDF MDF OF Total Andhra Pradesh 275,069 850 26,242 19,297 46,389 850 26,079 19,187 46,116 0 -163 -110 -273

Arunachal Pradesh 83,743 20,868 31,519 15,023 67,410 20,828 31,414 15,079 67,321 -40 -105 56 -89

Assam 78,438 1,444 11,404 14,825 27,673 1,444 11,345 14,882 27,671 0 -59 57 -2

Bihar 94,163 231 3,280 3,334 6,845 247 3,380 3664 7,291 16 100 330 446

Chhattisgarh 135,191 4,163 34,911 16,600 55,674 4,153 34,865 16,603 55,621 -10 -46 3 -53 Delhi 1,483 6.76 49.48 119.96 176.2 6.76 49.38 123.67 180 0 -0.1 3.71 3.61

Goa 3,702 543 585 1,091 2,219 543 585 1,091 2,219 0 0 0 0

Gujarat 196,022 376 5,231 9,012 14,619 376 5,220 9,057 14,653 0 -11 45 34 Haryana 44,212 27 457 1,124 1,608 27 453 1,106 1,586 0 -4 -18 -22

Himachal Pradesh 55,673 3,224 6,381 5,074 14,679 3,224 6,381 5,078 14,683 0 0 4 4 Jammu & Kashmir* 222,236 4,140 8,760 9,639 22,539 4,140 8,760 9,638 22,538 0 0 -1 -1

Jharkhand 79,714 2,590 9,917 10,470 22,977 2,587 9,667 11,219 23,473 -3 -250 749 496

Karnataka 191,791 1,777 20,179 14,238 36,194 1,777 20,179 14,176 36,132 0 0 -62 -62

Kerala 38,863 1,442 9,394 6,464 17,300 1,529 9,401 6,992 17,922 87 7 528 622

Madhya Pradesh 308,245 6,640 34,986 36,074 77,700 6,632 34,921 35,969 77,522 -8 -65 -105 -178

Maharashtra 307,713 8,736 20,815 21,095 50,646 8,720 20,770 21,142 50,632 -16 -45 47 -14

Manipur 22,327 730 6,151 10,209 17,090 728 6,094 10,168 16,990 -2 -57 -41 -100

Meghalaya 22,429 433 9,775 7,067 17,275 449 9,689 7,150 17,288 16 -86 83 13

Mizoram 21,081 134 6,086 12,897 19,117 138 5,900 13,016 19,054 4 -186 119 -63

Nagaland 16,579 1,293 4,931 7,094 13,318 1,298 4,736 7,010 13,044 5 -195 -84 -274

www.ijmer.in 147



State/UT

Geographical Area

2011 Assessment 2013 Assessment Change

VDF MDF OF Total VDF MDF OF Total VDF MDF OF Total Odisha 155,707 7,060 21,366 20,477 48,903 7,042 21,298 22,007 50,347 -18 -68 1,530 1,444

Punjab 50,362 0 736 1,028 1,764 0 736 1,036 1,772 0 0 8 8

Rajasthan 342,239 72 4,448 11,567 16,087 72 4,424 11,590 16,086 0 -24 23 -1

Sikkim 7,096 500 2,161 698 3,359 500 2,161 697 3,358 0 0 -1 -1

Tamil Nadu 130,058 2,948 10,321 10,356 23,625 2,948 10,199 10,697 23,844 0 -122 341 219 Tripura 10,486 109 4,686 3,182 7,977 109 4,641 3,116 7,866 0 -45 -66 -111

Uttar Pradesh 240,928 1,626 4,559 8,153 14,338 1,623 4,550 8,176 14,349 -3 -9 23 11

Uttarakhand 53,483 4,762 14,167 5,567 24,496 4,785 14,111 5,612 24,508 23 -56 45 12

West Bengal 88,752 2,984 4,646 5,365 12,995 2,971 4,146 9,688 16,805 -13 -500 4,323 3,810

A&N Islands 8,249 3761 2,416 547 6,724 3,754 2,413 544 6,711 -7 -3 -3 -13

Chandigarh 114 1 10 6 17 1.36 9.6£ i 6.24 17.26 0.36 -0.34 0.24 0.26

Dadra & Nagar Haveli 491 0 114 97 211 0 114 99 213 0 0 2 2

Daman & Diu 112 0 0.62 5.53 6.15 0 1.87 7.4 9.27 0 1.25 1.82 3.12

Lakshadweep 32 0 17.18 9.88 27.06 0 17.18 9.88 27.06 0 0 0 0

Puducherry 480 0 35.37 14.69 50.06 0 35.23 14.83 50.06 0 -0.14 0.14 0

Grand Total 3,287,263 83,471 320,736 287,820 692,027 83,502 318,745 295,651 697,898 31 -,991 7,831 5,871


www.ijmer.in 148



The error in classification also pertains to the areas where the forest cover either went undetected due to snow or cloud cover, hill shadow effect, poor reflectance from trees due to leaf-fall or poor image quality at the time of previous assessment or classified as forest due to poor tonal variation. Sometimes, error also occurs due to lack of correct ground information or data from secondary sources. In the present assessment, better radiometric value of the satellite data has resulted in better delineation of features thereby resolving the mixed nature of classes to some extent on the ground. In the present assessment, considerable use of high resolution collateral data has been made and time series Google

Earth Images for minimizing the interpretational errors and

ascertaining the ground features in doubtful areas. Extensive field visits by the field teams along with collateral information from the SFDs have also contributed in improving the interpretation in some of areas.

After taking into account the changes observed during the two assessments periods i.e. ISFR 2011 and ISFR 2013, there has been an increase of 5,871 sq km forest cover at the national level. Two states namely West Bengal and Odisha have contributed to an increase of 3,810 sq km and 1,444 sq km respectively. Other states where significant increase has been observed are Kerala, Bihar, Jharkhand and Tamil Nadu. It is to be mentioned here that the some of the changes as reported in this ISFR may pertain to the years preceding ISFR 2011. The change of forest cover for ISFR 2013 and 2011 has been presented in Table 2.4. Table 2.4 gives the change in forest cover for all the States/UTs in all the three canopy density classes. There is a

total increase of 5,871 sq km in the forest cover of the country as compared to the previous assessment of 2011. The States/UTs which have shown considerably positive changes are West Bengal (3,810 sq km ), Odisha (1,444 sq km), Kerala (622 sq km), Jharkhand (496 sq

www.ijmer.in 149



km), Bihar (446 sq km), Tamil Nadu (219 sq km), Gujarat (34 sq km), whereas, states like Nagaland (274 sq km), Andhra Pradesh (273 sq km), Madhya Pradesh (178 sq km), Tripura (111 sq km), Manipur (100 sq km), Arunachal Pradesh (89 sq km), Mizoram (63 sq km), Karnataka (62 sq km), Chhattisgarh (53 sq km) have shown considerable negative changes. At the country level, there is an increase of 31 sq km in VDF areas and decrease of 1,999 sq km in MDF areas, while there is an increase of 7,831 sq km in of areas.

www.ijmer.in 150



Table 2.5 Forest Cover of States/UTs for 2013 based on Green Wash Area

(Area in KM)

State/UT

2013 Assessment Change with Respect to ISFR 2011 Forest Cover Within Green wash Forest Cover Within Green wash Within Green Wash Outside Green Wash

VDF MDF OF Total VDF MDF OF Total VDF

MDF OF

Total

VDF

MDF OF

Total

Andhra Pradesh

841 24,167 15,862 40,870 9 1,912 3,325 5,246 0 -193 -3 -196 0 30 -107 -77

Arunachal Pradesh 13,182 20,674 9,698 43,554 7,646 10,740 5,381 23,767 -16 -20 12 -24 -24 -85 44 -65

Assam 1,343 9,724 8,771 19,838 101 1,621 6,111 7,833 -3 -50 70 17 3 -9 -13 -19 Bihar 236 2,470 1,997 4,703 11 910 1,667 2,588 19 26 -80 -35 -3 74 410 481 Chhattisgarh 4,054 32,161 13,707 49,922 99 2,704 2,896 5,699 -8 -16 25 1 -2 -30 -22 -54 Delhi

1.49 4.99 1.67 8.15 5.27 44.39 122 171.66 -

0.01 0 0.12 0.11 0.01 -0.1 3.59 3.5

Goa 516 405 608 1,529 27 180 483 690 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Gujarat 364 4,258 4,518 9,140 12 962 4,539 5,513 1 -11 56 46 -1 0 -11 -12 Haryana 25 205 216 446 2 248 890 1,140 0 0 -1 -1 0 -4 -17 -21 Himachal Pradesh

2,644 3,776 2,328 8,748 580 2,605 2,750 5,935 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 4

Jammu & Kashmir

3,134 5,549 4,733 13,416 1,006 3,211 4,905 9,122 0 0 0 0 0 0 -1 -1

Jharkhand 2,387 7,830 7,565 17,782 200 1,837 3,654 5,691 -16 -77 296 203 13 -173 453 293 Karnataka 1,677 16,235 9,603 27,515 100 3,944 4,573 8,617 0 4 -6 -2 0 -4 -56 -60 Kerala 1,437 5,590 2,924 9,951 92 3,811 4,068 7,971 134 -384 60 -190 -47 391 468 812 Madhya Pradesh 6,136 30,794 28,303 65,233 496 4,127 7,666 12,289 -2 -59 -126 -187 -6 -6 21 9

Maharashtra 8,369 15,962 13,132 37,463 351 4,808 8,010 13,169 -16 -44 40 -20 0 -1 7 6 Manipur 725 5,583 8,794 15,102 3 511 1,374 1,888 0 -28 18 -10 -2 -29 -59 -90 Meghalaya 416 7,992 6,473 14,881 33 1,697 677 2,407 31 -65 80 46 -15 -21 3 -33 Mizoram 130 5,841 12,690 18,661 8 59 326 393 -2 77 16 91 6 -263 103 -154 Nagaland 1,161 3,337 4,449 8,947 137 1,399 2,561 4,097 -5 -95 -31 -131 10 -100 -53 -143 Odisha 6,780 19,646 17,555 43,981 262 1,652 4,452 6,366 -35 -76 580 469 17 8 950 975 Punjab 0 336 290 626 0 400 746 1,146 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 8 Rajasthan 72 3,974 7,869 11,915 0 450 3,721 4,171 0 2 -3 -1 0 -26 26 0 Sikkim 341 1,385 295 2,021 159 776 402 1,337 0 -2 1 -1 0 2 -2 0 Tamil Nadu 2,600 7,777 6,308 16,685 348 2,422 4,389 7,159 -4 -51 62 7 4 -71 279 212 Tripura 96 4,036 2,469 6,601 13 605 647 1,265 -1 -27 -31 -59 1 -18 -35 -52

www.ijmer.in 151



State/UT

2013 Assessment Change with Respect to ISFR 2011 Forest Cover Within Green wash Forest Cover Within Green wash Within Green Wash Outside Green Wash

VDF MDF OF Total VDF MDF OF Total VDF

MDF OF

Total

VDF

MDF OF

Total

Uttar Pradesh

1,546 3,487 3,924 8,957 77 1,063 4,252 5,392 -3 -6 5 -4 0 -3 18 15

Uttarakhand 3,997 10,758 3,699 18,454 788 3,353 1,913 6,054 20 -55 47 12 3 -1 -2 0 West Bengal

2,668 2,399 2,135 7,202 303 1,747 7,553 9,603 -23 -548 688 117 10 48 3,63

5 3,693

A&N Islands 3,717 2,350 512 6,579 37 63 32 132 -7 -3 -3 -13 0 0 0 0 Chandigarh 0.41 0.1 0 0.51 0.95 9.56 6.24 16.75 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Dadra&Nagar Haveli 0 1 46 47 0 113 53 166 0 0 -3 -3 0 0 5 5

Daman & Diu

0 0 0 0 0 1.87 7.4 9.27 0 0 0 0 0 1.25 1.87 3.12

Lakshadweep 0 0 0 0 0 17.18 9.88 27.06 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Puducherry 0 0 0.9 0.9 0 35.23 13.93 49.16 0 0 0 0 0 -0.14 0.14 0 Grand Total

70,596

258,707

201,476

530,779

12,906

60,038

94,175

167,119

64 -

1,701

1,769

132 -33 -290 6062 5,73

9


www.ijmer.in 152



An analysis of the above table reveals that an increase in OF category in both inside and outside greenwash areas has been observed at the country level. This may be attributed to the conservation, plantation and promotional initiatives by SFDs and other agencies.

However, a decrease in MDF category within greenwash has also been observed. This may be attributed to several reasons including shifting cultivation particularly in the north east, rotational and departmental felling in the states like Andhra Pradesh and encroachments across the country. Overall, of the total increase of 5,871 sq km at the country level, 132 sq km increase in forest cover is observed within greenwash area while remaining 5,739 sq km has been

observed outside.

References

1. Agarwal, B. (1997). Environmental action, gender equity and women’s participation. Development and Change, 28: 1—44.

2. Aiyar, M.S. (2008). Recognizing the rights of forest dependents. Yojana, 52: 5-9.

3. Bahuguna, V.K. (2000). Joint forest management: An instrument for sustainable forest management. In V.K. Bahuguna and P. Woods (eds), India’s forests beyond 2000 (pp. 60-66). India: Commonwealth Forestry Association.

4. Banari, T., and Marglin, F.A. (1993). A system of knowledge analysis of deforestation, participation and management. In T. Banari and F.A. Marglin (eds), Who will save the forest? Knowledge, power and environmental destruction (pp. 1-23). London: Zed Books.

5. Bhargava, M. (2002). Forests, people and state. Economic and Political Weekly, 37(43): 4440-16.

www.ijmer.in 153



6. Gopalkrishnan, S. (2008). Democratic control over natural resources. Yojana, 52: 10-13.

7. Grayson, A.J., and Maynard, W.B. (eds) (1997). The World's Forest-Rio+5: International Initiatives towards sustainable Management. Oxford: Commonwealth Forestry Association.

8. Kameswari, V.L.V. (2002). Gendered communication and access to social space—Issues in forest management. Economic and Political Weekly, 37(8): 797-800.

9. Karat, B. (2008). Towards implementation of the Forest Rights Act. People’s Democracy, 32(5): 3.

10. Ministry of Environment & Forests. 1990. Guidelines for the regularization of eligible encroachments, Ministry of

Environment & Forests, Government of India, New Delhi.

11. National Forest Policy.1988. Ministry of Environment & Forests, Government of India, New Delhi.

12. Ramakrishnan, V. (2008). Hope and fear: The Forest Rights Act. Frontline, 25(4) : 4-8.

13. Ramnath, M. (2008). Surviving the Forest Rights Act: Between Scylla and Charybdis. Economic and Political Weekly, 43(9): 37-42.

14. Ravindranath, N.H. (2007), Forests in India. The Hindu Survey of Environment, pp. 13-18.

15. Ravindranath, N.H., Gadgil, M., and Campbell, J. (2002). Ecological stabilization and community needs: Managing India’s Forests by Objective. In M. Poffenberger and B. McGean (eds), Village voices and forest choices: Joint forest management in India (p. 312). New Delhi: Oxford University Press.

www.ijmer.in 154



16. Sarin, M. (1999). Policy Goals and JFM Practice: An Analysis of Institutional Arrangements and Outcomes. New Delhi: World Wide Fund for Nature, India.

17. Sarin, M. (2002). From Conflict to Collaboration: Institutional Issues in Community Management. In M. Poffenberger and B. McGean (eds), Village voices and forest choices: Joint forest management in India (pp. 165-209). New Delhi: Oxford University Press.

18. Sarker, D., and Das, N. (2002). Women’s participation in forestry: Some theoretical issues. Economic and Political Weekly, 37 (43): 4407-12.

19. Saxena, N.C. (1999). Forest Policy in India. New Delhi: World

Wide Fund for Nature, India.

20. Sekhar, N.U. (2000). Decentralization of natural resource management: From state to co-management. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management, 43(1): 123-138.

21. Sen, A., and Lalhrietpui, E. (2006). Scheduled Tribes (Recognition of Forest Rights) Bill: A view from anthropology and call for dialogue. Economic and Political Weekly, 41(39): 4205-10.

22. Upadhyay, S. (2008). Co-existence: Myths and Realities. Yojana, 52: 14-17.

23. Vasavada, S., Misra, A., and Bates, C. (1999). How many committees do I belong to? In R. Jeffery and N. Sundar (eds), A new moral economy for india’s forests? Discourses of community and participation (pp. 151-180). New Delhi: Sage.

24. Venkatesan, V. (2008). On the fringes. Frontline, 25 (4), Feb 29:

15-16.

www.ijmer.in 155



CULTURAL CONFLICT IN CHITRA DIVAKARUNI’S A PERFECT LIFE

Intikhab Alam Bhat Ph.D. Scholar (English)

Vikram University, Ujjain, India

Arranged Marriage is an anthology of short stories published in 1995 by ChitraDivakraruni, and it contains ten stories. ChitraDivakaruni is an immigrant writer whose storiesdealwith the life of Indian immigrants in America, especially women migrants. As a woman writer, Chitrafocuses on the problems of Indian women either migrated from India or born of Indian parents living in America. In India, women are said to be the custodians of tradition, culture, morals, religion, and family life, and when they are placed in alien land, they find their life and culture in jeopardy. As orthodox Indian women, they are unable to adapt themselves to American culture, which they think has no value. Free society, sexual freedom, cohabitation, neglect of parents and elders are unheard of in India, and when an Indian immigrant woman makes

an encounter with such factors in America, she is shaken mentally and cultural conflict crops up in her resulting in a quandary in which she remains indecisive. Some women refuse to adapt and they suffer, and return to India or accept their destiny.

In the anthology, Arranged Marriage, all stories deal with the cultural conflict which the Indian characters suffer in their life in America. Majority of the characters are outsiders of an alien land, and at the beginning of their life in America, they find entirely difficult the American way of life, American culture, conjugal life, and personal morals. In fact, it is a cultural shock to the Indians but slowly they understand the unrealities of life and it is a question of survival for them. Women suffer more than men, and as dependents on men

www.ijmer.in 156



especially husbands, they adjust themselves to the new environment even accepting the husband’s extramarital affairs. Even in the midst of sufferings and pains, they develop a positive attitude in life lest they should end up in conjugal bankruptcy. Most of the female protagonists in the stories discussed in this chapter are compelled to develop a positive attitude in life and they surmount transcultural conflicts in the alien land. A discussion of this problem in this article affirms the researcher’s contention.

Culture is the sum total of values in human life respected by majority of people in a society at a given time, and it is everlasting, but at the same time, it is dynamic, for man modifies his outlook on life, and it is the basis of very human existence. In the absence of the culture, there can be no progress, and man will turn demonic resulting in barbarism. It is the culture of a society which refines its people, makes them achieve the objectives of life. Culture differs from nation to nation, from society to society, but everywhere in the world, certain emotions and sentiments are common, accepted by everyone. Affection in conjugal life is a universal sentiment but its attributes are culture-oriented. It was Indian culture until the turn of the nineteenth century that a virtuous wife immolated herself by entering the burring pyre of her husband, and suchvirtuosity was revered, for it was believed that she would enter the abode of god on self-immolation. This practice is

defunct in India today, but women in the country still practice virtue and modesty, and conjugal life has its significance which is manifest in the mutual trust of one woman for one another, and theirs is a love lasting till death, and this is Indian culture. Culture cannot be transplanted; rather it is imbibed in a person.

Indian culture has its uniqueness, and a handful of Indian writers in English including diasporic writers have treated this factor in their works, and ChitraDivakaruni is one among them. She is a diasporic writer in Englishwho hails from west Bengal India, and now

www.ijmer.in 157



she lives in the United States of America, teaching creative writing at foothill college, Los Atlos Hill, California. In her novels and short stories, Chitra portrays the cultural problems of Indians who have emigrated to America. The immigrants settle down in analienland for a livelihood andbetterment in life. Quite naturally, the problem of adaptability in an alien land crops up in these people. Everything is different and everything in life is changed for them, and it is a question of survival, and the rest end up as a failure, and theotherland once

again become their asylum. Male Indianmigrants adapt themselves in America, and it is a necessity for them, forthey have to make a livelihood, and earn their bread, but women immigrants find it difficult, and they are compelled to change themselves, for they depend on men. Initially they suffer from depression, loneliness,psychicprecariousness, delirium andnon-resilience, but in course of time, they change themselves, andacceptthe life in the alien land.

It is this diasporic problem whichconstitutes the basic fictionalmaterial of the novels andshort stories of ChitraDivakaruni. “APerfect Life” is a representative short story of Chitrapublished in the anthology entitled Arranged Marriage. In the short story “APerfect Life”, Meera, an Indian-American professional woman, a bachelorette,

describes her concept of a desirable man in terms of Hollywood hero charms:

Richard was exactly the kind of man I’d dream about during my teenage years in Calcutta, all those moist, sticky evenings that I spent at the empire cinema house under a rickety ceiling fan that revolved tiredly eating melted mango-pasta ice-cream and watching Gregory Pick and Warren Bratty and client east wood. Tall and lean and sophisticated, he was very different from the Indian men I’d know back home…when I was with Richard I felt like a true American. (73)

www.ijmer.in 158



Early from her girlhood days, Meera has a fancy for white Americans, and when grown up, the white American’ handsomeness and complexion make her think that she should marry not an Indian but a young American. The images from Hollywood movies projected on the screen of the cinema-house, have further developed Meera’s interest in Americans since her girlhood days. Cinema has developed the notions of desirability, good looks, and true Americanness in her. Meera’s idols are Peck, Eastwood and Bratty of Hollywood, not Dilip Kumar or

Amitabh Bachan of Indian cinema. She has fallen in love with Richard. According to Meera, the distinguishing qualities in Richard are tallness, leanness, and sophistication and she describeshim as “very different” from Indian men. The latter are void of such qualities by implication. Indian men are, thus, culturally, ideologically, mentally and physically diminished in comparison to their American counterparts. To become a “true American,” the woman of Indian origin must associate herself with a man who looks like an archetypal Hollywood hero.

The protagonist Meera is an affluent woman working in a bank in America and leads a perfect life. The fancy she has about white Americans in her girlhood days continues in her even in her bachelorette days, and as an Indian girl, she fails to conform to morals of Indian standards and personal honour on the part of a girl. Shelives in a free society, and no controlling forces of her parents restrainher

from falling on evil ways in an alien land. She leads an independent life and cohabits with a young American by name Richard, and this kind of life which is unheard of in India even in these days of advancement, she does not consider taboo. From the Indian point of view, she is a “fallen”girl having no morals, but such an imperfection of character does not afflict her in any sense, and indeed, she thinks that she leads a perfect life which is not true.

All the efforts of Meera’s mother in search of a bridge for her daughter have ended in futility, and never does Meera say yes to her

www.ijmer.in 159



mother’s choice of an Indian boy nor does she disclose her cohabitee with Richard to her mother. It is a cultured conflict within her, and she cannot break the shackles. Any girl, for that matter an Indian girl, cannot practice celibacy throughout her life, and Meera is not exception to it. On seeing Shermila’s baby, her mind starts changing and the change culminates in her developing a strong affection for an orphan boy of Hispanic origin found under the stairs of her house. She keeps the boy under her custody and rears him, and Richard resents to it, and

this results in a temporary separation of them. Legal constraints do not allow for an easy adaptation of the boy, and on request, Mrs. Ortiz, a friend of Meera, takes care of Krishna, Meera christens the orphan boy so. But it is a misfortune that Krishna, one day, disappears from Mrs. Ortiz’s custody, and never does he return to Meera.

Meera is not married but her cohabitation makes her feel tired and like a married woman who is childless, she craves for a child, and Krishna came in her life but now he is gone forever. She wants someone else to fall back upon, and Richard is the only resource for her. She lives in America, and in every sense, she is Americanized, that is, in her manners, life style, attitude, English speech and so on. Even though advanced and independent, she wants a good companion, and understands that she cannot remain a celibate. Though westernized, Meera, as a woman, desires security in life, and therefore resolves to

marry Richard. Meera’s decision is right, for she is basically an Indian, and it is the Hindu culture that a woman should marry and beget children lest her life should be incomplete. It is cultural conflict which is resolved, and Meera is satisfied in life. Her choice of a husband may not be an Indian, but Richard is a man who could show her warmth, love and affection, and it is enough for her. Meera cannot come out of the bounds of Hindu culture, and Chitra had made a realistic portrayal of the cultural conflict in a young Indian woman.

www.ijmer.in 160



References

1. Divakaruni, Chitra Banerjee. Arranged Marriga. New York: Penguin Books, 2008.

2. Hall, Staurt. New Ethinicities. 1989. “Critical Dialogues in Cultural Studies”. Morely, David, Kuan Hising Chen (Eds.) London: Routledge, 1996

3. Khan, M. Q., A. G. Khan. Changing Faces of Women in Indian Writing in English. New Delhi: Creative Books, 1995

4. Salehi, Mohammad. “Reflections on Culture, Language and Translation”, Journal of Academic and Applied Studies. Vol II, May 2012. Alleyway Tabalabia University.

www.ijmer.in 161



COMPARATIVE STUDY ON SELF CONFIDENCE AMONG

TEENAGE & ADULT SPORTS PLAYERS

Dr.Prasannakumar Shivasharanappa Assistant Professor (Contract Basis)

University of Agriculture Sciences Dharwad

Introduction

Self confidence is an attitude, which all individuals have positive yet realistic views of themselves and their situations. Self confidence people trust their own abilities have a general sense of control in their lives

and believe that, within reason, they will be able to do what they wish, plan, and expect. Like self esteems, self confidence refers to individual’s perceived ability to act effectively in a situation to overcome obstacles and to get things goes all right. Hence self-confidence is believed to increase one’s performance. The higher level of confidence generates enthusiasm for the given activity. It is the variation in confidence that makes differences in performance of sports activity. Therefore studying the influence of confidence assumes importance.

Basavanna .M (1975) studied self-confidence in relation with self and ideal self and found that self confidence people particularly who were capable. Successful and adjusted, had significantly higher self ideal and self-congruence than those who were low in their level of self-confidence.

Hence several researchers have made significant attempts to

relate motivation with sports and found significant association between the level of motivation and the* corresponding sports activity. It has been proved empirically that persons with greater amount of motivation are found to be superior to others who are less motivated. This reveals that the motivated groups improve significantly in the given sports activity more than the non-motivated group (Hansen,

www.ijmer.in 162



1967). However, there is no single motivational technique that is superior to other techniques. This marks very clearly that each motivational technique is, by and large, important depending upon the conditions in which it is presented. Hence motivational techniques produce desirable effects to the extent that a coach or coaches present them wisely. In a similar way, the social factor like social support, SE5, personal factors like self-confidence have significant impact on the performance of persons. Thus present study makes an attempt to assess

the influence of all such factors on performance of sportsman selected from the colleges of Gulbarga division. Research Questions.

Review of Literature

Many studies have been conducted in the area of child development. Some of the studies have been mentioned here. Chowdhury Aparajita & Muni, Anita Kumari (1995) in their study about „Role of parental support in children need satisfaction and academic achievement‟, found that need satisfied by parents was much more than need satisfied by outside family members. With regards to academic it was found from the academic marks of the children that the average ranging (40-60) students were getting more parental support.

Linda L.Dunlap (2004), in her paper, „What all children need: theory and application‟ provides that sibling relationships typically are children‟s first social network and form the basis for relationships with others. Siblings are usually children‟s first playmates, intimate friends, protectors, enemies, competitors, confidantes and the role models. They

are an important source of support school-age children, in particular. During this time siblings are not only companions but also help with difficult tasks and provide comfort during emotional stress. The bond formed between siblings is one of the most complex, long-lasting, and important connections in life. Typically, no other relationship lasts as long or has such a great impact. Siblings, who are close in age, often

www.ijmer.in 163



argue more but also develop closer bonds. Children who have siblings tend to work very well with peers

METHODOLOGY

The purpose of the present work is to study the effect of self confidence on the self confidence level of teenage and adult age group players. The investigator has come across one questionnaire that would measure the level of self confidence; the investigator visited the indoor stadium & play grounds to meet the sample groups

Objectives

1) To find out the level of self confidence of teenage players

2) To find out the level of self confidence of adult players

3) To compare the self confidence among teenage & adult sports

players

Hypothesis

1) There would be significant deference in self confidence among teenage and adult players.

Sample

Fifty teenage players and fifty adult players taken as subjects for the present study. These 100 subjects together represented the sample for the present study.

Tool

Self Confidence Inventory (SCI). The self confidence inventory (SCI)

developed by Basavanna .M (1975). The questionnaire consists of 100 items. The odd-even (split-half) reliability co-efficient calculated by spearmen brown formula is found to be 0.94.

www.ijmer.in 164



Test Administration and Collection of Data

This scale is developed and standardized by Basavanna (1975), which consists of 100 items in all. The response categories are true of false. The score range is 0 to 100. According to manual lower the score higher would be level of self-confidence and vice versa. The reliability of the scale is 0.67. The validity of the scale is found to be satisfactory.

Statistical Analysis: To meet the objective of the study mean,

standard deviation, t-values were used to calculate and analyze the data.

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

Table No 1 – Mean, Sd, t-value of teenage players and adult players of Kalaburagi District.

Paired Samples Statistics

Mean N Std. Deviation t-value

Teenage Players

39.1600 50 8.36260 11.891*

Adult

Players 57.6400 50 8.47989

Significant level at 0.05*

www.ijmer.in 165



The graph shows that the teenage sports players have mean score is 39.16, the standard deviation is 8.36, the low score in self

confidence inventory which means the high in self confidence, the Adult sports players have scored mean is 57.64, standard deviation is 8.47, the t-value of both means is 11.891*, which indicates the teenage sports players are more self confidence than their counterparts.

Conclusion

There is a significant difference between teenage sports players and adult sports players in their self confidence level.

Teenage sports players have the high self confidence than the adult sports players of kalaburagi district.

The age factor influence the level of self confidence in sports players.

Reference

Alderman, R.B. (1974): Psychological Behavior in Sports. W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia.

American Alliance for Health, Physical Education and Recreation (1960): Skills Test Manual-

39.16

57.64

8.36 8.47

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Teenage Players Adult Players

Series 1

Series 2

www.ijmer.in 166



Volleyball for Boys and Girls. AAHPER Publication, Washington,

D.C., U.S.A.

Sports Psychology encyclopedia

www.ijmer.in 167



का य य भूषणम ्

Komari Sree Chandana Ph.D Scholar

Rashtriya Sanskrit Vidyapeetha Tiruapati

का यम ्

कवेः कम का यम।् लोको र वणना िनपुण कवेः कम। कवयित इित का यम।् कवेभावः कम वा का यम।् कवेः यत ्अलौ ककं कम तत ्का यिम यु यते।

भुवानुभूितम वा यं रसव विनस गतम।्

गुणाल कारसजु ं का यंर याथ ोतकम।्।

अपारेऽ मन ् संसारे दःुख – दावा न – द ध य आिध यिध पी डत य मायामोह – ा तचेतसो मानववृ द य मनः स तापिनवारणाय चेवः सादाय सुखावा ये च व ौरेयाः त व ाः का यशा नामकं र ं वा यमहोदधेः सारभूतं उदद धरन।् र मेतत ् चतुवगावाि साधनं ान दसहोदरं रसं आ वा तया जनय गौरवं अलभत। का यं ह यशसेऽथलाभाय यवहार ानाय पाप वनाशाय परमान दलाभाय का तासंिमत – कत योपदेशाय च श यते। उ ं च म मटेन – www.ijmer.in 168



नवरस िचरां िनिमितमादधती भारती कवेजयित।

का य य ल णम ्

कं तावत ् का यिमित वचारचचायां अनेकािन का यल णािन पथम ्अवतर त। परम ाविधनैकम प ल णं िनदु ं सवसंमतं वा। भरत य ना यशा े ाचीनमतं ल णं उपल यते – मदृ-ुलिलत-पदा यं गूढश दाथह नं

जनपदसुखबो यं यु म नृ ययो यम।्

बहुकृतरसमाग स ध – स धान – यु ं

भवित जगित यो यं नाटकं े काणाम।्।

अ मु यतो यका यमेव प रभा यते। अ नपुराणे सव थमं का यल णं िन द यते – सं ेपा वा यिम ाथ यव छ न पदावली।

का यं फुरदलंकारं गुणव दोषव जतम।्।

अ का य य प च त वािन वी यते – इ ाथः, सं वा यं, अल काराः, गुणाः, दोषा ेित। एतेन का य य बा परेखा फुट भवित। प डतराजं जग नाथं वहाय ायः

www.ijmer.in 169



सवर प पूवाचायः का यल णे श दाथयोः योर प संकलनं वधीयते। एवं जयदेव यमते का यम ्- िनद षा ल णवती सर ितगुणभूषणा।

साल काररसनेकवृ वाक् का यश दभाक्।। भूषणम ्

भूषणं यादल कया, भूषा भूषणम ् इित यु प ः। अल कारः, म डनं इित पयाय श दाः। भूषणम ्नाम अल कारः। अल कारो नाम शोभाकारकः क त ् पदाथः। अलं यते इित अल कारः अथवा अल करोित इित अल कारः इित यु प ः। यः अल करोित सः अल कारः। यथा लोके कटक – कु डलादयः अल काराः शर रं वभूषय त तथा अनु ासदयोऽल काराः का यशर रं भूषय त। का य य शर रभूतः धमः श दः अथ भवतः। श दाल कारैः श दानां तथा अथाल कारैः अथानां च सौ दयवृ जायते।

अल काराणां ल णािन

अल कारस दायः थमतया भामहेन ो ः। तदन तरं टो टादयः अवदन।् का ये अल कार य ाधा यं द डना प

वीकृतम।् एतेषां स दायानां अल कारस दाय य अिधकतया

www.ijmer.in 170



ामु यं द व तः। पीयूषवष जयदेवः अल कारह नं का यं यथो णतार हत य नेः वीकरणमेव भवती यिभ ैित। यथा – अ गीकरोित यः का यं श दाथावनल कृती।

असौ न म यते क मादनु णमनलं कृती।।

यथाऽ नेरनु ण वम वाभा वकं तथैवाल कारशू ययोः श दाथयोः का य व वीकारोऽ यवा त वक एव। अ येदं रह यं का य काशे का यल णं कुवता म मटाचायण अनलंकृती पुनः वाऽपी यु वा अल कारर हतयोर प श दाथयोः का य वम गीकृतं, क तु जयदेवेन अ नेरनु ण व क पनाम वा भा वक

मु ा य प रहास याजेन त दू षतम।् य ु विचत ्“ फुटाल कार वरहेऽ प न का य वहािनः” इ यु ं त जयदेवानिभमतम।् त मादल कारा दयु मेव का यिम यिभ ायः।

वै दकसा ह ये उपमा पका ल काराणां नामािन य ते। अल काराणां थमं िन पणं भरतमुिन णीत ना यशा े दशनीयम।्

उपमा पकं चैव द पकं यमकं तथा।

अल कार तु व ेया वारो नाटका याः।।

www.ijmer.in 171



भरत यान तरं भामहः अल कारान ् यपादयत।् भामहादार येव अल कारशा ं वत शा ं अभवत।् “न का तम प िनभूष ं वभाित विनताननम”् इित अ य मते अल कारर हतं यायाः मु यं यथा व यम प न र जयित तथा अल कारर हतं का यं स दयलोकं न र जयतीित अ यािभ ायः। व वधांशान ् मनिस िनधाय का यव ग करण मकरोत।्

उ टेन का याल कारसं हे एकच वा रंशदल काराणां वणनं कृतम।् टः का याल कारे प च ंशदिभनवाल का रा तथैक ं श पूव ितपा दताल काराः अकथयत।् टः अन तरं अ प यद तः वक यकुवलयान द थे प च वंश य िधकश तमल काराः भदोपभेदैः िन पताः स त। वामनः व थे का याल कारसू वृ या ा शत ् अल काराणां अकथयत।् एवं अल का रक वकासानुस धाय कितपया अ यो प य ो कृतः। आन दवधनेऽ प वक य व यालोके अल कारल णमेवमु म।्

तमथमवल बते येऽ गन ते गुणाः मतृाः।

अ गाि ता वल काराः म त याः कटका दवत।्।

www.ijmer.in 172



इ यु वा अल कार य ाधा यमददात।् द डना अल काराणां मा य थानमदािय। “का यशोभाकरान ् धमानल करान ् च ते” इित द डः जगाद।

भरतो भूषणािन

ना यशा े ष ंशत ् ल णािन किथतािन तािन च रमणीयाथ ितपादकश द प य ल णािन भव त। ता येव भूषणा दश देन यप द य ते इित दश पककारेण असूचयत।् अयं ल णेषु अल काराः अ तभावाः स त। अतः सवा य प ल णा य प भूषणश देन यव य ते। एतािन ष ंशत ्ल णािन भरतः भूषणािन इित उ वान।् अतः भरतेन ितपा दतािन भूषणािन ष ंशत।् तेषु केषा चन भूषणािन –

भूषणम ्

अल कारैगुणै ैव बहुिभः समल कृतम।् भूषणै रव व य तै त भूषणिमित मतृम।्।

भूषणैः कटका दिभः वभ य थानदेशकालदशापु षा द वभागं वचाय य तै रव गुणाल कारैयदल करणं त भूषणं नाम ल णं, क व यापारः त ारेण श दाथ यापाराव प।

www.ijmer.in 173



गुणाल कारा वषया इ यनेन िनब ाः का याथ कृतानामिभधेयानां रस वशेष वषयं वभावा दभावं ववर तंु समथा। तथा ह हा यरस धाने हसनादौ शु क ो ये व र यो र ोत र वा गुण विनवेिशतं तु ल णं भज यल कार ।

तथा ह पादता डतके ो यं ोतारमिभ े य वट या प िनगुणपु ष यैवो ः “मा मुसलेनापकाष ः, मा कुसूला न नाधा ीः” इित शोभां पु णाित। अनौिच य-िनब ध तु क ण व ल भादौ यमक य,

आवृ वण तबकं तबक दा कुरं कवेः।

यमकं थमाधुयमाधुयवचसो वदःु।।

य वणानां समूहः सवथा समःआव यते त यमकिमित भावः।

वना यतमेना वरहानलता पता।

द े चूत य व छेदं कंतु हाऽनलता पता।।

ा तः सवलोकमनो ा ह य तु प ाथसाधकः।

हेतोिनदशनकृतः स ा त इित मतृः।।

www.ijmer.in 174



धमा व तया सवलोकमनो ा ह वचनं िनदशनोप भं ा तसं कं ल णम।् यथा धूत वटे “ ीषु स गतो न

कत यः” इ य “भावः कं प यती यु े ” वटः – भोः उपदेशमा ं ख वेतत।् तमहं न प यािम यः ीषु स गं न ग छेत,् यू ते ह महे ादयोऽ यह या ासु वकृितमाप नाः इित। सा यं य मन ् स ा तः य ा ोऽवगतः अ तो िन य य वेित

ा तः। तथा च य ोपमानोपमेयवा ययोः िभ नौ एव धम ब ब ित ब ब वे ा त विमित त सामा य ल णम।्

चे ब ब ित ब ब वं ा त तदल कृितः।

या म ल ितम ल वे स ामो ामहु कृितः।। यथा वा – द ा मजाः स द र! योगताराः कं नैकजाताः शिशनं भज ते।

आ ते वा सहकारवृ ः कं नैकमूलेन लता येन।।

अितशयः

उ माथा िश इित उ ाद यथा शेषो। यथा भ टे दरुाज य – याव येव पदा यलीक पशुनैरालीजनः िश ता ताव येव कृतागसो तुतरं या य प युः परः।

www.ijmer.in 175



ार धं परतो यथा मनिसज ये छा तथा विततंु

े णोमौ य वभू षत य सहजः कोऽ येष का तः मः।।

अ माितशयो े युगप कायकारणे।

आिल ग त समं देव यां शरा परा ते।।

य द कायकारणे एककालमेव व यते तदा अ माितशयो ः एत नामल कारो भवित।

िम या यवसायः अपारमािथकैरेवाथ त ु य याव तुभूत याथा त र य य य व ृ यापारे सित िन यः सोऽयम।् यथा – वचार या यथाभाव तथा ा योः।

स देहा क यते य स व ेपो वपययः।।

वचायत इित वचारोऽथः अ िम यथः। संदेहोऽ मः, अ यथाभावो वपययः। अथवा संशयोऽ प ह व तुतो वषयत वम यथाकारं दशयन ् वपयय एव।

या मिृत – ा तस देहै तदेवाल कृित यम।्

प कजं प यत त याः मुखं मे गाहते मनः।।

www.ijmer.in 176



अयं म मधुप व मुखं वेद प कजम।्

प कजं वा सुधांशुव य माकं तु न िनणयः।।

मिृत ा त स देह ेित मिृत ा तस देहाः, तैः यवहत या हेतुभूतैः मिृत – ा त –स देहिमदमेव अल कार तयं भवेत।्

अनुवृ ः

येणाथसयु िमित। यथा – रा ा य नु यसे य द भवे ा चं पुरा मा शां त सं दनगोप! कंचनमनाक् पृ छ यधीरो जनः।

अ े रोहणचा रणां सरभसं संचूयमाण रं

कं यायियतंु यासरिसको य ेन र ायसे।।

अ तुत शंसा वेऽ प ह यद तुत य शीररवैिच यं त ल ण तमेव ल णं ह शर रिम यु म।् कटका ैर प ह य ैिच यं कुशलसुवणकारो े तं त ल णम ह नैव। त ेनोप मानशर र योपमेयशर र य वा वैिच यं ल णानामेव यापारः इ येवमुपमा पकद पकानां याणामल कार वेन व यमाणानां

www.ijmer.in 177



येकं ष ंश ल णयोगात ् ल णानाम प चैक या वा त र वभाग भेदादान यं केन गणियतंु श यं इदानीं शतसह ा ण वैिच या ण स दयै े य ताम ्

उभयोः ीितजननो व ािभिनवेशयोः।

अथ सादजनको ेय वनुनयो बुधैः।।

उभयोर व ृ वा ययो तयो व ािभिनवेशः। एक य त व व ा तता अप य वषात नवदाच रतिमित।

अथाप ः

ज मा तरेऽ प त या अनुर रनुवतत एवे यु े ज मा तरे व प वरागो न भवित त मा वब ध व मु न या द यथाप नाम ल णम।् यथा धूत वटे -

आद फु रताधरे भवित यो व ार व दे रसः ीितया च तांशुके च जघने का ची भो ोितते।

ल मीया च नख ता कुरधरे पीनेकपोले यो र ं तेन वर मते न दयं जा य तरेऽ प ुवम।्।

अथाप ः वयं िस येत ्पदाथा तरवणनम।्

स ज व मुखेने दःु का वा ा सरसी हाम।्।

www.ijmer.in 178



सवलोक िस ः उ कृ इ दःु व मुखेन जतः कमलानां वातव का? सौ दय जगित सव कृ े च े जते त जता यमयकृ ानां प ानां जय तु अथवदेव िस इित भावः।

अ े दजुयं वणयन ्कमल वजय पं पदाथा तरवणनं वयं िस यित, त जेतुः च य पराजयवणना द यथाल कारः। यथा पीनोऽयं देवद ो दवा न भु े इित कथने देवद य रा भोजनमथादेव िस यित पीन वाऽ यधानुपप ेः।

िनदशनम ्

य ाथानां िस ानां यते प रक तनम।्

परापे ा युदसाथ त नदशनमु यते।।

िस ानां देवताद नां, त स प या परापे ा सा याकां ा त मा युदासः। अत एव ा त य भेदः यथा उभयािभसा रकायां –

भा तं याित शनैमहौषिधबलादाशी वषाणां वष ं

श योमोचियतंु मदो कटकटादा मा गजे ा ने।

ाह या प मुखा महाणवजलेमो ः कदािच व

वेश ीबडवामुखानलगतो नैवो थतो यते।।

वा याथयोःस शयोर यारोपो िनदशना।

www.ijmer.in 179



या दातुः सौ यता सेयं सुधांशोरकल कता।।

स शवा याथस ब धीय ऐ यारोपः, उपमेयवा याथ उपमानवा याथारोपो िनदशने यथः। अ दातुः सौ यतारोपमेव वा याथ य च कल क व- पोपमानश याथ य च ऐ यारोपो िनदशना।

भरतमुिनः ल णािन िन य तेषां ववरणम प अदात।् एतेषां ल णानां पाठा तरभेदाः अ प किथताः। अिधकाः भेदाः अ यागताः भरत य अन तरं आगताः आल का रकाः व वृ यानुसारं ल णानां अल काराणां बहून ् भेदान ्

उ व तः,शा दक पेण प रभाषाणां एवं उदाहरणानां नवीकरमानयन ् अल कार-शा तान ् रचियतुः बहवः आल का रकाः आगताः। क तु भरतः आ ः इित ायते। बहूना आल का रकाणां भरत य ल णािन, अल काराणां भेदाः एव आधाराः भव त। भरतमुिन ितपा दतैः मूलभूताल कारल णगुण दोषैः का यमाग य आर भः जातः। भरतेनो े षु ल णेषु केषा चन ल णानां जयदेवेन, सवषां ल णानां व नाथेन च ालोके िनवचनािन कृतािन।

www.ijmer.in 180



CONSUMER PROTECTION AWARENESS IN SOUTHERN

RAJASTHAN: A STUDY ON THE BASIS OF LEVEL OF EDUCATION PARAMETER

Dr. Mukesh Prajapat Assistant Professor

Faculty of Commerce LEO College, Banswara

Rajasthan, India Introduction:

Consumer Protection in India

Consumer’s rights in India have been safeguarded with several laws. These laws have been framed to keep a check on the manufacturing, sales & distribution and cost & quality of products and services. Daily grocery items as well as precious commodities are covered under these laws. Besides these laws, government monitors

service rules, commodity buying & selling behavior and the nature of business.

Need for consumer right protection:

Consumer right means those actions and policies which guarantees availability of quality goods and services. Generally, consumer right protection is monitored by respective state governments.

All processed goods and services are covered under consumer rights protection. It provides protection against dishonest retailers and ignorant public officials who favor false, biased and incomplete information. It provides safeguard against those laws, regulations and agencies that favor unscrupulous manufacturing at the cost of consumer rights.

A common man is not in a position to predict product price and quality standards. He gets exploited because of lack of knowledge in the

www.ijmer.in 181



technical manufacturing of several products, incomplete and absurd labeling, faulty marketing and adverse manipulations.

Acquiring no concrete knowledge of the products and services, consumer hardly gets any value for his/her money. That is why in many countries, concerned govt. agencies are running consumer education & awareness programs for safeguarding the interests of the consumers.

Role of Consumer: Public Mandate

Incorporating rights in the constitution is one aspect but enforcing them stringently is another aspect. Very few consumers put their first step forward to fight for their rights. Needless to say, consumer laws (legislation) and the agencies enforcing them are the fundamental tools in building consumer faith. And this is possible only when the public is satisfactorily educated.

Review of Literature:

Anil Kumar Dyani, (1989) in his study found that product discontentment among consumers was quite high; that only five out of ten dissatisfied consumers filed complaints and out of these only three

were provided any relief. Where virtually no relief was provided, the consumer did not pursue the complaint any further and none at all went to the courts. Dhyani’s study also revealed that consumer awareness regarding consumer protection laws was disappointingly low. The study is confined to the two North Western Urban towns of Uttar Pradesh. For the present study, it has its limitations. Balkrishna V. Eradi’s (1991) article deals with consumer protection in India. He makes suggestions for making people aware of their rights as consumers.

Kiran Singh (1992) conducted a study on consumer awareness in Hisar district and it was found that consumer awareness about consumer protection legislations was lacking among both the rural and

www.ijmer.in 182



urban population. The study reveals that almost all people in rural areas and nearly 90 percent of the urban population had never heard of any consumer protection legislation.

Saxena P (1993) highlights the pathetic state of consumers in context of consumer education. Consumer right protection has been made critical in the research study. Numerous suggestions are proposed to frame effective consumer awareness and rights education programs.

Jhanwar P (2004) in his study stated that how consumers are victimised to retailers’ fraud and cheating. She/he feels helpless to fight against deception. Consumer has no channel to put forth his complaints. Rights incorporated under Consumer Rights Protection Act 1986.

Justice D P Wadhwa Committee (2009) has discovered immense

corruption and black-marketing in the adversely spoiled PDS system. The committee has said the whole system is degenerated and all the people involved in the system are thieves, while interacting with the news reporters he stressed the need for immediate computerization of the whole system to keep tabs at all levels of storage, delivery and distribution.

Considering all the published articles, we can conclude that no satisfactory work has been done in context with the study of urban consumer behavior at Udaipur in southern Rajasthan.

Objective of Research:

It is vital to have a definite goal in mind before initiating any research. It’s a universal truth that research work conducted without any aim is futile. Purpose (objective) is the root cause of motivation to begin with the work. This research work is based on following objectives:

1. To study the level of awareness about consumer laws.

www.ijmer.in 183



2. To study the relationship between urban consumers of

different Education levels and awareness of Consumer Protection Act 1986

Research Methodology & Tools:

Sample Selection: Total 325 respondents (urban consumers) were

selected on random basis. These respondents of different category based on age, sex, education, occupation and Income status. 325 respondents were interviewed and present analysis is based on the information given by all these respondents.

Data Collection: This research is based on primary as well as

secondary data collection.

Tools for Data Analysis: We have used several techniques for

analysis such as Percentage Analysis; Statistical Analysis. Statistical analysis was carried out using SPSS (Statistical package for Social Sciences). Percentage analysis was also used. To justify the relevance, originality and authenticity, Chi Square Test was performed. It was tested at the levels of 0.1. Graphical plots are designed for pictorial presentation of data.

Hypothesis:

There is significant relation between respondents belonging to different Education Levels and their knowledge of Consumer Protection Act 1986.

www.ijmer.in 184



Analysis and Interpretation:

Knowledge of Consumer Protection Act 1986 based on Education as a parameter

(Frequency wise Distribution)

Education Level YES NO To some extent

TOTAL

F % F % F %

Illiterate 3 16.67 9 50.00 6 33.33 18

Higher Secondary 32 35.96 31 34.83 26 29.21 89

Graduate 52 40.63 34 26.56 42 32.81 128

Postgraduate 36 46.15 17 21.79 25 32.05 78

Technical/Professional 1 8.33 8 66.67 3 25.00 12

Value of Chi Square Degree of Freedom Precision

17.546 8 Level of 5% accuracy

Approximate value of Chi Square is 17.546 and degree of freedom is 8. It is relevant up to 5% accuracy. Thus it is finalized that elective hypothesis is trustworthy of its conducted study.

Graph 1.1 Knowledge of Consumer Protection Act 1986 based on Education as a parameter

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Illiterate Graduate Technical/Professional

16.6

7

35.9

6

40.6

3 46.1

5

8.33

50

34.8

3

26.5

6

21.7

9

66.6

7

33.3

3

29.2

1

32.8

1

32.0

5

25

Freq

uenc

y w

ise

Dis

tribu

tion

Education level

YES % NO % To some extent %

www.ijmer.in 185



Graph 1.1 exhibits that out of 325 consumers, 18 respondents

belong to Education level of Illiterate. Out of which 16.67% consumers know about Consumer Protection Act 1986. 50.00% consumers have no idea about Consumer Protection Act 1986 whereas 33.33% consumers have some knowledge about Consumer Protection Act 1986. Out of 325 consumers, 89 respondents belongs to Education level of Higher Secondary. From these 35.96% consumers know about Consumer Protection Act 1986, 34.83% consumers do not know anything about the Consumer Protection Act 1986 whereas 29.21% consumers know something about Consumer Protection Act 1986. 128 consumers from Education level of Graduate. Out of these 40.63% consumers know about Consumer Protection Act 1986, 26.56% consumers have no words for the Consumer Protection Act 1986 whereas 32.81% consumers

know something about the Consumer Protection Act 1986. 78 consumers from Education level of Postgraduate. 46.15% of these consumers know about Consumer Protection Act 1986, 21.79% consumers do not know about Consumer Protection Act 1986 whereas 32.05% consumers know something about the Consumer Protection Act 1986. 12 consumers from Education level of Technical/Professional. 8.33% of these consumers know about Consumer Protection Act 1986, 66.67% consumers do not know about Consumer Protection Act 1986whereas 25% consumers know something about the Consumer Protection Act 1986.

Limitations of the study:

This research work has some of its limitations which are as follows:

Lack of Co-operation by respondents.

Shyness among the respondents.

Limitation of the time for the study.

Limitation of available resources for the study.

www.ijmer.in 186



Suggestions and Conclusion:

Today, with the progressive time consumers are getting aware day by day for their consumer protection. They have listen about such protection but they do not have practical knowledge about their rights. They do not know how to use their rights. It is concluded with this analysis that higher Education levels as well as lower Education levels possess less knowledge about consumer protection act 1986. Consumers belongs to both these Education levels are usually ignorant for their rights. Lower Education levels do not have enough time to get knowledge and to use their rights. Middle Education level consumers have enough knowledge but only some consumers use their rights in practice. So, on the basis of this analysis it is suggested that there is need to provide more awareness about how to use Consumer Protection Act 1986 by Govt. agencies, NGOs, Social Sectors, consumer organizations etc. This study gives practical advantage in terms of

educating the consumers for their consumer rights, consumer protection and awareness of Consumer Protection Act 1986.

References:

1) Ahuja, H.L. (1997). Principles of Micro Economics. New Dehli, S.Chand and Co. Ltd.

2) Sylvester, Alice K. (2000). Advertising and the Mind of the Consumer: (What Works, What Doesn't, and Why), Allen & Unwin, St. Leonards, N.S.W.

3) Brian Mullen & Craig. (1990). The Psychology of Consumer Behavior, Lawrence rlbaum Associates, New Jersey Hove and London.

4) Casson. Mark (1982). The Entrepreneur-An Economic Theory, Martin Robertson, Oxford.

5) Robin Donald P. (1978).Basic Concept for decision making U.S.A. Harper and Raw Publishers INC.

6) John C. Mowen (1981)Consumer Behaviour, Mc. Millian Publishing Co., New York,.

www.ijmer.in 187



7) Kapoor N.D (2004) Business Law: Sultan Chand & Sons., New

Delhi, 8) Matin Khan (2002) Consumer Behaviour, New Age International,

Sri Lanka. 9) Mishra & Puri (2000) Indian Economy, Himalaya Publishing House

Bombay. 10) Philip Kotler (1991) Marketing Management Seventh Edition,

Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd. 11) Paliwala, Stenely J. (1996) The Essence of International Marketing,

Prentice Hall New Delhi. 12) R.L. Nolakha (2006)Business Law(Business Regulatory

Framework), Ramesh Book Depot, Jaipur. 13) Say, J.B. (1964) A Treatise on Political of Economy: Or the

Production, Distribution and Consumption of Wealth, Kelley, New York.

14) Seth, M.L. (1996) Principals of Economics, Laxmi Narayan Agarwal, Agra.

15) Srivastava, P.K. (1990) Marketing Research (Hindi 2nd ed.), Raj. Hindi Granth Academy, Jaipur.

16) Singh, Raghbir (1989) Marketing and Consumer Behaviour, Deep & Deep Publication.

17) Sudha,Shrimali & Vyas (2000) Principels of Business Management, Ajmera Book Company, Jaipur.

18) Tripathi & Reddy (2002) Principels of Management, Tata McGraw Hill, New Delhi.

www.ijmer.in 188



TILOTTAMA, THE REJUVENATOR OF INNER ENERGY: UNDERSTANDING CHITRA BANERJEE DIVAKARUNI’S

‘MISTRESS OF SPICES’

Prof S.Prasanna Sree Professor of English

Department of English Andhra University , Visakhapatnam

Myth has always had a very significant position in human psychology and society from its beginning as primitive religious narrative to its recent adaptation as an aid in the exploration of the unconscious mind. According to the eminent mythologist,Carl Gustav Jung, “The study of myths reveals about the

mind and character of a people….. And just as dreams reflect the unconscious desires and anxieties of the individual, myths are the symbolic projections of a people’s hopes,values,fears and

aspirations” (Guerin 183).In India myths are more powerful and play a suggestive role in the life and literature of the country. Its tenets have inspired the Hindu society and have fashioned its psyche. Shashi Deshpande in her essay “Telling Our Own Stories” says, “Myths condition our ideas so greatly that often it is difficult to disentangle the reality of what we perceive from what we learn of ourselves through them; our behavior is often, and to a great extend, dictated to by them” (88).

The 1980s were the era of the so called myths busting. Many writers began to re-evaluate more reflectively the myths and stereotypes surrounding Indian Women. One such writer is Chitra Banerjee

Divakaruni. The mythic framework of her novels contributes to the creation of a female universe. The world of myth is essentially feminine in nature as opposed to the cerebral world which is masculine. In her novels there is an attempt to create fresh myths

www.ijmer.in 189



or at least give new interpretations to existing ones. The new myth symbolizes the feminine world that Divakaruni envisages. It is a world where women rescue other women and do not wait helping for the men. She uses myth not only as hold to associate herself with India but also to re-evaluate more reflectively on those surrounding the good, self- effecting and self-sacrificing Indian women.

Chitra Banerjee is fond of using myth. There are many mythological references in her novels. In The Mistress of Spices, the turmeric is

mentioned about the mythological characters such as the devasand

asuras, its origin and the incident to Tilo: “I am turmeric who rose out of the ocean of milk when the devas and asuras churned for the treasures of the universe. I am turmeric who came after the nectar and before the poison and thus lie in between.” (M.S:13). In order to prevent the accident which she visualized, she decided to give a

charmed kalo jire to Haroun. When she mentioned about the spice, it was referred with Hindu mythology as Ketu is one of the nine planets in astrology: “Kalo jire, I think, just before the vision comes upon me again, blood and shattered bone and a thin cry like a red thread strangling the night. I must get kalo jire, spice of the dark planet Ketu, and protector against the evil eye.”(M.S:32)

The mythological character, Agni, god of fire and the place Lanka which had its own etymological significance are referred in the novel. Chili spoke and sang in the voice of a hawk circling sun bleached hills where nothing grows: “I lanka was born of Agni, god of fire. I

dripped from his fingertips to bring taste to this bland earth. (M.S:39)[…] “That is why I hold on, lanka, whose name the ten headed Ravana took for his enchanted kingdom. City of a million jewels turned at the last to ash. Though more than once I have been tempted.”(M.S:39)

When the first mother asked Tilo the meaning of her name

www.ijmer.in 190



‘Tilottama’, she said that she knew its meaning. She explained that ‘til’ means the sesame seed which ground into paste with sandalwood cures the diseases of heart and liver. She said that she would be Tilottama, the essence of ‘til’, life-giver, restorer of health and hope. The First Mother explained further that her name “takes on the name of the most beautiful apsara of Rain- god Indra’s court. Tilottama is most elegant of dancers, crest-jewel among women. Or had you not known?”(MS: 44) She warned her that she must set her heart only on

service to humanity. She said, “When Brahma made Tilottama to be a chief dancer in Indra’s court, he warned her never to give her love to man but only to the dance.”(M.S:45)

Tilo wished to change her old body into a youth to fulfill the desire of Raven who was her lover. She decided to call on the others like abhrak, laki to remove wrinkles and blacken hair and firm the sagging flesh and makaradwaj, the king of all spices which was described: “rejuvenator whom the Ashwini Kumars, twin physicians of the gods, gave to their disciple Dhanwantari to make him foremost among healers.”(M.S 85)

Knowing that the fennel equalizer can take power from one and give it to the other when two people eat of it at the same time, Tilo entreated it to work for her to help Ahuja’s wife. She called it when she was gone. She reached into the bin and lifted up a fistful. The author says about fennel: “Fennel which the sage Vashistha ate after he swallowed the demon Illwal so he would not come back to life again.”(M.S 111). In India, it was the belief that the early morning before the day break is considered as‘brahma muhurta’ an auspicious time for starting anything new. It is regarded as the holy moment of Braman, the god of creation. When Tilo came to America she was given the frayed saris, color of stained ivory, in which she greeted her customers. When she desired to attire herself in America, she selected ‘brahma muhurta’ to start her work with poppy seeds to put them into

www.ijmer.in 191



flame so that the smoke would wind around her, to form itself into a web on her skin. The cloths took shape: “And so today at the brahma muhurta, the holy moment of Brahman when night reveals itself as day; I take poppy seed, khus khus that sticks to my fingertips

unwilling as wet sand, and crush and roll it with jiggery to form afim.” (M.S:135)

In her shop, Tilo had hung the picture of ‘Krishna and Gopis’ which proclaim the nationality and culture of India. She had lifted down a picture of Krishna and his gopis hooked it into the waiting nail, with a dupatta draped carefully over it. (M.S:248. She would again in this life light Shampati’s fire and step into it. She recollected the advice of the First Mother not to break open the red jar. She thought that she should not have released its power into this city that has too much anger in it already. But she replied that the anger of the chili is pure, impersonal. Its destruction is cleansing, ‘like the dance of Shiva.’ (M.S:250). Tilo after consuming Makaradwaj, the most potent of the changing spices for three days, she was getting back her youth to give pleasure to her lover Raven who loved her sincerely. When the

transformation was going on in her body, she felt the pain. But Tilo was too confident, who thought she could absorb the poison like “Shiva of the blue throat, who had risked all for nothing.”(M.S:278)

Tilo got astonished feeling at her beauty. She was dazzled by the face looking back at her, young and ageless at once. The author described Tilo’s “forehead was flawless like a new opened shapla leaf, nose tipped like the til flower, “mouth curved as the bow of Madan, god of love, lips color of there are no other words for this crushed red chilies.” (M.S:297) When Tilo and Raven were indulging in love making, the spices encouraged her. The spice spoke to her in my ears, “Use everything. […]Give and take back, teasing. As did the great courtesans

in the courts of Indra the god king.”(M.S:307). Tilo felt that she was doomed to live in this pitiless world as an old woman, without power,

www.ijmer.in 192



without livelihood, without a single being to whom she could turn. For one to be happy, another must take upon herself the suffering. She spent her whole life for the welfare of others. Tilo, once, had the desire to live for her. She would make herself as ravishing as Tilottama, “dancer of the gods, for Raven’s pleasure.” (M.S:318)

A tale came to Tilo from her forgotten childhood: In the start of the world, searching for the nectar of immortality, the gods and demons churned up halahal, bitterest poison from the primal ocean.

It was said: “Its fumes covered the earth, and all creatures, dying, cried out their terror. Then the great Shiva took in his cupped hands the halahal and drank it. The dreadful poison burned in his throat, turning it a bruised blue that remains to this day; even for a god it must have been painful. But the world was saved.” (M.S:318) Tilo felt that she was no goddess but an ordinary woman only. But her stance was like that of Siva, the god of Provider, who drank the poison for the welfare of people. She had a little satisfaction that she had only brought brief happiness into a few lives.

References

1. Divakaruni, Chitra Banerjee. The Mistress of Spices. U.S.A: First Anchor Books Edition; 1998.

2. Deshpande Shashi, “And What Has Been Decided?” Collected stories. vol 1, New Delhi: Penguin Books, 2003.

3. “Telling our own Stories.” Writing from the Margin and other Essays, New Delhi: Penguin Books, 2003. 83-100.

www.ijmer.in 193



AN ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF COSTS AND RETURNS OF

APPLE CULTIVATION IN KASHMIR

Hilal Ahmad Parray Research Scholar

Department of Economics Annamalai University

Annamalai Nagar

P. Zearamane Assistant Professor

Department of Economics Annamalai University

Annamalai Nagar

I. INTRODUCTION

There are lot of difficulties which a grower is facing while cultivating the apples. Primarily, the grower needs huge cost or investment in the form of inputs viz. fungicides, pesticides, insecticides, human labour, packing materials, transport facilities etc. The purpose of every grower is to produce the qualitative and quantitative production by utilizing the various inputs in order to get profitable returns. The intend of apple cultivating is to be the surplus of production value over the input costs. While cultivating fruits it is obligatory to put up with the costs of cutting/pruning, manures and fertilizers, fungicides and pesticides, cost of irrigation and hoeing for cultivation of delicious and qualitative apples. Cost of production is an

economic pointer assessing the economic performance of every type of production. Simply the cost is defined as the value of a factors of production (inputs) working in the production of final outputs (Cesaro et. al., 2008).

A possible classification of costs of production and returns may be relevant from methodological point of view is based on whether costs of production are visible to specific farm activity i e variable versus fixed costs. A variable cost is a cost that can vary in different farms, different seasons and different areas in order to increase the productivity and quality of the yield .where as the fixed costs cannot be varied whether the production is less or more e.g. rental value of land.

www.ijmer.in 194



While cultivating apples a grower might have an adequate awareness about production technology and understanding of economic cultivation. Depending on the availability of various inputs like pesticides, fungicides, fertilizers, manures, labours and also the market is responsible for getting maximum returns. From last decade the costs of apple cultivation is increasing tremendously and the returns are still constant. (Experts of horticulture, 2014).

II. Review of literature

Takele et. al., (1999) studied production costs and profitability

evaluations in Ventura country where 28.62 percent of cabbage production 2011 and ranks second in California. Production costs and profitability evaluation have been the fundamental tools for growers and to increase their production, conduct business transactions and develop risk management strategies data .Data regarding production practices ,inputs and prices were collected from cooperatives growers, the university of California Cooperative Extension (UGCE) farm advisors, agricultural institution.

Baba et. al., (2012) has found that most of the horticulture cultivation was labour intensive particularly the apple cultivation and required

high cost of inputs from the planting stage to marketing stage .the value of all pesticides consumed in the state has been estimated at Rs 36 million of which 52.3 percent of NCS and 33.6 percent is of MNCS and rest of being of other companies. The pesticides used in state for horticulture crops are very are very high nature and most of them were used in apple i.e. 86 percent are only applied for apple.

Jonathan (2010) studied estimate post legalization production costs for indoor and outdoor cannabis cultivation as well as parallel estimates for processing costs. The study is based on imperfect analogies supplemented by spare and unsatisfactory data of uncertain provenance. It has analysed that wholesale prices after legalization

www.ijmer.in 195



could be dramatically lower than they are today, quite possibly a full order of magnitude lower than are current prices.

Singh et. al., (2010), studied the costs, return and break-even point of mushroom production on different categories of farms in the districts of Sonepat and Gurgaon in Haryana during the year 2003 -2004 and has

investigated the existing marketing system along with marketing cost, margin and marketing efficiency. The analysis clearly revealed that as the farm size increased, income generation capacity of the growers also went up. As a result large mushroom earned more profit than small and medium growers.

Fadavi et. al., (2011) revealed that the energy balance between the inputs and output per hectare for an orchard in the West Azarbaijan province in Iran (2008-2009). It has been found that the highest share of energy consumption belongs to packaging (57%) and irrigation (16%).The highest share of costs was found to be 34% and 30% for labour and packaging respectively. The estimated benefit-cost ratio was 1.77. The regression results revealed that all exogenous variables (for

machinery, fertilizers, farmyard, manure and packaging energies) were found statistically significant.

III. Methodology

The present study is based on primary as well as secondary data .primary data has been collected from the field survey through an interview schedule. While as secondary data has been collected from journals, newspapers and government records. The study examined an economic analysis of costs and returns of apple production in Kashmir region. On the basis high apple production 15 apple growers have been taken from Sopore block randomly in order to know the various costs and returns.

www.ijmer.in 196



IV. Research Objectives

1. To study the socio-economic characteristics of apple growers and intermediaries.

2. To analyse the costs & returns of apple production, resource

use efficiency and returns to scale.

V. Analysis and Interpretation

Table 1.1 Costs of Cultivation of Apple per Kanal

Costs of Apple Cultivation per year

Av/per kanal/gro

wers %age

Cost of Cutting 16653.27 1110.22 15.81

Hoeing 5787.755 385.85 5.50

Manure 2285.714 152.38 2.17

Fertilizers 13510.2 900.68 12.83

Fungicides and Insecticides 32571.43 2171.43 30.93

Harvesting 22530.61 1502.04 21.39

Caring Labour Charge 7183.673 478.91 6.82

Seedlings 2551.02 170.07 2.42

Cost of Irrigation 2163.265 144.22 2.05

Rental Value of land 0 0.00 0.00

Other costs 81.63265 5.44 0.08

Total Cost 105318.6 7021.24 100.00

In table 1.1 the various fixed costs and variable costs incurred for apple cultivation in various seasons and stages are explained below

which are compulsory for protecting apple trees and for improving the quality of apples.

www.ijmer.in 197



Variable Costs: The total Variable Costs incurred by the

sample 15 apple growers were 105318.6 per year and the total average was 7021.24 for each kanal.

Labour Costs: The costs of labour had included the costs of

labour employed for the cutting of branches, collecting of these sticks, for Hoeing, for the application of manures, for weeding and for other agricultural operations. The Labour Costs contain the wages paid for hired labour and the imputed costs of wages for the family labour. The total costs that a grower incurred was 5787.755 and 2285.714 i.e. an average 385.85 and 152.38 (5.50% and 2.17%) per kanal/grower paying

for hoeing and application of Manures

Fungicides and insecticides: The need for Fungicides and

Insecticides to the apple crop had varied with the age of plants, varieties, the climate conditions and for the various diseases. Apple is responsive to the different fungicides and pesticides at various seasons. The apple cultivation required the high quality of insecticides at the establishment stage. The costs had accounted Rs 32571.43 per year and had ranked second among the various variable costs.

Harvesting: Cost of harvesting in apple cultivation played

dynamic role, wage were high compared to other costs and had ranked second among variable costs. The wage for harvesting was Rs 22530.61 per year i.e. Rs 1502.04 per kanal/grower an average of Rs 21.39%.

Caring labour charge: After blooming caring of orchards

needed up to the harvesting period to look after the various disease and protecting the apples from cattles, thieves etc .the cost incurred had been Rs 7183.673 per year Rs 478.91 per kanal/grower i,e an average had 6.82 percent .

Seedling and cost of irrigation: The cost of seedlings and

cost of irrigation was found less among the 15 apple growers .the cost incurred had been Rs 2551.02 per year and Rs 2163.265 per year for

www.ijmer.in 198



seedlings and irrigation. Average per kanal/grower had 170.07 and 144.22i.e 2.42 and 2.05 percent.

Fixed Costs: The total fixed costs per year had worked out to

81.63265.the percentage share of other fixed cost for per kanal/grower had 5.44 (0.08 percent).Rental value of land had been zero because the entire apple orchards were owner-operated and hence prevailing no rent.

Table 1.2:The Annual Returns In terms of money

S.No.

Area

Trees per kana

l

Yield Per tree Boxe

s

Total yield

in Boxe

s

Price Grade A

Price Grade B

Price Grade C

Price Grade D

Av. Pric

e

Total Return

s (Money

) 1 5 9 12 540 500 400 250 200 337.5 182250 2 8 20 15 2400 650 400 300 200 387.5 930000 3 10 15 20 3000 600 500 250 100 362.5 1087500 4 5 9 12 540 400 250 250 200 275 148500 5 20 15 10 3000 300 250 250 200 250 750000 6 10 12 16 1920 600 500 300 250 412.5 792000 7 20 20 8 3200 800 500 250 200 437.5 1400000 8 20 12 13 31920 650 550 300 200 425 1326000 9 25 15 10 3750 400 300 250 200 287.5 1078125

10 16 10 25 4000 700 500 300 200 425 1700000

11 100 20 20 40000 800 650 350 200 500 2000000

0 12 8 12 7 672 1000 700 500 200 600 403200 13 35 10 13 4550 600 550 350 200 425 1933750 14 16 17 12 3264 550 450 250 100 337.5 1101600 15 70 12 15 12600 700 600 300 200 450 5670000

Total 368 208 328

115356

9250 7100 4450 2850 5912.

5 5074292

5

Average Annual productivity

Average Productivity of Apple Cultivation Area Under Apple Cultivation 24.5 Trees (Numbers per Kanal) 13.9 Yield Per tree (In Boxes) 21.9 Total Yield (in Boxes) 7690.4 Price 394.2 Total 3382861.7

www.ijmer.in 199



It could be seen from table 1.2 that the respondent 1st had 5

kanals carrying 9 trees per kanal with the yield of 12 boxes per tree and had yield of 540 boxes per year. The average price which a producer is receiving was Rs 337.5 on different grades. In order to get the total returns of respondent, total boxes was multiplied with average price i.e. Rs 182250. The respondent second had 8 kanals of orchards carrying 20 trees per kanal with the yield of 15 boxes per trees and total yield had

2400.the respondent got different prices for different grades and total returns had been 9300000 i.e the multiplication of average price 387.5 and number of total boxes yielded 2400. Likewise the respondent third had area of 10 kanals having 15 trees per kanal with the yield of 20 boxes per tree. Total returns which a producer was receiving for 3000 boxes had Rs 1087500.the respondent 4th had an area of 5 kanal carrying 9 trees with 12 trees per kanal with 12 boxes per tree. The average price which a producer got Rs275 per box and total returns had Rs148500 for 540 boxes. The respondent 5th had 20 kanal carrying 15 trees per kanal with 10 boxes per tree. Average price was Rs 250 per box i.e. total returns had been Rs 750000 for 3000 boxes of different grades. Same the respondent 6th had an area of 10 kanals carrying 12 trees per kanal with 16 boxes of apples per tree. The total returns received by the grower were Rs 792000 per year for 1920 boxes. The

respondent 7th had an area of 20 kanals having 20 trees per kanal each tree carried 8 boxes. The total returns received by the grower had Rs 1400000 per year. The respondent 8th had area of 20 kanals but carrying only 12 trees per kanal each tree had 13 boxes i.e. total yield had 3120 boxes per year. The total returns grower received was Rs 1326000 per year. Grower 9th had an area of 25 kanals carrying 15 trees per kanal each tree with 10 boxes. The total yield of the grower had 3750 boxes per year and the total returns had been Rs 1078125 with average rate of 287. The grower 10th had total area 16 kanals each kanal had 10 trees with yield of 25 boxes i.e total yield of per year was

www.ijmer.in 200



4000 boxes. The total returns in terms of money the grower received had Rs 1700000 with the average rate of Rs 425.

The 11th apple grower had an area of 100 kanals which was the highest area among other growers, each kanal carrying 20 trees and each tree given the yield of 20 boxes. The grower had total yield 40000 boxes per year. The grower’s total returns had been Rs 20000000 per year an average rate of Rs 500 per box. The 12th grower had an area of 8

kanal each occupied 12 trees and each tree had yield of only 7 boxes i.e. total yield were only 672 boxes in a year. The total returns grower received were only Rs 403200 per year with an average rate of Rs 600 per box. Respondent 13th had an area of 35 kanals, each kanal carried 10 trees an average yield of 13 boxes per tree. The total returns received the grower had been Rs 1933750 per year for different grades of 4550 boxes.

Similarly 14th grower had an area of 16 kanals each kanal occupied 17 trees with the yield of 12 boxes i.e. 3264 boxes per year. The total average return that a grower had received was Rs 1101600 year for different grades of apples. The respondent 15th had 70 kanals of land which is the second highest land holder among the respondents. Each kanal occupied 12 trees with the yield of 15 boxes each tree and total yield in boxes were 12600.Average price of different grades were

Rs 450 and total returns has been calculated total yield in boxes and average price i.e. 5670000. In the table it has also been shown the total area of 15 respondents were 368 kanals occupied 206 trees per kanal with the yield of 328 boxes per tree and the total yield of 15 year.

In table 1.3 it has been revealed that average area under apple cultivation of 15 farmers had been 24.5 kanals,each kanal occupied an average of 13.9 trees and each tree yielded 21.9 boxes. The total yield of 15 respondents had been calculated 7690.4 boxes and average price was found Rs 394.2 per box.the total returns was found 3382861.7 per year.

www.ijmer.in 201



Table 1.3: Statement of Incomes of Apple Cultivation (In Rupees per Annum)

S.NO. Particulars All farmers

1 Gross Sales 3382861.7

2 Less: Marketing Costs 676572.54

3 Gross Returns 2706289.53

4 Less: Variable Costs 105236.937

5 Sales Proceeds 2601052.593

6 Less: Fixed Costs 81.63265

7 Net Profits 2600970.96035

In table 1.3 it has been shown the Gross Returns were computed by deducting the Marketing Costs incurred by the apple Growers from the sales proceeds of Apple. In the above table the gross returns had 2706289.53 per year. The role by way of sales proceeds had worked out to 2601052.593 per year of 15 growers and the variable costs were deducted from gross returns. By deducting fixed costs from sales proceeds we got the Net profits which had amounted 2600970.9603 per year of 15 growers.

Table 1.4:Estimated Cobb-Douglas Production Function for apple growers.

S.No.

Particulars Notation

Elasticity Co-

efficient

Standard Error

t-statistic

s

1 Yield (Boxes per kanal) Y - - -

2 (Constant) b0 55.761NS 499.552 .112

4 Cost of Cutting branches/pruning X1 -0.001NS .011 -.064

5 cost of Hoeing X2 0.109 NS .078 1.398 6 Cost of Manure X3 -0.011 NS .054 -.209 7 Cost of Fertilizers X4 -0.021 NS .020 -1.044 8 Cost of Fungicides X5 -0.001 NS .010 -.137

www.ijmer.in 202



and Insecticides

9

Cost of Harvesting(plucking, assembling, grading

X6 -0.011 NS .015 -.722

10

Cost of Packing(price of box, packing charge, papers, paddy straw, nails, colour etc

X7 0.003 NS .010 .272

11 Caring labour charge X8 0.003 NS .023 .140

12 Cost of Seedlings X9 0.036 NS .113 .322 13 Cost of irrigation X10 -0.047 NS .097 -.483

R2 : 0.424

F-test : 0.294

NS : Not Significant

It could be found from the table 1.4 that with regard to the 15 farmers, the co-efficient of determination (R2) of the function was observed to be 0.424 i.e. 42.4 percent of the variation in the output of apple had been explained by all the ten independent variables Strength of relationship has been studied between dependent and independent variables. The dependent variable in this study is yield generated from apple cultivation, and independent variables are the costs inquired in apple cultivation. The determinants of gross returns has been analysed

using the Cobb Douglas type of production function. The function in its log form could be written as follows:

Strength of relationship has been studied between dependent and independent variables. The dependent variable in this study is yield generated from apple cultivation, and independent variables are the costs inquired in apple cultivation. The determinants of gross

www.ijmer.in 203



returns has been analysed using the Cobb Douglas type of production function. The function in its log form could be written as follows:

X1: Cost of cutting branches/pruning

X2: Cost Hoeing

X3: Cost of Manure

X4: Cost of Fertilizers

X5: Cost of Fungicides and Insecticides

X6: Cost Harvesting (plucking, assembling, grading)

X7: Cost of Packing (price of box, packing charge, papers, paddy straw, nails, colour etc)

X8: Cost of Caring Labour Charge

X9: Cost of Seedlings

X10: Cost of irrigation

It could be observed from the above table that the co-efficient of determination (R2) of the Function was found to be 0.424 which had indicated that 42.4 per cent of the variations in the output of apple had been explained by all the 10 Independent Variables. The F-Test had shown that the estimated Cobb-Douglas Type of Production Function was statistically significant at the 5% level.

Among the Independent Variables, cost of Hoeing, Cost of

Packing(price of box, packing charge, papers, paddy straw, nails, colour etc), Caring labour charge and Cost of Seedlings have shown positive effect on yield. While as, Cost of Cutting branches/pruning, Cost of Manure, Cost of Fertilizers, Cost of Fungicides and Insecticides, Cost of Harvesting (plucking, assembling, grading) and Cost of irrigation have shown negative effect on yield.

VI.CONCLUSION

In Kashmir apple production is profitable venture and getting positive returns .there are various limiting factors in apple production

www.ijmer.in 204



and marketing but major are fungicides and pesticides, cost of cutting ,cost of fertilizers and cost of Harvesting have shown negative effect on yield. Cost of hoeing , Cost of Packing, Caring labour Charge and Cost of Seedlings have shown positive effect on yield. The gross sales,gross returns and net profits had been 3382861.7, 2706289.53, 2600970.96035of 15 apple growers.In major and first of its kind initiative, the valley- based FIL Industries Limited shall facilitate the

apple producers of Kashmir to sell their fruit online to buyers from across the country in order get maximum profits.

References

1. Baba, S. H., Wani, M. H., Zarger, B., Wani, S. A. and Kubrevi (2012). Pesticides Delivery System of Apple Growing Belt of Kashmir Valley. Agriculture Economic Research Review 25, 435-444.

2. Bishnoi, D. K, Singh, R. and Singh, A. (2010). Cost Benefit Analysis and Marketing of Mushroom in Haryana. Agriculture economic research review, 23, 165-171.

3. Cesaro, L., S. Marongiu, F. Arfini, M. Donati, and M. G. Capelli (2008). Cost of production. Definition and Concept. FACEPA Deliverable D1.1. 2. Agricultural Economics Research Review, 23, 165-171.

4. Etaferahu, T. (1999). Spinach Production: Sample Costs and Profitability Analysis. University of California Agriculture ANR Publication 8032, 1-9.

5. Experts of Horticulture Board (2014). Horticulture Sector facing imperilling crisis: Accessed on 27 July. www.grea terk as hm ir.com

www.ijmer.in 205



6. Jonathan, P. C. (2010). Estimated Costs of Production for

Legalized Cannabis. RAND, Drug Policy Research Center. Working Paper WR-764 -RC 1-29.

7. Junaid, A. (2015). FIL Industries brings Kashmir apple Online to bridge buyer-seller gap: Greater Kashmir Daily Srinagar

September 30, 2015, Wednesday. Accessed on 01-Oct-2015. www.greaterkashmir.com.

8. Keyhani, A., Fadavi, R., and Mohtasebi, S. S., (2011). An analysis of energy use, input costs and relation between energy inputs and yield of apple orchard. Res. Agr. Eng., 57, 88–96.

www.ijmer.in 206



A STUDY TO ASSESS THE KNOWLEDGE AND ATTITUDE

REGARDING VOLUNTARY COUNSELLING AND TESTING / INTEGRATED COUNSELLING AND TESTING (VCT /ICT)

SERVICES AMONG THE ADULTS IN PUDUCHERRY

A. Felicia Chitra

Professor cum HOD MTPG & RIHS

Puducherry

Dr. S. Kalavathi Principal cum Professor Rani Meyyammai CON Annamalai University

Chidambaram INTRODUCTION

HIV/AIDS continues to be one of the world’s most serious public health issue and developmental challenges. In 1981 the first case was identified and today within a short span of 3 ½ decades there are approximately 36.9 million people living with HIV and tens of millions of people have died of it globally (UNAIDS, 2015). Most of these affected people, or at risk population do not have access to prevention, care and treatment and the worst is, still no cure (WHO/UNAIDS/UNICEF, 2013). HIV/AIDS seems to affect people

during their most productive years (15-45) and about 38% of the newly infected are those under the age 25 (UNAIDS. 2015). India being watched globally as a fast growing country, has figured out to have the third largest HIV epidemic in the world (NACO, 2013-2014) with 2.1 million living with HIV and has been estimated that 51% of deaths due to AIDS related causes in Asia are in India (UNAIDS, 2014) and the fact that this not only affects the individual but the households, communities and the development and economic growth of nations.

NEED FOR THE STUDY

HIV/AIDS being a menacing global, national issue, prevention is the only way to control. Though the global efforts to address the epidemic has resulted in the stabilization of the epidemic globally ,we are put under great pressure to reach the visionary goal to end the AIDS

www.ijmer.in 207



epidemic by 2030 making sure that, no tool available for the prevention, care and treatment is left unturned. One such basic but most vital tool is the VCT/ICT services. It is considered to be the first critical step in detecting and linking people with HIV to access treatment and care (NACO, 2013-2014) and the major gateway for

prevention (NACO, 2015). The UNAIDS fast track strategy known as

90-90-90 target to bring an end to HIV by 2030 can be greatly achieved, if we give an emphasized reorientation regarding VCT/ICT services to the high risk groups and the general public. Despite great progress towards HIV prevention, according to NACO, as of now only 13% of HIV positive people in the country are aware of their HIV status (NACO, 2012) in India. Of the current population of puducherry only

98521 have been tested for HIV/AIDS and the rate of prevalence is estimated as 0.15% (MOHFW, 2014).

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

A study to assess the level of knowledge and attitude regarding VCT/ICT services among the adults in the OPD of Indira Gandhi

Government General Hospital And Research Institute (IGGGH& RI) in Puducherry.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the level of knowledge and attitude regarding VCT/ICT services among the adults in Puducherry.

To correlate the knowledge with attitude regarding the

VCT/ICT services of the adults.

To associate the level of knowledge and attitude regarding

VCT/ICT services with demographic variables like Age, Sex, Marital status, Area of residence ,Educational qualification, Religion, Type of family.

www.ijmer.in 208



MATERIALS AND METHODS

Non experimental approach, a descriptive survey design was used for this study. The study was delimited to 100 adults who attended OPD of IGGGH&RI in puducherry who fulfilled the inclusion criteria. Every third adult patient was selected as sample by accidental sampling method. The subjects were explained and written consent was obtained. The structured interview schedule was used to assess the knowledge regarding VCT/ICT which contained 38 items. Of the 38 items, the first two items were basic information on VCT/ICT and those who had ‘yes’ answer for these items , proceeded further to answer the rest of the

36items. The scoring given as all ‘yes’ answers was a score of ‘1’. 5 points Likert scale was used to measure the attitude of adults towards VCT/ICT. There were a total of 12 statements of which 6 were positive and 6 were negative statement. The statements were rated on 5 points – Strongly Agree-5, Agree-4, Neutral-3, Disagree-2, and strongly disagree-1. The maximum score for the positive statement was 5 and the scoring was reversed for the negative statement. The total score was 60. The collected data was subjected to statistical computations to obtain the results of the study.

RESULTS AND FINDINGS

Frequency and percentage distribution of demographic variables among the adults revealed that majority 40(40%) were in the age group of 21 – 30, 56(56%) were male, 52(52%) were married, 58(58%) were from rural area , 65(65%) were non-literate,74(74%) were Hindus and 59(59%) belonged to joint family.

The level of knowledge among the adults was that, 84(84%) had

inadequate knowledge, 11(11%) had adequate knowledge and 5(5%) had moderately adequate knowledge regarding VCT/ICT services (FIGURE.1).

www.ijmer.in 209



FIGURE.1 FIGURE.2

The level of attitude among the adults was that, 79(79%) had negative

attitude, 21(21%) had neutral attitude and there was no positive attitude regarding VCT/ICT services (FIGURE.2).

TABLE: 1 Correlation between knowledge and attitude scores regarding ICTC/VCT among the adults.

N = 100

Variables Mean S.D ‘r’ Value

Knowledge 14.18 23.29 r = 0.906**

p = 0.000, S Attitude 9.04 16.02

**p<0.01, S – Significant

The calculated Karl Pearson’s correlation value of r = 0.906 showed a positive correlation between knowledge and attitude scores regarding VCT/ICT services among the adults which was found to be statistically significant at p<0.01 level and it also clearly indicated that when the knowledge regarding VCT/ICT services among the adults increased, their attitude level also increased.

0

50

100In

adeq

ua…

Mod

erat

…

Adeq

uate

Knowledge

Inadequate

ModeratelyAdequate

Adequate

0

50

100

Neg

ativ

e

Neu

tral

Posit

ive

Attitude

Negative

Neutral

Positive

www.ijmer.in 210



TABLE: 2 Association of level of knowledge regarding ICTC/VCT among the adults with the selected demographic variables.

N = 100

Demographic Variables

Inadequate (<50%)

Moderately Adequate (50 – 75%)

Adequate (>75%) Chi-Square

Value No. % No. % No. %

Age

2= 8.312 d.f = 6

p = 0.216 N.S

18 - 20 24 24.0 1 1.0

6 6.0

21 - 30 32 32.0 4 4.0

4 4.0

31 - 40 13 13.0 0 0

1 1.0 41 - 50

15

15.0

0

0

0 0

Gender 2= 1.665 d.f = 2

p = 0.435 N.S

Male 47 47.0 4 4.0

5 5.0

Female 37 37.0 1 1.0

6 6.0

Marital Status

2= 8.380 d.f = 4

p = 0.079 N.S

Unmarried 34 34.0 1 1.0

7 7.0

Married 46 46.0 4 4.0

2 2.0

Divorced 4 4.0 0 0

2 2.0

Widow - - - -

- - Unmarried but living together

- - - - - -

Area of residence 2= 5.973 d.f = 2

p = 0.050 S*

Rural 53 53.0 1 1.0

4 4.0

Urban 31 31.0 4 4.0

7 7.0

Educational Qualification

2= 12.208 d.f = 4

p = 0.016 S*

Non-literate 60 60.0 2 2.0

3 3.0 High school/Higher secondary school

21 21.0 3 3.0 8 8.0

Graduate 3 3.0 0 0

0 0

Under graduate - - - -

- -

Religion 2= 8.082

d.f = 6 p = 0.232

N.S

Christian 12 12.0 3 3.0

1 1.0

Muslim 8 8.0 0 0

1 1.0

Hindu 63 63.0 2 2.0

9 9.0

www.ijmer.in 211



Others 1 1.0 0 0

0 0

Type of family 2= 3.344 d.f = 2

p = 0.188 N.S

Joint family 51 51.0 1 1.0

7 7.0

Nuclear family 33 33.0 4 4.0

4 4.0

*p<0.05, S – Significant, N.S – Not Significant

Association of level of knowledge regarding VCT/ICT services among the adults with the selected demographic variables showed that residence and educational qualification had statistically significant association at p<0.05 level respectively whereas the other variables did not have significant association (TABLE: 2).

There was no statistically significant association of level of attitude regarding VCT/ICT services and the demographic variables among the adults.

CONCLUSION

Creating awareness with renewed vigor among the adults regarding the functioning of VCT/ICT centers is the need of the hour as the voluntary counseling and testing services for HIV are the key entry point to prevention.

“Prevention is better than cure especially when something has no cure.”

&

“Knowledge is best prevention from HIV infection.”

References

1. NACO annual report 2013-2014,Department of AIDS control, Ministry of health and Family welfare overview. Retrieved from:http://www.naco.gov. n/upload/2014%20 mslns /NACO_Engli sh%20 2013- 14.pdf.

www.ijmer.in 212



2. State fact sheets (2014), Department of AIDS control. Ministry of

health and family Welfare. Pg.35 .Retrieved from the website: http://naco.gov.in.

3. UNAIDS. Epidemiological slides – How AIDS Changed Everything report(2015). Retrieved from the website:http://kff.org/global-healt h-p oli cy/fact-sheet/the-global-hivaidse pidem ic.

4. UNAIDS (2014) Gap report,Pg.60. Retrieved from:http://w ww.una ids.or g/ sites/default t/files/me dia_as set /UN AID S_ G

ap_report_en.pdf.

5. WHO/UNAIDS/UNICEF. Global update on HIV treatment 2013.( June 2013).Retrievedfrom the website :http://kff.org/global-health-policy/fact-sheet/the-glo bal-hi va idsepidemic.

www.ijmer.in 213



ROLE OF TEACHER EDUCATION IN PROMOTING

PEACE EDUCATION Dr. Suresh Chand

Principal Nalanda College of Education

V.P.O.Jhaniari, Teh. & Distt. Hamirpur (H.P.) India

Introduction

“If we are to reach real peace in the world, we have to begin with children”. ----Gandhi

Peace is not just state of mind, peace is not just an attitude. Peace is not just the absence of war. Peace connotes the negation of desire, anger, and hatred. But positively, peace is the awareness of the beauty, majesty and omnipresence of God that opens up the springs of shanti in man’s heart. Peace is being quite inside. It is practice of love. In a peaceful society people would work together to resolve conflicts,

develop morally, treat each other with justice. Satisfy basic needs and respect each other. It is the total understanding, total tolerance and total love which surround us. Peace is the philosophy. Peace can take place within the individuals and involve peace of mind and absence of fear. Outer peace is peace in society. Peace is related to emotional aspect of human personality which is the most priceless possession of man. Peace means much more than the absence of war. Peace considered as a set of values, attitudes and modes of behaviour promoting the peaceful settlement and conflict and the quest for mutual understanding.

According to U. N. Peace declaration Article-1, Peace means:

Full respect for and promotion of all human rights and

fundamental freedom.

www.ijmer.in 214



Respect for and promotion of the right to development.

Respect for and promotion of the right of every one to freedom

of expression, opinion and information.

The words “peace, calm, quite, silence” have each their own shade of meaning, but it is not easy to define them. Fatherhood of God and Brotherhood of men is the basic concept of education for peace.

Principles of Peace

G.W. Allport in his famous essay, Human Nature and the Peace, has mentioned ten principles:

War is not inevitable.

Importance of future generation in the plan for peace.

Control of favoritism and hatred.

Propagation of the notion of equality.

Effect of unwarranted interference in self-government.

Proper awards and punishments.

Rehabilitation without injury to self-respect.

Attention to and respect of the common individual.

Bigger units for collective security.

Integrity for promises.

Peace and happiness of each country only can be achieved if each citizen is at peace.

Peace Education

According to Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, “We must will peace with our whole body and soul, our feeling and instincts, our flesh and its affection.”

Peace Education is learning how to react in situation of conflict and war, how to avoid them. Education for peace acknowledges the goal

www.ijmer.in 215



of promoting a culture of peace. Just as man learns to fight and go to war, he may also learn to live peacefully. For this it is necessary to educate the public particularly young men and women in peace so that they may learn to look upon themselves as citizens of the world and works members of an international organization. Peace Education is concerns with peace ideas, peace studies and peace activities. Peace education is intended to prepare students for democratic participation in school and society. Peace Education help us to make wise choices of what is right or wrong, good or bad. Basic aim of peace education is to save human kind from destroying a large portion or all of itself. To teach the basic concept of peace, human right and secularism, to develop skill in conflict resolution and problem solving in children. Purpose of peace education to make every class room a peaceful classroom and create the culture of peace.

Indian Society and Peace

We live in multi cultural and multi ethnic society. There are so

many factors like casteism, classism, communalism, economic & educational disparity, favoritism, localism, regionalism, religious fanaticism, sectarianism, unemployment, untouchability singly or jointly create situation for conflict and war. India is country of youth. Youth can bring prosperity, happiness and peace in any country. But we see the news papers and news channels full of crime committed by children in the country. This increasing crime rate committed by children is alarming. Crime by students is a global concern. If they are trained in matters pertaining to social justice, human rights, self respect, inter culture harmony, balancing between rights and responsibilities; the students will restrains themselves from any conflicts with law.

www.ijmer.in 216



Role of Teacher Education in Peace Education

There are increasing conflicts in world today. Youth have to be

instilled with a fervent desire to seek new ways of living together based on reconciliation, generosity and tolerance, while at the same time rejecting any form of oppression and violence. As, we are living in the world of conflicts and tension, and so many factors as discussed above disturbing inner and outer peace of students. So, teachers are coping with harsh realities of violence in and outside the class room.

Peaceful classrooms will lead to peaceful society and peaceful world. Peace education is more affective when it is adapted according to the social and cultural context and needs to society. Emphasis should be on practicing them but not only on understanding. So, this requires creative teachers to introduce peace education into their classroom. Teacher should use their creative energies and draw upon the inner feelings of students as they exposed to the fine, beautiful aspects of the culture of humanity.

So, it is important to equip our teacher with the favorable values and attitude towards peace education. So they can achieve the cherished aim of peace education through classroom effectively.

This calls for the need of effective teacher training of pre-service and in-service teachers. Teacher training institute should prepare teacher with the required skill and knowledge to promote peace education. Teacher should be equipped to maintain inner as well as outer peace.

To make the peace education successful it has to be given

cognitive as well as affective content.

Peace education should be included as a core course in teacher

education curriculum.

www.ijmer.in 217



Teachers should be armed with skills to promote a sense of

harmony with oneself.

India has multicultural, multi-ethnic and multi-religious society.

Hence, teachers should be enabled to understand the problems and techniques to deal with those problems of such society.

Training should be given to know and manage own emotion,

recognize emotions in other and handling relationships.

Religious traditions cannot be ignored in peace education in multi-

religious society. Religion can either resist social change or promote social change and can either bring positive and harmful results. So, peaceful values, virtues and good qualities and ways of developing them as drawn from sacred books of the world’s great religions, then stressing positive aspects of religion.

Teacher training institute should organize orientation programs

for teachers to equip the teachers with techniques of conflict management and controlling arrogance and aggression. So that they can pass on the experiences to students.

Teachers should be trained to use teaching material and learning

activities which includes positive image of ethnic, racial and cultural groups to help students to develop positive attitude.

Teachers should be trained to establish special clubs and reading rooms in schools that concentrate on peace news and events that

violate the norms of social justice and equality.

Teachers should be trained to organize curriculum activities like street plays, debates, seminars, discussion on issues of peace education.

Mediation is important in conflict resolution. So, training should

be given to be a effective mediator through simulation.

www.ijmer.in 218



Teacher should be trained to practices yoga and meditation to

maintain inner peace.

Teacher should be trained to take special projects on peace

education.

References

1. Kumar, Dinesh and Pushpa Gautam (2008). Promotion of peace education through civic text. Miracle of Teaching. Vol. VIII(3), 100-102.

2. Maria, Delia (2004). Introducing peace studies in Indian classrooms. Miracle of Teaching, Vol. IV (2), 80-82.

3. National Curriculum Framework (2005). New Delhi: National Council of Education Research and Training. 61-64.

4. Nandita (2004). Teacher education and human rights – Tasks ahead. Miracle of Teaching. Vol. IV (2), 67-69.

5. Perera, R.P. (2005). Teachers’ guide to peace education. Journal of Value Education. Vol. 5(1 & 2), 129-130.

www.ijmer.in 219



A STUDY OF COMPUTER PHOBIA AMONG SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHERS

Dr. Kusum

Assistant Professor VSLM (PG) College of Education Chandi Solan, Himachal Pradesh

INTRODUCTION

Human nature is full of curiosity. Human being is always involved in new innovations. One of its innovations is computer. In all spheres of life computer is used today. It makes an important contribution in this modern age. Information technology collectively bounded all the uses of computers and new revolutions in the area of communication. Computers are being used in different places by many people in different fields. One way computers help us is in our lives. We use the computer to communicate with people such as web conferencing

with friends who are overseas, to look up on information about a particular topic, socialize on social networks such as facebook or even to do something as simple as sending an email or digital cards to friends and loved ones. The computer has also managed to change us from reading hard copies of books, magazines and newspapers, to reading online digital documents such as online newspaper articles and e-books. In education, lecturers are now using power point to make their lecture slides which are used during their lectures and students are now able to download the lecture slides into their computers and store it as reading documents. In the working place, paper work is now slowly converting from manual printing and keeping documents to storing documents in the computer. The problem with paper work is that it takes up a lot of space and an office has limited space. Moreover, going digital will help the environment as there will be less demand for paper which results in

lesser tress being cut down to be made into paper. People who suffer

www.ijmer.in 220



from this phobia are also advised to learn about phobias. It’s one way of making them aware of their own fear. People with computer phobias also need support not only in using computers but more so in having the right attitude toward their fear. They should realize that they don’t have to know everything about computers for them to be able to use it. Hence, the significance of the study is to check the computer phobia among senior secondary school teachers.

Statement of the Problem

“A STUDY OF COMPUTER PHOBIA AMONG SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHERS”.

Objectives of the Study

1. To study the level of computer phobia among senior secondary school teachers between male and female teachers.

2. To study the level of computer phobia among senior secondary

school teachers between Government and private teachers.

3. To study the level of computer phobia among senior secondary school teachers between arts and science teachers.

4. To study the level of computer phobia among senior secondary school teachers between urban and rural teachers.

Hypotheses of the Study

1) There is no significant difference between male and female teachers towards computer phobia.

2) There is no significant difference between government and private teachers towards computer phobia.

3) There is no significant difference between arts and science teachers towards computer phobia.

www.ijmer.in 221



4) There is no significant difference between urban and rural teachers towards computer phobia.

Operational Definitions

1. Phobia: - Phobia is a psychological disorder of persistent fear.

2. Computer Phobia: - Computer phobia is an extreme unwarranted

fear or physical aversion to computers.

3. Teacher: - A teacher who is attempting to teach without inspiring

the pupil with a desire to learn is hammering on cold iron.

Delimitations of the Study

1. The study is delimited to a sample of 100 teachers.

2. The study is delimited to Solan district only.

3. The study is delimited to senior secondary school teachers only.

4. The study is also delimited with respect to objectives and

hypotheses as stated earlier.

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Amsterdam (2007) Conducted a study on undergraduates

completed self- report measures on computer phobia and self- efficacy. Extensive development in universities provision of computer facilities may have negative consequences for students prone to computer avoidance. The main findings of the study were that many students follow previous trends by continuing to report levels of computer phobia within the higher parameters of self- report measures. Students

who reported either high computer phobia or low computer self- efficacy were less likely to maximize their use of university computer facilities. Moreover, a range of background measures initial computer experience, regular home use, successful completion of a computer

www.ijmer.in 222



course and introductory tutor characteristics all impacted statistically on self- report responses.

Chiu and Wang (2008) Conducted a study on a study of

computer anxiety of Turkis. The main findings of the study were that a strong negative effect on behavioural intensions and only indirect effects on usage, mainly through perceived usefulness. In the context of web- based learning, phobia has been found to have a significant negative effect on individual continuance intentions of technology usage.

Chhaya S. Patil (2011) Conducted a study on D.Ed teacher

trainee computer phobia. The main objectives of the study were that to investigate the level of D.Ed teacher trainee computer phobia and to

determine the computer phobia among male and female D.Ed teachers’ trainees. The major findings of the study were that there is no significant difference in the computer phobia of D.Ed teacher trainees attended computer class and who did not attend computer class. There is no difference in computer phobia of male and female D.Ed teacher trainees.

Kate tzu- Ching Chain (2012) Conducted a study on elementary

effective computer phobia and computer self efficiency in Taiban. The main objectives of the study were that to determining the level of computer anxiety and computer self efficiency and their correlation to classroom teacher among 300 elementary effective teachers in Taiban. The main findings of the study were that teacher have moderate to high computer phobia and low computer self efficiency. Computer phobia is negatively associated with computer self efficiency. Teachers who frequently used computer showed lower computer phobia.

Research Methodology

There are various methods which can be used for the dissertation, but in the present study only descriptive method was used by the

www.ijmer.in 223



researcher. Descriptive method is concerned with present and attempts to determine the status of the phenomena under investigation.

Sample Used

The sample for the present study was drawn on the basis of purposive sampling. The total sample for the present study is 100 teachers in which Government and private schools selected from urban and rural area.

Tool Used

For the collection of the data for the present study, the investigator used, standardized tool named-“COMPUTER PHOBIA SCALE”

given by “Dr.S.Rajasekar and Dr.P.Vaiyapuri Raja”.

Scoring Procedure of the Tool

The data gathered with the help of questionnaires was scored by counting frequencies for each item and then tabulated accordingly.

These frequencies were converted into percentages and the data was analyzed and interpreted Item wise. The questionnaire denotes five possible choices of answers i.e. strongly agree, agree, undecided, disagree, strongly disagree. Number of positive items 4, 3, 2, 1 and 0 respectively and number of negative items 0, 1, 2, 3 and 4 respectively had been decided for their responses.

Statistical Techniques Used

In the present study investigator was concerned with findings out the significance of difference between the means of the population from which the sample was drawn. The‘t’ value of two means is calculated.

www.ijmer.in 224



ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

Hypotheses testing

1. There is no significant difference between male and female teachers towards computer phobia.

2. There is no significant difference between government and private teachers towards computer phobia.

3. There is no significant difference between arts and science teachers towards computer phobia.

4. There is no significant difference between urban and rural teachers towards computer phobia.

(a) Hypothesis “There is no significant difference between male and

female teachers towards computer phobia.”

Table (a)

Gender Wise Mean Scores, S.D, Standard Deviation Error, df and‘t’ Value For Comparison of Male and Female Teachers towards Computer Phobia

S.NO. Gender Wise

N Mean S.D S.Ed df t

1 Male Teachers

50 63.54 11.87 1.67 98 0.297

2

Female Teachers

50 64.30 13.64

Table (a) depicts the comparison of mean scores towards Computer Phobia of male and female senior secondary school teachers. From table it is clear that the calculated value of “t” for comparing the

www.ijmer.in 225



means of teachers towards computer phobia, scores of male and female school teachers came out to be 0.297, for df 98 which is lesser than the table value 1.98 at 0.05 level of significance. Hence the Hypothesis that,” There is no significant difference between male and female teachers towards computer phobia” is accepted. Hence, it may be inferred that male teacher possess lesser mean towards computer phobia in comparison to female teachers towards computer phobia.

(b) Hypothesis “There is no significant difference between

Government and private teachers towards computer phobia.”

Table (b)

School Wise Mean Scores, S.D, Standard Deviation Error, df and‘t’ Value For Comparison of Government and Private Teachers towards Computer Phobia

S.NO. School Wise

N Mean S.D S.Ed df T

1 Government Teachers

50 63.02 11.98 1.69 98 0.713

2 Private

Teachers

50 64.84 13.49

Table depicts the comparison of mean scores towards Computer Phobia of Government and private senior secondary school teachers. From table it is clear that the calculated value of “t” for comparing the means of teachers towards computer phobia, scores of government and private school teachers came out to be 0.713, for df 98 which is lesser than the table value 1.98 at 0.05 level of significance. Hence the Hypothesis that,” There is no significant difference between government and private school teachers towards computer phobia” is

www.ijmer.in 226



accepted. Hence, it may be inferred that government teacher possess lesser mean towards computer phobia in comparison to private teachers towards computer phobia.

(c) Hypothesis“There is no significant difference between arts and

science teachers towards computer phobia.”

Table (c)

Stream Wise Mean Scores, S.D, Standard Deviation Error, df and‘t ’ Value For Comparison of Arts and Science Teachers towards Computer Phobia

S.NO. Stream Wise

N Mean S.D S.Ed df t

1 Arts Teachers

50 64.70 13.18 1.86 98 0.611

2 Science Teachers

50 63.14 12.35

Table (c) depicts the comparison of mean scores towards Computer Phobia of arts and science senior secondary school teachers. From it is clear that the calculated value of “t” for comparing the means of teachers towards computer phobia, scores of arts and science school teachers came out to be 0.611, for df 98 which is lesser than the table value 1.98 at 0.05 level of significance. Hence the Hypothesis,” There is no significant difference between arts and science teachers towards computer phobia” is accepted. Hence, it may be inferred that arts teacher possess greater mean towards computer phobia in comparison to science teachers towards computer phobia.

(d) Hypothesis “There is no significant difference between urban and

rural teachers towards computer phobia.”

www.ijmer.in 227



Table (d)

Locality Wise Mean Scores, S.D, Standard Deviation Error, df and‘t’ Value For Comparison of Urban and Rural Teachers towards Computer Phobia

S.NO. Locality Wise

N Mean

S.D S.Ed df t

1 Urban Teachers

50 64.48

13.46 1.90 98 0.438

2 Rural Teachers

50 63.36 12.07

Table (a) depicts the comparison of mean scores towards Computer Phobia of urban and rural senior secondary school teachers. From table it is clear that the calculated value of “t” for comparing the means of teachers towards computer phobia, scores of urban and rural teachers

came out to be 0.438, for df 98 which is lesser than the table value 1.98 at 0.05 level of significance. Hence the Hypothesis,” There is no significant difference between urban and rural teachers towards computer phobia” is accepted. Hence, it may be inferred that urban teacher possess greater mean towards computer phobia in comparison to rural teachers towards computer phobia.

Major Findings

On the basis of analysis and interpretation the following findings can be laid down:-

1. Female teachers possess more for computer phobia in comparison to male teachers towards computer phobia in District Solan of Himachal Pradesh.

www.ijmer.in 228



2. Private teachers possess more computer phobia in comparison to Government teachers towards computer phobia in District Solan of Himachal Pradesh.

3. Arts teachers possess more for computer phobia in comparison to science teachers towards computer phobia in District Solan of Himachal Pradesh.

4. Urban teachers possess more for computer phobia in comparison to rural teachers towards computer phobia in District Solan of

Himachal Pradesh.

Educational Implication

In view of our following educational implications can be laid down:-

1. The present study indicates that the female teachers possess more computer phobia as compare to male teachers. In order to improve female teachers towards computer phobia, school should organized special courses and special classes.

2. The present study indicates that the Private teachers possess more computer phobia as compare to government teachers. In order to improve private teachers towards computer phobia, school should organized special courses and special classes.

3. The present study indicates that the arts teachers possess more computer phobia as compare to science teachers. In order to improve arts teachers towards computer phobia, school should organized special courses and special classes.

4. The present study indicates that the urban teachers possess more

computer phobia as compare to rural teachers. In order to improve urban teachers towards computer phobia, school should organized special courses and special classes.

www.ijmer.in 229



5. Various seminars should be organized in schools for teachers for proper use of computer.

6. Various seminars, lectures by the experts should be arranged and teacher should apply these expert views in their practical and real situation.

7. Teacher should undertake the varying problems of different students and try to reduce them.

8. Training programs should be provided for the teachers to effective

use of computer.

9. Oriental programs should be organized for raising the proficiency of teachers towards the exact the use of computer.

10. Refresh courses of computer should be provided for the teachers.

Suggestions for further Research

The present study was conducted to study the level of computer phobia among senior secondary teachers of District Solan in Himachal Pradesh. Sample of 100 teachers were taken in to consideration by the investigator. So scope of the study becomes quite limited and finding of the study cannot be generalized to the whole of the state.

The following are some of the suggestions for taking further research work in the area of computer phobia.

1. The study can be extended to other District for the results wider implication.

2. A similar study may be undertaken by a large sample.

3. A similar study may be conducted on other states.

4. The study can be conducted on college’s level teacher also.

5. The study can be conducted on technical colleges.

www.ijmer.in 230



References

Tiwari Deepak(2006), Methods of Teaching Computer. New

Delhi, India: Vikas Publishers.

Venkataiah, S.(2004) Education via internet. New Delhi, India: Anmol Publishers.

Abas Zoraini (2002) Attitude Towards Computers Among Rural Secondary School Teachers. Retrived from http//www.business.highbeam.com

Garrett, E.Henry(2006), Statistics in Psychology and Education. New Delhi, India: Surjeet Publishers.

Aral, Ahyan, Unal (2006)The Attitude of Pre-service and

Kindergarten Teachers Toward Computer Phobia. Retrived from http// www.reefnet.gov.sy/14

Chua & chen (1997) Correlation Between Computer Phobia and

Prior Computer Experience. Retrived From http// www.dl.acm.org/citation.cfm

Chain, Tzu-Ching (2012) Elementary Teachers Computer

Phobia, Computer Self Efficacy in Taiban. Retrived from http// www.tojet.net/articles/v-11 i-2/11210.pdf

Denko & Maclachlan (1983) Training Teachers use of Computers and New Technology. Retrived from http// www.citeulike.org/user/article

Karal, H. & Ursavas, O.F (2009) Assessing Pre-service Teachers Computer Phobia Levels in Terms of Gender and Experience. Retrived from http//www.waset.org/v4_9_90.pdf

Patil S. Chhaya (2011) D.Ed Teacher Trainees Computer Phobia. Retrived from http// www.rasg.com/5.pdf

www.ijmer.in 231



Parish and Necessary (1996) Comparative Study on Computer

Anxiety and Computer Experience. Retrived from http// www.papers.ssrn.com

Russell, Glenn (1989) Computer Anxiety Implication for

Professional Development. Retrived from http// www.citeerx.ist.psu.edu.com

Rosen, D. Larry (1999) Computer Availability, Computer

Experience and Technophobia Among Public School Teachers. Retrived from http// www.sciencedirect.com/science/article

Shikha, Agarwal, Indu & Bansal (1997) Creative Ability of

Young Children of Urban and Rural Area in Computers. Retrived from http//www.eurojournals.com/ejss_8_2_05.pdf

Venkatesh (2000) The Role of Training in Decreasing Anxiety

Among Experienced Computer users. Retrived from http//www.prr.hec.gov.pk/chapters/5925_2.pdf

Weil & Rosen (1995) Computer Teachers Surveyed in

Elementary and Secondary School. Retrived from http// www.itu.dk/women-computer.pdf

Wilfong (2006) Comparative Study on Computer Phobia and

Computer Experience. Retrived from http// www.oppapers.com

Wang (2008) A Study of Computer Anxiety. Retrived from http//

www.oas.vco.edu

www.ijmer.in 232



NERCHAS: A CULTURAL SPECIMEN OF KERALA MUSLIMS

– A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

Dr. Shefi. A.E Assistant Professor & Head

Department of History Sir Syed College, Taliparamba

Kannur, Kerala Early Introduction of Islam

Kerala is considered as a land of cultural diversities, with its exclusive sea coast and a number of natural ports attracted large number of traders from very ancient times onwards. The native rulers extended all the facilities to these traders. The Middle East new faiths came into Indian continent through these traders. The foreigners settled in coastal towns and monopolized seaborne trade and commerce. Slowly they entered in the social structure and established their own institutionalized religion such as Judaism, Christianity and Islam in the Indian subcontinent. The multicolored carpet of Kerala society has been woven through centuries with Hindu, Jain, Buddhist, Jewish, Christian and Islamic elements coexisting without losing their identity or even their contrast in character.1

The cultural absorption among the Hindu Muslim community started in this condition. The early Muslim followers were the

indigenous inhabitants who came from lower segment of the society. Their main aim was to flee the existing social structure. We cannot argue that they are effusive attracted in the teaching of Islamic ethics. But actually they fascinated the detection of Muslim merchants in the society. Those who followed Islamic faith did not face any kind of caste restrictions in the society. The evils of existing caste compartmentalization had been already mentioned by different scholars, especially the early travelers who visited Kerala. Shaikh Sainudhin Thuhfathul Mujahidhin reveals the detailed account of the

www.ijmer.in 233



caste system in Kerala and mannappedi and pulappedy were the best example of early social custom in Kerala. The famous historian, Dr. MGS Narayanan has also justified the fact that there is no forcible conversion reported during those days. In this paper my attempt is to analyze the nerchas of Kerala Muslims from a historical perspective.

A lot of studies have been conducted in the history of Islamic expansion in Kerala. Most of the historians point out that there was no forcible conversion carried out in the early period of Kerala society. The existing social system in Kerala was one among the central reason for the establishment of Islamic expansion. The historians have no unanimous opinion regarding the foundation and the development of new faiths in the Indian subcontinent. So the history of the emergence of Islam in Kerala is a controversial issue. Various studies have been conducted by both indigenous and foreign scholars. Shaykh Zainuddin, Ibn Bathuta Innes C A. William Logan, Roland E Miller, C.K Kareem, MGS Narayan are some of the scholars who considered this matter seriously. Majority of them accepted that Islam reached the coastal

areas of Kerala almost at the same time of its origin. Eminent modern historians like MGS Narayanan, KKN Kurup, C.K.Kareem, A.P. Ibrahimkunju, K.V.Krishna Ayyar, are of the opinion that Islam spread in Kerala around 9th to 12th centuries AD.

All the available facts point out that Islam gained a respectable position in Kerala society from the initial stage onwards. During the early period, most of the followers came from the lower strata of society and they were not ready to totally change their mode of life, beliefs and values. Their principal motive was to free from the exiting social stratification. The local language used by the newly converted groups also created serious problem and the missionary leaders were not able to understand what they actually thought and spoke. The leaders were unable to teach Islamic instruction properly. So the ritualistic patterns were not totally changed by the new converted group and they followed

www.ijmer.in 234



their own traditional practices to some extent. So, the traditional Hindu cultural practices very much influenced the Islamic community and the local festivals resulted in cultural assimilations.

The cultural uniqueness of the Muslim local festivals

Through the amalgamation that has taken place between the followers of Islam and the local Hindus, many customs and practices of the Hindu society have crept in to the Muslim society of Kerala. The study of Muslim customs especially those related to marriage, birth and death ceremonies would probably show that Hindu customs and ideas

had a greater influence in the socio-religious life of the Muslims of Kerala. In the course of the assortment both communities influenced each other marking a cultural assimilation.2

As in the context of early social system in Kerala, Muslims rejoice certain festivals which contain Islamic elements as well as features of certain local folk festivals of Kerala. The influence of local Hindu culture on Muslim society is obvious in these festivals. Almost all the festivals are conducted within a ritual frame work and those are related to scrupulous deity and it was performed in all the parts of Kerala. Most of these local festivals reflected the indigenous cultural traditions of particular locality. At present, the local festivals among the Muslims were known in different names such as Nerchas,

Kodikuthu, Chandanakudam, Urus, Rateeb etc, which are celebrated with wide acceptance.

The local festivals of the Muslims assume the form of nerchas on the tombs of saints or Martyrs. Nerchas is the reverence shown to spiritual leaders or Martyrs of Islam. The rituals are commonly controlled by the priestly class. In some other parts of Kerala the nerchas are directly led by the head of a particular family related to the

saint concerned. Earlier days, this kind of local festival was very common. But even today a lot of changes and restrictions have been

www.ijmer.in 235



seen in the performance of these kinds of local festivals due to several reasons. From the perspective of local history, each and every local festival had its own significance and is closely associated with the local tradition, culture and history. These cultural interactions points towards the high level of religious tolerance which existed between the Hindus and Muslims of Kerala. In this paper I am trying to point out some important local festival and analyze their features associated with

the Muslim community in Kerala.

Prominent Muslim local fiesta’s

Mamburam was the important pilgrim centre in Northern Kerala which is located in Malappuram District. ‘Mamburam nercha’ is associated with the commemoration of Mamburam Thangal which is held at the maqam. The historical tradition of this festival is associated with the element Mythical facet. The local peoples of these areas participate irrespective of caste and they accepted the fiction. The traditional story was interesting and the hero, Thangal enjoyed a

legendary figure. He was a Sufi saint, whose personal qualities and spiritual greatness attracted the locals. People believe that he was not only a spiritual leader but also a great patriot and a great scholar. He had composed a poem named ‘Assyful Bader’ the best example to reveal his patriotic notion and to mobilize the natives to fight against the British atrocity.3 The background of the celebration is not acknowledged merely with a particular religion. The historical traditions of Mamburam nercha have some connection with agricultural activities. For instance, the tradition of

Kodikondunadakkal a custom associated with Mamburam Nercha is directly connected with the solution of famine in the locality. During the time of nerchas the important function Kodikondunadakkal, (flag pared people believe that after this ritualistic practices rain is assured in concerned paddy field ( Interview with Koynikoya Thangal, elder members of Mamburam family). People of the region actively partake

www.ijmer.in 236



in this gathering, irrespective of their caste. During Nerchas people used to engage in various entertainments like sword play, dance, music, drama, caparisoned elephants accompanied by Panchavadyam, band

etc. In the mean time Mamburam was developed in to a vital trading centre of Malabar and the festival acting as a fair festival. But at present obviously due to the influence of so called religious reformism the pattern of celebrations totally changed from the ancient mode of practices. The ceremonial performances are totally distorted and it is only conducted inside the four walls of the maqam. Today recitation of quranic verses and anndanam constitutes the formal rites of the nerchas and their importance is lost.

Kondotti nercha is another important local festival, better known for its pomp and sagacity, is held in honor of the great Sufi saint Muhammad Sha I ( Interview with Rahiman Thangal, elder family member of great Sufi saint Muhammad Sha ). Kondotti was one of the inland towns which rose in to prominence in the 16th century.4 There was a fairy tale behind the origin of this nercha. Kondotti literally means ‘felling of trees’. It was believed that Thangal took initiative to clear the thick forest and established a settlement. The local history

behind it was that Muhammed Sha had thrown some gold coin somewhere in the forest and people started cutting the trees to find out the gold coins. This diplomatic move of the Thangal helped to clear the thick forest and to develop Kondotti as an important settlement. Thangal freely distributed this newly cleared land to various families to ensure cultivation on a wider scale. On the base of early land lord relation, after the harvest season the farmers used to visit Thangal with some agricultural products offering to give their gratitude and respect towards him in a festive mood. This festive occasion was known

as Kondotti nercha. After the land reform movement in Kerala Thangal family has lost most of their land. But it did not affect their reputation and people still practiced this festival in a traditional manner. Thangal

www.ijmer.in 237



family was supervises this fiesta. Even now, the main rituals of the fiesta were supervised by the elder member of the thangal family.

There are number of features for conducting festival which are closely associated with local temple festival in Kerala. Thokkedukkal,

chandanamedukkal and pettivaravu are distinctive feature of this celebration.5 Some historical background behind the performance of Thokkedukkal (take a gun), which refers to the gun given by Tippu Sulthan to Kondotti thangal which is suggestive of the cordial relationship between the Mysore ruler and the thangal family. The main ceremony of the nercha begins with the pettivaravu.6 Various

forms of entertainment like dancing, fireworks; and the caparisoned elephants are the exceptional feature on this occasion and the procession has some similarities of Kerala temple festival. In Chandanamedukkal, the elder thangal and his companion take sandal and murida and lead a colorful festival through the street.7 This is the closing ceremony of the nercha and in the mean time a special sweet known as shrine ( prasadam) is distributed to the disciples. But in the

modern period the festival is not conducted on their traditional level due to several reasons. If we clearly analyze the local festival we can understand that the Janmi Kudiyan relation clearly influenced the social structure of this locality. People were consciously or unconsciously subordinate to their masters and they maintain their relation with landlord and peasants.

Pattambi is another important centre of Muslim local festival and the festival was known as Pattambi nercha. The nercha is associated with the death anniversary of Alur Valiya Pookoya Thangal.

This nercha is performed just like a typical Hindu temple festival in Kerala. The local tradition of this nercha is allied to the political history of Kerala. During the time of Tippu Sulthan’s invasion in Northern Kerala, naithukar was one of the major groups of Tippus army (Ravindran C.K, native journalist, Pattambi). After the death of

www.ijmer.in 238



Sulthan the family was dishonored and they migrated to Ramagirikunnu at Pattambi and they faced several serious social problems like unemployment, poverty, pests etc. People believed that they were able to get rid of these problems only with the blessing of Thangal. Gradually Thangal acquired saintly image in this locality.

The Pattambi nercha is celebrated on the commemoration of Alur Valiya Pukkoya Thangal.8 The nercha symbolizes the harmonious relation between Hindu Muslim communities and the practices of the nercha are almost the same as that of the ancient period.

Other famous ceremony is Malappuram nercha which commemorates the death of forty-four mappilas murdered in the battle

against the local naduvazhi. According to the mappila version of the tradition, Ali Marakkar was a soldier in the service of Parama Nambi, the Zamorins governor, in the 18th century. When a dispute arose over the proposed sale of a low caste Hindu as a slave because he failed to pay tax, the ruler’s Nair soldiers killed Ali Marakkar. This ensured a battle and some of the mapplilas took refuge in the Malappuram mosque which had been built on land given by the ruler. In the subsequent Nair attack many mappilas fled, the martyrs were killed in

the mosque, and the mosque was destroyed. Later the ruler realized that he was suffering from the disease as a punishment to his violent act against the mappilas and accordingly the ruler brought back the mappilas and rebuilt the mosque at his own expenses.9 The nercha illustrates the emotional spirit, occasionally approaching frenzy, which arise from the religious commitment of the especially the poorer and uneducated mappilas. Processions come from several villages came to

old Malappuram bringing money offering and bearing flags. The columns mass together and proceed with high commotion to the mosque where the martyrs are buried. On the way they are met by representatives of the four original families to who bells forty two

www.ijmer.in 239



martyrs and are escorted to the mosque where they place their flag on posts and give gifts to the head of the mosque.10

From the very advent of Islam in Kerala, Ponnani was considered as a vital Muslim settlement area. Later it became a religious centre of Muslim theologians from the time of Shaikh Zainudhin Makdhum. Makhdum had built a mosque at Ponnani. The local people of Ponnani were attributed the karamat (super power held

by a person) of Ponnani sheikh with the connection related to the construction of Ponnani mosque.11 Ponnani nercha is associated with the memory of this great saint. Today several pilgrims visit his grave. People belonging to all sects come to this grave daily to pay their homage to the saint. People visiting these tombs offer gifts as a mark of their respect and devotion towards this great scholar.

Another well-known nercha is associated with Veliyamkode Umar quazi at Veliyamkode in Malappuram district. The people

believed that he was not only a religious leader but also a popular leader who lead an open revolt against the colonial authorities. The ceremonial activities of this nercha are totally different from other existing local Muslim festivals in Kerala. However people participate in this irrespective of their caste and creed. Annadanam (distribution of food), Dhikuruhalka and Quran recitation are the main programme of this nercha.

Appavanibha nercha is celebrated another peculiar nercha celebrated at Idiyangara in Calicut. According to the fable one night some mappilas dreamt that one of the grave, which was on the sea-shore, was in danger of being washed away and that they should remove the body to a safer place. Accordingly they opened the grave and found the body quite fresh with no sign of decomposition. The remains were piously re-interred in another place and a mosque was constructed at the place. The mosque came to be called ‘Shakindepalli’.

The important feature of this celebration is that every mappila

www.ijmer.in 240



household prepares rice-cakes, which are sent to the mosque to be distributed among the thousands of baggers who gather on the occasion.12 People believe that one, who suffers from a disease in any part of the body, can make a replica (which is made of rice) of that part of the body or appam offer to the Darga. Through this ritual people

believe that they would overcome the disease. People visit this grave and offer some cakes or bread for the fulfillment of their needs (Mammu the native of Idiyangara and a committee member of Appavanibha nercha ).

Manatahala nercha was another historical local festival celebrated the commemoration of Hydroskutty Muppan, a local chief of chavakkad, who was appointed as a tax collector of Zamuthiri. During the time of Tippus invasion of Malabar Hydroskutty Muppan fully supported Zamuthiri. In the battle Hydroskutty Muppan was murdered. Manathala nercha is conducted to cherish the memory of

this great patriot.13 The nercha is celebrated on the death anniversary of Hydrossukutty Muppan. The fact that this nercha is celebrated to commemorate the death of a person who was killed by Tippu Sulthan, while defending his Hindu master Zamuthiri stands testimony to the secular identification of the nerchas. At the time of nercha processions are usually conducted and it is accompanied by decorated elephants

ridden by two or three men. They also make use of drums and fireworks. Elephant racing was the important item of Manathala nercha. The nercha symbolizes the unity of local people cutting across the barriers of caste and communities.

Rateeb is another form of Muslim festival celebrated almost all over Kerala. It is performed by a group of Muslim priest headed by a chief. During this ceremony the priests perform some actions using some lethal weapon like dagger, knife, the nercha is known as Vettumkuthum Rateeb.14 These weapons are used during the recitation

of holy Quranic verses in the name of Shaikh. This ritual is conducted

www.ijmer.in 241



mainly for preventing the spread of epidemics or mortal diseases to their family and their locality. The expenses of the rateeb are met by individuals or group of individual and the venue is either the mosque or the houses of individuals. A feast also will be arranged for the priests and the invitees at that time. Rateeb has close resemblance to the

velichappad (oracle teller) attached to temples of Kerala.15

Conclusion

All the existing evidence shows that nerchas and other local festivals have a lot of similarities with the traditional temple festivals in Kerala. They share a uniform ceremonial pattern like Kodikayattam, procession of decorated elephant, using of musical instrument, fireworks, sword play, dance, drama etc. In the ancient days most of these festivals were conducted as a part of trade fairs in particular

locality. Sometimes people believe that these places were only the centre of the market of exchange of commodities. The main features of these festivals were the manifestation of unity as people participate irrespective of their caste. Each and every nercha is closely associated with particular local tradition. Some group of Muslims severely criticizes nerchas and they argue that Islam does not allow these types of local festivals. Their uncompromising fight against all kind of shirks or polytheism. They argue that ceremonial activities of the local

festivals among the Muslims were un-Islamic. The active involvement of the reformist groups is very much affected the ritualistic performance of nerchas.

The Islamic philosophy and religion have spread in Kerala with all regional and other material differentiation. Muslims of Kerala mainly came from altered class and they have their own indigenous style. Keeping this in view we must look upon the multicultural aspect of nerchas and other local ceremonies. But today many attempts are being made to rebuild a new Islamic identity which has been intensified

www.ijmer.in 242



in India after the demolition of Babari Masjid. So, all the new Muslim groups attempt to create a monolithic Islamic identity in the state. Their efforts have deeply influenced the Muslim cultural psyche. The growing opposition from the so-called progressive elements in the Kerala Muslim community has affected these traditional ceremonies and many of them have already lost their earlier popularity. However, some festivals still continue without any change in their traditional

pattern. These kinds of local festivals help to highlight the interaction and the reciprocal nature of cultural relation between the Hindu Muslim communities.

Notes

Mannappedi and Pulappedi were the two prominent example of caste rigidity of ancient Kerala society. According to this custom, if an upper caste man or women was either seen or touched by a lower caste on the evening of a particular day, the upper caste was excommunicated. The custom clearly mention about the work of Sheik Zainudhin, Thuhfathul Mujahidin.

Nercha literally means “oath” the use for festival is derived from the practice of taking oath in the name of the saint involved.

Annadanam -During the present day annadanam is the main function of Muslim celebration. It means that the distribution of food to the participants of the Nerchas.

Shaykh Zainuddin Makhdum was an alim who was born in to a

religious family of Malabar in the late 1600s AD. He was from the lineage of the Makhdums of Yemen who settled down in ponnani and who had a big role in the spread of Islam in India. His pioneering historical work Tuhfatul Mujahidin dealing with the struggles of the Malabar Muslims against Portuguese. See more details on K.T. Hussain, Kerala Muslinkal Adinivesa Virudha Porattathinde Prathyaya Shasthram,2008.pp.33-50.

www.ijmer.in 243



Dhikuruhalka -Recollection, a spiritual exercise designed to render God’s presence throughout one’s being. The methods employed (rhythmical repetitive invocation of God’s names) to attain spiritual concentration.

References

1.Narayanan.M.G.S, ‘Cultural Symbiosis in Kerala,’ 1972,p.9.

2. Muhammedkoya. S.M. ‘Mappilas of Malabar studies in Social and Cultural History,’1983, p.90

3. Ebrahimkunju, A.P, ‘Mappila Muslims of Kerala Their History and Culture,’ 1989, p.218.

4. Ibid.,p.222.

5. Mathrubumi Daily, ‘ Kondotti Nercha’, 2000 October 16.

6. Ebrahimkunju,A.P, ‘Mappila Muslims of Kerala Their History and Culture,’ 1989, p.193

7. Mathrubumi Daily, ‘Kondoty Nercha’, 2000 October 16.

8. Malayala Manorama daily, ‘Kondotti Nercha,’ 2000 Febrary, 20.

9. Rolland E Miller, ‘Mappila Muslims of Kerala,’1992, p.244.

10. Ibid., p.245.

11. Berrakkutty, M.A, ‘Shaikh Zainudhin Makhdumum Ponnani Jamat Palliyum,’ 1990, p.7.

12. Abdul Rahiman, P.T. ‘Appavanibha Nercha Ganangal,’ p.28.

13. Muhammad Kunji,P.K. ‘Muslimingalum Kerala Samskaravum Study,’1993, p.285.

14. Paslithil, A, ‘Nerchas Among the Muslims of Kerala’, Journal of Kerala Studies, Vol XVII, 1990, p.116.

15. Ibid., p.117.

www.ijmer.in 244



EMPOWERMENT OF INDIAN WOMEN THROUGH EDUCATION

Dr.Ch.Chalapathirao

Principal SVD College, Parvathipuram

Vizianagaram Dt.Andhra Pradesh Introduction

Women constitute almost half of the population in the world. But the hegemonic masculine ideology made them suffer a lot as they were denied equal opportunities of the different parts of the world. The rise of feminist ideas has, however, led to the tremendous improvement of women’s condition throughout the world in recent times. Interestingly, the year 2001 was declared as the Women Empowerment Year. Access to education has been one of the most pressing demands of these women’s right movements. Education is a key to development and this has become the most important thrust area for government today. Education of girls is increasingly being seen as an effective weapon of social change particularly in the rural areas. In view of this, a major conceptual shift is being effected in the approach to the education of girls and investment in female education is now considered a development imperative rather than a plain moral commitment. Women hold a prominent position in the Indian society as well as all over the world. However, since the pre-historic times women were denied opportunities. This unjustifiable operation has resulted into a movement that sought to achieve an equal status of women all over the world. Women’s education in India is the consequence of such progress and this led to a tremendous improvement of women’s condition throughout the world. Eradication of female illiteracy is considered as a major concern today.

Historical background of Women’s Education During ancient period Indian women and girls used to receive lesser education than men. Although in the Vedic Period women had access to education in India, they had gradually lost this right. Women enjoyed equivalent rights in the early Vedic era. However, in the

www.ijmer.in 245



British Period there was revival of interest in women’s education in India. During this period, various socio-religious movements led by eminent persons like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar emphasized on women’s education in India. Mahatma Jyotiba Phule, Periyar and Baba Sahib Ambedkar were leaders of the lower castes in India who took various initiatives to make education available to the women of India. However, women’s education got a fillip after the country got independence in 1947 and the government has taken various measures to provide education to all Indian women. As a result women’s literacy rate has grown over the three decades and the growth of female literacy has in fact been higher than that of male literacy rate. While in 1971. Only 22% of Indian women were literate, by the end of 2001 53.70 % were literate.The growth of female literacy rate is 14.87% as compared to 11.72% of male literacy rate. And now, according to the 2011 Census, the male literacy rate is 82.14 while female literacy rate is 65.46. Importance of Women Education Napoleon was once asked, what the great need of France was. He answered,” Nation’s progress is impossible without trained and educated mothers. If the women of my country are not educated, about half of the people will be ignorant.” A woman has to play three roles in the course of her life. Each of these roles expects some duties from her. It is only with the help of education that she would be able to do them successfully. The first duty of a woman is to be a good daughter. The second duty is to be a good wife and third duty is to be a good mother. Education teaches a woman what she should be. It also teaches her how she should do it to be good daughter, a good wife and a good mother. Women education in India plays a very important role in the overall development of the country. It not only helps in the development of half of the human resources, but in improving the quality of life at home and outside. Educated women not only tend to promote education of their girl children, but also can provide better guidance to all their children.

Educated women can also help in the reduction of infant mortality rate and growth of the population.

Women’s increased earning capacity,in turn, has a positive effect on child nutrition.

www.ijmer.in 246



Educated women are more politically active and better

informed about their legal rights and how to exercise them. Women education leads to responsive society and reduces

human right violations. Literate women are the key to empowering women’s

participation in decision making in society which contributes to serve better and represent the society.

Literate women will accelerate the economic and social development by enhancing human capital, slowing population growth, and alleviating poverty.

Present Position of Women Education in India The National Sample Survey on status of education in India(2005) showed that 50% in rural India, and 20% in urban area do not have even one literate girl child in their families above the age of 15. Economists confirm a direct relationship between family income and the expenses towards girls’ education. Despite rapid growth in literacy in post-independence India , gendered deprivation still exists and needs to be overcome. In 2011,only 64.46% of female population was literate as against 82.14% of males. The pace of progress has been very slow in India. In the span of fifty years from 1951 to 2011, there has been a marginal increase of 46.5 % in literacy rate. Between 1951 to 2011, female literacy shows a mere 53.6 % increase. Literacy rate (%) in India 1951-2001 Year Persons Males Females Gender Gap 1951 18.33 27.16 8.86 18.30 1961 28.30 40.40 25.05 25.05 1971 34.45 45.96 21.97 23.99 1981 43.57 56.38 29.76 26.62 1991 52.21 64.13 39.29 24.84 2001 64.83 75.26 53.67 21.59 2011 74.04 82.14 65.46 16.68 Source: Census of India From less than 1in 10 women counted as literate in 1951, today two out of three women are enumerated as literate. It is quite clear from the table that the female literacy has increased and has resulted in narrowing down of the gender gap in literacy rate from 21.59 in 2001 to 16.68 % in 2011, so both are showing a positive development in 2011. Though the target set for the year 2011-2012 by the planning

www.ijmer.in 247



commission of reducing the gap to 10 percentage points has not been achieved , it is heartening that the reduction has been to the order of almost 5 percentage points. This trend of rising female literacy will have far reaching consequence which may lead to development of the society. Male-Female Gap in Effective Literacy Rate (%)

Year 1991 2001 2011 India 24.85 21.59 16.68

It may be observed from the table that the male female gap in literacy is declining at faster pace. Kerala, Mizoram, Lakshadweep and Tripura are the consistent forerunners for both Census 2001 and Census 2011. Punjab, Chhattisgarh, Sikkim , Madhya Pradesh ,Rajasthan showed decrease in rank by more than 4 points from the Census 2001, Of these states , Punjab decreased the most from 15th rank to twenty –first rank slipping down by 6 points. Causes for Low Literacy among Women in India

1) Higher Drop-out rate among Girls from Schools: According to available sources, occurrence of drop-out and stagnation amongst girls is nearly twice that of boys all over India. It is prevalent especially in rural, tribal and slum areas.

2) Caste System: Children belonging to low caste families are not encouraged to go to school due to various factors. They are forced to learn skills for earning.

3) Poverty: According to the World Bank, more than one-third of the country is estimated to be living below the poverty line. Attending school is free; however, the costs of transportation, materials and uniforms can be beyond the reach of many families. Poorer families are more likely to keep their girls at home. Educating son is seen as an investment in a way that the education of a daughter is not.

4) Lack of acceptable school facilities: In general the school environment for girls in India is not really interesting and encouraging. The method of teaching are mostly outdated, rigid and uninteresting. There are hundreds of schools with poor basic amenities such as drinking water, latrine and toilet facilities, improper building, and inadequate number of teachers especially female teachers.

www.ijmer.in 248



5) High population growth: High population growth rate is often a symptom of illiteracy. The problem of insufficient space is made worse by the large increase in the number of school-age children.

6) Lack of female teachers: Girls are more likely to attend school and achieve more academically if they have female teachers. In India, where classrooms are gender-segregated, women teachers are only 29 percent today. Those states that have the highest literacy rates are also the states that have the highest percentage of female teachers.

7) Gender-bias in curriculum: In most lessons, men are the main characters. They are shown as strong, adventurous and intelligent. Women are often shown as helpless, victims of some type of abuse. Such depictions are major obstacles to women’s education.

8) Ineffective law enforcing machinery: Indian Constitution and various legislations pertaining to education to children assure free and compulsory education for all children of this nation but unfortunately the enforcement machinery fail to discharge its duties and responsibilities to the satisfaction of the public interest and welfare of women.

9) Child Labour Practice: A large segment of child population in India is engaged in child labour practices i.e match and fireworks, gem, domestic works, glass, embroidery, coir industry, carpet making, bricks, mining ,construction etc.

10) Inferiority: The Indian culture place the limitations on female child on her education and development especially in rural, tribal and poor families which develop the qualities of inferiority.

11) Age at Marriage: There is a deep relationship between female literacy and female age at marriage. The prescribed age of female in various legislations is 18 but not at all followed in India. It is mostly ignored by the low literacy and illiterate background parents. This practice discourages female children to continue her schooling and higher studies.

www.ijmer.in 249



12) Economic and Social Reasons:

Children are sent to school not according to their intelligence and aptitude but according to their sex. Reasons for not sending the girls to school are both economic and social. Resources are also very limited.

13) Orthodox Parents: Parents do not see the value of educating a daughter who would get married and remain a housewife . Since they can’t see any direct relationship between education and economic betterment.

14) Restricted access to education by women is rooted in history, religion, culture, the psychology of self, law political institutions and social attitudes.

15) Other Reasons Lack of funds, Inadequate facilities, Inadequate manpower, sexual harassment, conflicting societal role expectations, Government policies and lack of political power. Remedial measures for improving the literacy level of Women in India

Both at the centre and the state level , the Ministry of Education should work out strategic steps to stop the high drop-outs among girls especially in rural, tribal and slum areas with the help of voluntary organization in every locality to realize zero drop-out among girls.

The parents of children belonging to poor, under-privileged families must be specially educated to help them to understand the significance of education for their girls.

To enable the families to send their children to schools and colleges

without financial difficulties, the poor families can be identified through proper research and poverty alleviation services be provided to strengthen the income of the families.

More schools should be set up at easy walking distance from their

homes.

www.ijmer.in 250



Campaigns should be launched to change people’s attitude The law enforcing machinery should be made really effective to

implement the constitutional and legislative provisions to assure free and compulsory education for all children of this nation. Government officials, policy makers, political parties and others should have adequate political will and conviction to empower women in India.

Appropriate steps should be taken by the educational authorities

in order to bring the girl children to the main stream of education at every level.

More women teachers should be employed as well as separate

schools should be established where demands. Other educational supportive services like free text books, free

bicycles, free uniforms, free transport, scholarships and so on should be provided in all states and union territories to lift up the literacy level among girls.

The electronic and print media can play significant role in building

a good and positive image about girls and women in society. The media should not focus on giving advertisement at the cost of depicting women as an object. This would help in changing the society’s attitude towards girls and their roles to treat them as human being with self-respect.

With the help of mass awareness programmes and social welfare

measures with full support of public, political parties, NGOs, and government agencies, all the social evils can be eliminated.

Child labour practice must be abolished with strict administrative

measures and the children should be integrated into schools with suitable defence social mechanisms.

Time schedule of the schools should be flexible so that girls can

attend classes when free . Impart vocational or employment related knowledge and skills.

www.ijmer.in 251



The same and relevant curriculum for boys and girls should be

introduced to have equal educational and later job opportunity. Conclusion: Education is the mirror of the society and is the seed as well as the flower of the socio-economic development. It transcends human being from ignorance to enlightenment, from the shade of social backwardness to the light of social amelioration and the nation from under development towards faster social and economic development. Education is a potent tool in the emancipation and empowerment of women. It is indispensable that education enables women not only to gain more knowledge about the world outside of her home but helps her to get status, positive self-esteem, and self confidence, necessary courage and inner strength to face challenges in life .

References Agarwal,S.P.(2001),Women’s Education in India(1995-

98)Present Status, Perspective, Plan, Statistical Indicators with Global View, Vol. III Concept Publications Co, New Delhi.

Government of India, Census of India 2011. Gupta,N.L.(2003), Women’s Education through Ages, Concept

Publications Company,New Delhi. Rao, R.K.(2001), Women and Education, Kalpaz Publications,

New Delhi. S.S .Chahar and Neelam, Women Empowerment in Haryana –

The Educational Dimension,(IN) Lalneihzovi , Women’s Development in India: Problems and Prospects,(ed),New Delhi, Mittal Publications,2007.

www.ijmer.in 252

Volume4 Issue12(3)

Documents

Transcript of Volume4 Issue12(3)