Volume 1 Issue Spring 2017

Amal AlthobaitiEnas AlghamdiRawan Abudawood

Renad BaabdullahBayan AlnahhasRana Johar

Rawan BalahmarSanaa Al-QuaitiYomen BamatrafBashayer Bamohsen

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This Journal is Effat’s Copyright

About EURJ

Volume 1 Issue Spring 2017

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About EURJ

Educational research shows that student contribution is an effective practice for enhancing educational outcomes. The mission of Effat’s Undergraduate Research Journal (EURJ) is to provide a forum for exchange and discussion of research. Effat’s Undergraduate Research Journal (EURJ) is established to publish research by outstanding Effat University’s undergraduate students from all disciplines by submitting faculty-mentored research articles. The open-access interdisciplinary journal is run jointly by facul ty members and students, wi th the unique partnership of Effat’s other departments: library, marketing, the Department of English & Translation, Effat’s Academy, the Center for Communication and Rhetoric (CCR), and the Center of Excellence in Writing and Speaking (CEWS). Publications of EURJ are sponsored by the Deanship of Graduate Studies and Research (DGSR).

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Volume 1 Issue Spring 2017

President’s Message

It gives immense pleasure to announce the launching of the first issue of Effat’s Undergraduate Research Journal (EURJ). The academic year 2016-2017 marks the seventeenth year of existence and we will be celebrating the launching of the fourth five-year strategic plan 2017-2022! Effat family looks forward to transforming this university into a research university with extra emphasis on teaching and community services and taking advantage of the 2030 Saudi vision of the Custodian of the holy mosques, King Salman Bin Abdul-Aziz Al Saud and its transformation plan of 2020. With our commitment to excellence, we

strive to educate tomorrow’s leaders at an international standard by providing an inter-disciplinary environment, managing resources effectively to provide life-long learning, providing community service learning experiences, encouraging national and international collaboration, and inspiring new models of learning to maximize the educational experience. We enable our students to mature to well-rounded, competent, and articulate citizens and leaders. This is in recognition of our continuous determination to excel in providing new and ongoing opportunities to Effat students, faculty and staff.

I look forward to your successful and continuous research participation.

Dr. Haifa Jamal AlLailPresident of Effat University

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Provost’s Message

I am pleased to welcome you as Effat University’s Provost and pleased to announce the publication of the first issue of Effat’s Undergraduate Research Journal (EURJ). Effat University’s mission has been to provide an interdisciplinary environment conducive to research, community service and life-long learning. Through the valuable research and graduate education opportunities, the University provides, we aim at creating an intellectually-stimulating environment for learning and discovery.

The University always encourages researchers’

new possibilities for research and innovation. We also remain greatly appreciative of our academic and industry partnerships as they open doors to collaboration and joint efforts in addressing unanswered questions and tapping into new realms of innovation and creativity.

Finally, I look forward to this exciting and new academic journal that marks the research diligence of Effat’s students, as well as the mentoring and guidance of Effat’s faculty members. All these continued pursuits are to create an innovative research culture that helps make an impactful, sustainable difference in our community and worldwide.

Dr. Malak AlnoryProvost of Effat University

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Volume 1 Issue Spring 2017

Dean’s Message

As Dean of Graduate Studies and Research, I am proud of the contributions of Effat’s students to this first volume of EURJ (Effat’s Undergraduate Research Journal). Through EURJ, we encourage Effat University’s students to be leading in scientific discovery, research and innovation. Aligning our research strategies

with the 2030 Saudi Vision allows us to address national and global challenges and opportunities. By harnessing our knowledge and researches, we foster wide key research interests for innovative research developments and technology in all the research fields of Effat’s colleges.

Dr. Akila SarireteDeanship of Graduate Studies & Research

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Volume 1 Issue Spring 2017

Team ............................................................................................

Abstracts .....................................................................................

Research Papers ........................................................................

Amal Althobaiti .....................................................................................

The Desire of Dependence on Men and the Justification of Sexism: An

Exploratory Study of Saudi Females

Enas Alghamdi ....................................................................................

Stress and Coping Strategies among Saudi Working Women

Rawan Abudawood & Rawan Balahmar ............................................

Effects of CCK or TCK on Developing Children’s Language Acquisition

and Personal Experience

Sanaa Al-Quaiti ...................................................................................

Relationship between Beliefs about the Functions of Dreams and

Dream Attitudes: An Exploratory Study in Saudi Arabian Cultural Milieu

Yomen Ghazi Bamatraf ......................................................................

The Effect of Service Quality and Switching Barrier on Customer

Loyalty: A Study of Saudi Mobile Telecommunication Services

Bashayer K Bamohsen ........................................................................

How Syria’s Urbanism and Architecture Paved the Way for Brutal War

Renad Mohammed Baabdullah .........................................................

Traditional Domestic Architecture in Al-Baha Region

Bayan.A. Alnahhas .............................................................................

First Demonstration of Orange-yellow Light Emitter Devices in InGaP/

InAlGaP Laser Structure Using a Strain-induced Quantum Well

Intermixing Technique

Table of Content

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Rana Johar ..........................................................................................

Smart Sprinkler System for Water Conservation

How to Submit your research ...................................................

Contact information ...................................................................

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Volume 1 Issue Spring 2017

Editor-in-Chief Dr. Areeg A. Ibrahim Mohamed

Editorial Advisory BoardDr. Malak Alnory (Provost)

Dr. Sanna Dhahir (Dean of CoSH)

Dr. Linda Maloul (E & T Chair, CoSH)

Dr. Akila Sarirete (Dean of DGSR)

Dr. Benaouda Bensaid (GED)

Dr. Hayssam Dahrouj (CoE)

Dr. Muhammad Khan (CoB)

Dr. Tarek Ladjal (GED)

Student MentorsMs. Aida OmetDr. Areeg A. Ibrahim Mohamed

Ms. Hidaya Abbas

Dr. Mohammed Abdulmajid

Dr. Mohamed Shehata

Dr. Samah Elkateeb

Dr. Tabassum Rashid

Dr. Yousaf Jamal

RefereesDr. AbdelMoniem El-Shorbagy

Dr. Abdulhamit Subasi

Dr. Aida Nayer

Dr. Aftab Mariya

Dr. Hayssam Dahrouj

Team

(CoSH)

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Dr. Lobna Mostafa

Dr. Mady Mohamd

Dr. Manal A. Omer

Dr. Mohamed Shehata

Dr. Mohammed Al Surf

Dr. Noraini Yusof

Dr. Saddiga Al-Ghalib

Dr. Sanna Dhahir

Dr. Tabassum Rashid

Dr. Tamer Desouky

Dr. Wadee Al-Halabi

Dr. Wejdan Felmban

Dr. Yousaf Jamal

EditorsDr. Areeg A. Ibrahim Mohamed

Ms. Erika K. Kercheval

Ms. Ohoud Al-Gethami

Dr. Sena Maherzi

Ms. Terumi Taylor

Dr. Wassim Daghrir

EURJ CoordinatorMs. Hanadi AlJehani

Public Relation DesignerMs. Nashwa Bahrawi

DGSR TeamMs. Abrar Tolah

Ms. Ohoud Al-Gethami

Ms. Omnia Al-Ghazi

Ms. Shahad Dokey

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Abstracts

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Volume 1 Issue Spring 2017

Abstracts

Amal Althobaiti’s Abstract: This research explores the prevalence of the desire of dependence on men among Saudi women in Jeddah and its relationship to the justification of sexism. A number of Saudi women living in Jeddah (N=179) responded to the Desire of Dependence on Men Scale, which was developed for this study. To measure the degree of justification of sexism, the Ambivalent Sexism Inventory (Glick & Fiske, 1996) was also distributed to respondents online. Showing a desire of dependency on men among Saudi women was expected, in addit ion to f inding a s igni f icant relationship between the two suggested variables. In this study, respondents showed no significant score of desire of dependence on men, however, women in the age group of 45 -54 showed a significant score a b o v e t h e m e a n . A significant correlation between the desire of dependency on men and a benevolent justification of sexism was also found. The sample has also shown a significant score in benevolent sexism and an average score in hostile sexism.

Enas Alghamdi’s Abstract: Coping strategies sufficiently impact the psychological well-being. Stress may cause depression in many cases. The presence of depression negatively affects physical and cognitive well-being, as participants who demonstrated higher levels of depression were found to be more likely to show physical decline. Women around the world and especially in Saudi Arabia are asked to face challenges to cope with their daily stress of professional life. Much research has been done on the relationship between coping strategies, personality traits, and work stress. But not much research has been done to investigate the relationship between work stress in women and their coping strategies. The aim of this research is to investigate the relationships between stress and various coping strategies of Saudi working women. This study was done by the quantitative method, with participants being given the Coping Orientation Problem Experienced Inventory and Perceived Stress Scale. The results of these questionnaires were analyzed through the statistical analysis.

program SSPS. Main findings showed a positive correlation between stress and self-distraction, denial, humor, and self-blame. A negative correlation was found between stress and active coping, emotional support, and acceptance. Furthermore, the findings show that stress correlates positively with emotional coping strategies and negatively with problem-focused strategies.

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Rawan Abudawood, Rawan Balahmar’s Abstract: This paper focuses on the way in which children’s language and personal experience develop when they are identified as Cross-Cultural Kids (CCKs) or Third Culture Kids (TCKs). Globalization played a role in increasing the number of CCKs and TCKs. As a result, many research papers have discussed this issue. However, most research papers were discussing the issue negatively, focusing on lack of patriotism, and stability, while ignoring the privileges these children have, such as developing their personality and language acquisition. The paper has a mixed method of research as the data was collected through face interviews and a survey on Facebook undertaken by CCKs and TCKs. Results showed that despite the fact that CCKs and TCKs faced many challenges, they have gained unique personal experience, tolerance to different cultures and advanced language acquisition. It seems that the advantages of being a CCK/TCK are more than the disadvantages, which can be overcome later. As a result, further research must look at the benefits and privileges rather than temporary problems.

Sanaa Al-Quaiti’s Abstract: Research on beliefs and attitudes towards dreams has been conducted across the world among different populations ; however, a very limited number of these researches involve Arab samples. The purpose of this research is to explore the relationship between the beliefs about the function of dreams and the attitudes towards dreams. The sample is comprised of 200 adult participants of both genders from Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. The participants were asked to respond to a survey comprising of the items of two different scales: Revised Dream Attitudes and Olsen’s list of Beliefs about the Function of Dreams, electronically via social media websites and applications. Results indicated a significant relationship between the beliefs about the function of dreams and dream attitudes. However, no significant differences were found between age, gender and beliefs about dreams. The results are discussed in the context of various dream theories and thei implications in clinical and other settings. Further investigations exploring the significance and relationship of dreams with physical and psychological health, emotional states, etc., among varied samples in the Arab cultures are recommended.

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Renad M. Baabdullah’s Abstract: Al-Baha region embraces rich area of inherited Saudi traditional architecture that is highly threatened of perishing, and poorly documented, including a UNESCO world heritage site at Zee Ain Village. In this research paper, different urban fabric patterns of Al-Baha’s villages, and building techniques of stone houses are explained and analyzed in relation to the thoroughly discussed contextual conditions. The research clarifies how the environmental and sociocultural context shapes traditional domestic units.

how does urbanization and urbanism pave the path for the current war? The methodological framework is following an inductive process in a correlational qualitative method. Related correlational tactics such as comparative mapping and relationship studies will be used to correlate between modern urbanism, society’s reaction, and the current war.

Yomen Ghazi Bamatraf’s Abstract: The Saudi mobile telecommunication services industry is currently facing lots of complaints, criticism and dissatisfaction from their customers regarding the quality of services, and customer loyalty may be in question. The industry is reportedly shifting its strategic focus away from attracting new customers towards keeping existing customers. The present study examined the relationship between service quality and customer loyalty, as well as between switching barriers and customer loyalty among a sample of 271 users of telecommunication services from Jeddah. A survey consisting of the Customer Loyalty Scale, the Service Quality Scale, and the Switching Barriers Scale, and some demographic related questions was used to collect the data. The results showed that there is a relationship between service quality and customer loyalty, however, no significant relationship was found between switching barriers and customer loyalty. The results are discussed in the light of current literature of customer loyalty and quality of services.

Bashayer K. Bamohsen’s Abstract: Syria is an Islamic country with ancient history, and now has been greatly destroyed because of war. Among the many reasons that have led to this brutal war, urbanism plays somehow a vital role in what we have today. During the colonial period where foreign urban planners thought they knew better by moving monuments and changing the old Islamic urban fabric, the intertwining sense of Syria’s urbanization changed directly into separation and differentiation by losing

the strong sense of identity and belonging and this turned the urban fabric into a divisive one. This paper intends to give an overview of how factors of urbanism changed the country’s future; it will investigate some of these factors such as urban fabric planning, architectural features, and society’s behavior, reaction, and economies. For instance, this paper will predict if the introduction of alienated modernity elements into the built environment affected the lifestyle of its inhabitants. The objective of this study is to examine three main questions: First, what is the value of the old urban fabric of Syria and how was it formed? Second, how were modern elements introduced to the urban fabric? Moreover, third,

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Preliminary plans and digital models have been developed for case studies that required more precise interpretation; fulfilling the documentary goal, and the interpretive approach of the research.

Bayan.A. Alnahhas’s Abstract:In this paper, a novel strain-induced quantum well intermixing (QWI) technique is employed on an InGaP/InAlGaP material system to promote interdiffusion via application of a thick-dielectric encapsulant layer, in conjunction with cycle annealing at elevated temperature. With this technique, we demonstrate the first yellow superluminescent (SLD) at a wavelength of 583nm with a total two-facet output power of ~4.5mW—the highest optical power ever reported at this wavelength in this material system. The demonstration of the yellow SLD without complicated multiquantum barriers to suppress the carrier overflow will have a great impact in realizing the yellow laser diode that cannot be grown with conventional methods.

Rana Johar’s Abstract: One of the main problems facing modern cities is water scarcity. The increasing level of water wastage in the i r r i g a t i o n system is an alarming problem. According to the 2030 vision, a reduction in water wastage is sought. This represents a strong motivation to create a simple device to achieve water efficiency. Home sprinkler water flow systems do not take into consideration the current state of the surroundings, which lead to high wastage of water. In this research paper, a conceptual smart travelling sprinkler composed of a water pump and a motion motor is proposed. The suggested circuit design includes sensors that are capable of detecting soil conditions, such as moisture level and object proximity. The dev ice power is prov ided by a s o l a r panel that is c o n n e c t e d to the water tank, which incorporates a level indicator. A series of push b u t t o n s and LCDs can be integrated for control purpose. The desired objective is the reduction of water consumption, and this brings us one-step closer to achieving the 2030 vision.

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Research Papers

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Research Papers The Desire of Dependence

on Men and the Justification

of Sexism: An Exploratory Study

of Saudi Women

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The Desire of Dependence on Men and the Justification of Sexism: An Exploratory Study of Saudi Women

Amal AlthobaitiUnder the supervision of Dr. Tabassum Rashid

Effat University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia

Abstract: This research explores the prevalence of the desire of dependence on men among Saudi women in Jeddah and its relationship to the justification of sexism. A number of Saudi women living in Jeddah (N=179) responded to the Desire of Dependence on Men Scale, which was developed for this study. To measure the degree of justification of sexism, the Ambivalent Sexism Inventory (Glick & Fiske, 1996) was also distributed to respondents online. Showing a desire of dependency on men among Saudi women was expected, in addition to finding a significant relationship between the two suggested variables. In this study, respondents showed no significant score of desire of dependence on men, however, women in the age group of 45-54 showed a significant score above the mean. A significant correlation between the desire of dependency on men and a benevolent justification of sexism was also found. The sample has also shown a significant score in benevolent sexism and an average score in hostile sexism.

Keywords: dependency on men, justifying sexism, benevolent sexism, hostile sexism

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I. INTRODUCTIONSaudi Arabia was ranked as the 20th country in the l ist among 22 other Arab countries, looking at the best and worst Arab countries in women’s rights, according to Thomson Reuters Foundation’s poll in 2013 . The poll covered six categories, which included women in politics, society, the economy, the family, reproductive rights, and violence against women. As this finding shows a serious situation, which women might struggle with in the Saudi society, the main objective of this researchwas to address the issue of sexism in Saudi Arabia and look more into it in an attempt to understand the manifestations of this issue. This research aimed to explore the prevalence of the desire of dependence on men among Saudi women in Jeddah and the justification of sexism. Will Saudi women in Jeddah show a desire of dependence on men? Will there be a significant relationship between the desire of dependence on men and justifying sexism among women? This study has attempted to answer those suggested questions.

Defining Variables

The Desire of Dependence On Men refers to the desire or need of women to depend on men passively in carrying out any tasks and the desire to be taken care of in different aspects; e.g. financially and in daily routines by men. The Justification of Sexism refers to the use of any excuses or justifications for any acts of sexism against women that promote male dominance; e.g. justifying abuse against a wife by using the excuse of ‘it is for her own good’ or ‘it is used out of love or fear for her’.

Sexism

Sexism is a universal issue, which impacts many nations including the so-called “developed” countries. According to the Oxford Dict ionar ies, sexism refers to the “prejudice, stereotyping, or discrimination, typical ly against women, on the basis of sex” [2]. Since this issue is affecting many women across the globe, the United Nations included achieving gender equality and empowering all women and girls as the fifth goal in their New Sustainable Development Agenda in 2015, which also included other 16 goals [3].

S e x i s m c o m e s i n d i f f e re n t t y p e s and man i fes ta t ions . Accord ing to a s t u d y c o n d u c t e d b y G l i c k a n d Fiske (1996), sexism consists of two opposing components, which reveal a multidimensional ambivalent nature to it [4]. The two components are Hostile Sexism (HS) and Benevolent Sexism (BS). Hostile sexism represents the traditional meaning of sexism, which is a prejudice against women and an aversion or a dislike towards them based on their sex. Benevolent sexism, on the other hand, represents sexist attitudes against women, which reinforce male superiority by promoting rigid gender stereotypes covertly, but overtly those attitudes appear positive to perceivers [4]. Such views usually sound very affectionate and supportive for women, e.g. saying that women are sensitive and fragile, thus women need the protection of men.

Justification of SexismBoth hostile and benevolent sexism are used as justifications for gender inequality. Hostile sexist beliefs justify this inequality by attributing women with characterist ics such as being incompetent to have power, whi le benevolent sexism is used to rationalize this inequality by presenting it in a more

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acceptable and in an indirect way, as proposed by Glick & Fiske. Many studies have suggested that there is a link between benevolent sexism and the justification of sexism. This link can be seen in both men and women. For men, they usually use BS as a justification for their dominance. Also, according to Glick (2013), they usually assign positive attitudes to themselves, such as being supporters for women and caring about women’s welfare, instead of actually stating that they are using prejudiced attitudes toward women [5].

Justification of Sexism among Women

The idea that some members o f a certain group may have some prejudiced a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d t h e i r i n - g r o u p might sound odd, but studies have documented a relationship between benevolent sexism and the justification of sexism among women also. For women, BS offers more of a bright side to this disparity between the two sexes since women will start thinking about men as their protectors and providers. Hence, women favor BS much or even more than men in comparison to hostile sexism [4]. Interest ing f indings on host i le and benevolent justif ications of gender inequality have revealed a relation to life satisfaction. Individuals who adopt both hostile and benevolent justifications and live in societies, which have higher gender equality, scored higher in life satisfaction than those who only adopted hostile justifications. On the other hand, people who l ive in countries where gender inequality is high, did not show any difference in life satisfaction whether they adopted hostile justifications only or both benevolent and hostile, according to Napier, Thorisdottir & Jost (2010) [A study conducted by Sibley, Overall and Duckitt (2007) hypothesized that

benevolent sexism applies a system-justifying effect by increasing women’s tolerance and approval of HS over time. The study looked into the factors relating to BS and HS that might lead women to display hostile sexist attitudes toward their in-group [7]. One of the findings of the study was that BS causes HS among some women, but not all of them. Some women endorsed BS but that did not cause them to adopt HS over time; these women scored high in goals of independence and autonomy levels. On the other hand, women who showed threat-driven motivation for collective secur i ty and soc ia l cohes ion and endorsed BS accepted HS over time. This type of woman usually despises feminists who challenge the traditional gender roles and they perceive them as a threat to the security of the social system.

Women’s justification for acts of sexism was also documented in a local study conducted in Jeddah by Almosaed (2004) , which measured society ’s att i tudes towards violence against women by men. One of the finding of the study was that %36 of the female participants believed that using violence is the appropriate method to handle women’s misconduct [8]. In another survey conducted in India in ,1999–1998

6].

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%56 of the women from different regions in India believed domestic abuse against wives could be justified. Furthermore, education levels and geographical areas were contributing factors in this belief. The probability of a woman justifying wife abuse was minimized when she had a higher education level and lived in a better geographical area, according to Almosaed (2004).

Dependence On MenIn a paper by St iver (1984), which discussed the meaning of dependency in female-male relationships, the author tried to separate this stigma, which is associated wi th the concept of dependency. Stiver sees dependency as a too l o f pe rsona l g rowth and empowerment [9]. To be able to seek help from others is a privilege and a healthy sign.

While the notion of dependency has always been regarded as a negative or a stigmatized characteristic, this study recognizes that dependency should not be always perceived as a disadvantage. St iver def ines dependency as the “process of counting on other people to provide help in coping physically and

emotionally with the experiences and tasks encountered in the world, when one has not sufficient skill, confidence, energy and/or time” (p. 9) [10]. Based on that definit ion, Stiver perceives dependency as a tool for personal improvement. On the other hand, when a person relies on someone else and that person’s reliance places them in a situation where they cannot develop personally, or even causes desperation to gain anything from the other person, we can label this type of dependency as pathological. In Stiver’s paper, she sees the source of this pathological dependency to be an anger stemming from unmet needs and the concept of dependency itself is not the issue.

Dependency has been always regarded as a feminine trait, even though al l human beings across cultures show needs for dependency throughout their lives. This association between desires for dependence and women might be related to the fact that women tend to disclose and express their emotions, fears, and needs to have someone to take care of them more than men. While this disclosure of dependency needs is considered to be healthy psychologically,

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another kind of pathological dependency can be spotted in some women. Those types of women tend to have a passive dependence in which they lack a healthy and reciprocal dynamic between the other parties that they depend on. Studies have shown that females are exposed to adopt this form of passive dependence from birth, according to Lerner (1983) .Furthermore, this idea of women having passive dependence on men was also introduced in a feminist advice book by Dowling in which the writer coined the concept of the “Cinderella Complex”[11]. This complex mainly represents an unconscious desire in women to be secure and taken care of by others (a prince charming for example, thus the name) , and i t s tems f rom fea r o f independence. This desire is usually what holds women back from achieving their full potentials, according to both Hochschild (1994) and Segen’s Medical Dictionary (2012)

This complex has not been tested empir ica l ly and the present study thus a t tempts to i nves t iga te any manifestations of it among Saudi women by measuring the desire of dependence on men. This research did not intend to assume that this desire stems from the unconscious as the “Cinderella complex” suggested, but rather, it tried to explore the prevalence of dependence on men among Saudi women without any assumptions about the causal factors or the origins for it. Further studies can empirically investigate the causal factors of this complex, and look if some unconscious drives are what really fuel it.

The Relationship Between the Justification of Sexism and the Dependence On MenMany studies have looked into the topic of economic dependency in

relationships. Findings have shown that economic dependency on a partner has predicted abuse risk and it could also result in tolerating the abuse because of lack of resources. Additionally, women who are economically dependent on their partners are less likely to end an abusive relationship, according to Bornstein, (2016) . In addition, some women went even further, as they justif ied violence against women and perceived it as the appropriate approach to deal with women as previously discussed in Almosaed’s (2004) findings.

Furthermore, it has been found that when an unequal sociopolitical system is threatened, some people wil l be motivated to just i fy any inequal i ty within the system and tend to want to believe in the fairness of it to lessen any uncertainty. This was suggested by the system justification theory, according to Jost, Banaji & Nosek (2004) . Research has found that this process of system justification can lead men who adopt it to be attracted to women who endorse benevolent sexism. As a result, women will be encouraged to approve such gender inequality, according to Lau, Kay, & Spencer (2008) .

Since there will always be this dyadic dependence among the two sexes, especially when it comes to romantic relationships, this might lead women to jus t i fy sex ism because o f the psychological intimacy need that human beings experience. After all, the need of love, intimacy and relationships was in third level of Maslow’s original hierarchy of needs, as cited both in Lerner (1983) and Koltko-Rivera (2006) .

In patriarchal societies, men have the upper hand and power; mascul ine characteristics are frequently praised and considered as crucial traits in leadership and in governing social institutions. This

[10]

[11] & [12] .

[13]

[15]

[10] & [16]

[14]

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gender differentiation can cause an unfair comparison between feminine traits and masculine traits. As a result, this can lead to the belief that there is a need of dependence on men because the traits and roles that they uphold serve a complementary function to women, as suggested by Glick & Fiske (1996) .

Therefore, as some women are exposed to dependency on men and justifications of gender inequalities or sexism have also been documented in some studies, this study speculated a relationship between these two variables. The first hypothesis of this study was that Saudi females in Jeddah would show a desire of dependence on men. The second hypothesis was that there would be a significant relationship between the desire of dependence on men and justifying sexism.

II. METHODParticipants

The participants of this study were 179 Saudi females living in Jeddah and the majority was within the age group of 18-24 . They responded to the survey through social media platforms (WhatsApp, Path and Mnassa.com)

Instruments

Two assessment tools (The Desire of Dependence on Men Scale and The Ambivalent Sexism Inventory) were used in this study. A section was added to the surveys, in which respondents were asked about their age, social status and education level. The measurements were translated into Arabic by an expert bilingual professor at Effat University.

Three bilingual professionals helped in forming the linguistic, cultural and content validity of the Arabic version.T h e s c a l e s w e r e p i l o t e d o n 1 5 participants to test face-validity and to ensure that the t rans lat ion was compatible and represents the Saudi culture. After conducting this initial testing some of the items were reworded and face-validity was established for both assessments. Both the English and Arabic versions of the assessments

were distributed online to make sure that participants can choose their preferred language. a) Desire of Dependence on Men Scale. A scale of 20 items was developed to measure the desire of dependence on men. Three items of the Dependence on Others scale, as devised by Nagumey, Reich, & Newsom, (2004) were used:

(68.7%)

[4]

[17]

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Media platforms (WhatsApp, Path and Mnassa.com). Participants had the option to choose their preferred language. A consent form was added to the introductory section of the surveys, in which respondents were given a general idea about the topic and purpose of the study. More than 200 respondents participated in filling the surveys, only 179 of them completed both scales. This led to the elimination of those unfinished responses in the data analysis.

III. RESULTS

The total number of participants in this study was 179 Saudi women from Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. The majority of respondents were from 18-24 years old (%68.7) and most of the respondents were undergraduates (%78.7) and single (%66).

Reliability of Scales

The Desire of Dependency on Men Scale, which consisted of 20 items, had a high reliability of (.86). The Cronbach’s Alpha of the 11 Benevolent Sexism items subscale was (.80) and the 11 Hostile Sexism items subscale scored (.78).

Desire of Dependence on Men

The results showed no significant scores in the desire of dependence on men as the sample of this study had a mean of (54.4), which was lower than the mean of the Desire of Dependence on Men Scale (60) [Table I].

“I enjoy being taken care of by others”; “I would rather have others take care of things for me because it’s easier” and “I don’t like having to tackle my problems on my own”. The first two items were adjusted for this study by replacing the word “others” with “men”. Seventeen items were developed to cover eight different dimensions of dependency (financial dependency, protection and safety, emotional support, decision-making, problem solving, source of freedom, validation for physical appearance and physical strength). The items of this scale were rated on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The Cronbach’s Alpha of this scale is (.85). b) Justification of Sexism. The Ambivalent Sexism Inventory, which was devised by Glick & Fiske (1996) was used to measure this variable. This scale has two subscales (hostile sexism and benevolent sexism) and it consists of 22 items. The scale includes a -6point Likert scale ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree. The Cronbach’s Alpha of the Benevolent Sexism subscale is (.85) and it consists of 11 items. The Hostile Sexism subscale on the other hand scored (.78) in Cronbach’s Alpha and consisted of 11 items.

Procedure

Both the English and Arabic versions of the scales were uploaded on Social

[4 ]

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One-way ANOVA revealed a statistically significant difference between age groups (F [Table II]. After conducting a Tukey post hoc test, a statistically significant difference was shown in desire of dependence on men between the age groups of 18-24 and 45-54 (p = .003) [Table III]. The age group of 45-54 (M=66.1, SD= 6.50) scored above the mean of desire of dependence on men (M=60) and higher than the age group of 18-24 (M= 52.2, SD= 10.2) [Table IV].

(4,174) = 6.938, p=.000)

30

There was no statistically significant difference between groups of education level after conducting one-way ANOVA (F , p = .398). However, there was a statistically significant difference between social status groups (F , p = .000) [Table V]. Tukey post hoc test showed a statistically significant difference in desire of dependence on men between single Saudi women and married Saudi women (p = .000) [Table VI]. Married Saudi women (M=61.6, SD= 9.65) scored above the mean of desire of dependence on men (M=60), while single women scored below the mean (M= 51.08, SD= 9.91) [Table VII].

(3,175)= (2,176)=

.992.992

3131

Relationship between the Desire of Dependence on Men and Justifying Sexism

There was a significant correlation as determined by Pearson Correlation between desire of dependence on men and benevolent sexism: r= .69 but there was no significant correlation between desire of dependence on men

and hostile sexism r= .48 [Table VIII].

Justifying Sexism (Benevolent Sexism & Hostile Sexism)

Findings showed a significant score of benevolent sexism (29.9) as the sample scored above the mean of the benevolent sexism subscale (27.5). T h e sample also showed an average score of hostile sexism (27.9) [Table IX].

32

One-way ANOVA showed a statistically significant difference between age groups in benevolent sexism (F p = .000). However, there was no statistical significant difference between age groups in hostile sexism. Tukey post hoc test revealed a statistically

significant difference between the age groups of 18-24 and 35-44 (p = .008). All age groups scored above the mean in benevolent sexism, but the age group of 35 -44 had the highest mean (M=38.3, SD= 4.8) [Table X].

(p = .000). Married Saudi women (M=33.8, SD= 8.25) had the highest mean in benevolent sexism, while single women had an average mean, yet it was the lowest between the other social status groups (M= 28, SD= 9.71). Education level had no statistically significant difference in benevolent sexism or hostile sexism.

One-way ANOVA also revealed a statistically significant difference between social status groups only in benevolent sexism (F , p = .001). Tukey post hoc test showed a statistically significant difference in benevolent sexism between single Saudi women and married Saudi women

(2,176 ) = 7,769

(4,174)= 5.374,

Table X Descriptive Statistics

3333

The aim of th is study was to explore the desire of dependence on men among Saudi women living in Jeddah. In addition, it aimed to look if there was a significant

IV. DISCUSSION

relationship between desire of dependence on men and justifying sexism. The study hypothesized that Saudi women in Jeddah would show a desire of dependence on men. The sample of th is study had a low score of desire of dependence on men as it scored below the mean. Since the hypothesis of this study was a non-directional one, where it was not specified if Saudi women would show high or low desire of dependence on men, this finding supports the first hypothesis of this study. There was a significant difference between the age groups of 18-24 and 45-54 in

desire of dependence on men. Women within the age group of 45-54 had higher desire of dependence on men as they scored above the mean. This age difference might be related to the way older generations were raised, as opportunities for women back then were more l imi ted than our current t ime. Lack of opportunities might lead women to depend moreon men and this might have been a hard cycle to break for older women, even after some changes have occurred to the situation of women in our society. Married women have also scored above the mean as opposed to single and divorced women. As a speculation for this finding, married women might be pressured more than single and divorced women to show a constant need and dependence for her husband because of society’s expectations of how a wife should ac t .

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Considering these findings, the low scores in desire of dependence on men, which were found in th i s samp le , cou ld be a resu l t of the fact that the major i ty of the sample was from the age group of 18 -24 years o ld and most of them were single women. Since the scales were distributed online, accessibility to older women was challenging as usually millennials use social media more. Additionally, education levels showed no signif icant difference in re la t ion to des i re o f dependence on men in th i s samp le . A l l o f the re s p o n d e n t s w e re e d u c a t e d a n d the lowes t educa t ion l eve l i n the sample was middle school. Perhaps if the sample included less educated respondents, a di fference might be found between them and the more educated women in regard to desire of dependence on men. That is also someth ing to cons ide r fo r fu tu re research.

Moreover, a s igni f icant correlat ion w a s f o u n d b e t w e e n d e s i r e o f dependence on men and benevolent sexism. Since studies have shown l inks between benevo lent sex ism and justification of gender inequality, as proposed by Sibley et al. (2007) a n d G l i c k ( 2 0 1 3 ) , t h i s f i n d i n g s u p p o r t s t h e s e c o n d h y p o t h e s i s o f t h i s s t u d y, w h i c h s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e r e w i l l b e a s i g n i f i c a n t re l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n d e s i r e o f dependence on men and justification o f s e x i s m . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , there was no significant correlation between des i re of dependence on men and hostile sexism found in this study.

S a u d i w o m e n l i v i n g i n J e d d a h s c o r e d a b o v e t h e m e a n i n b e n e v o l e n t s e x i s m a n d h a d a n

average score o f host i le sex ism. T h i s f i n d i n g i s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h prev ious research on ambiva lent sexism and just i f icat ion of gender inequality, which found ambivalent t y p e s o f s e x i s m a m o n g w o m e n , as mentioned by Glick (2013). This result is also consistent with Almosaed’s (2004) documentat ion of justifying violence against women by men -which is a form of sex ism- among Saudi women. Results have also shown a statistically significant difference between the age groups of 18-24 and 35 -44 in benevolent sexism as women between the age of 34 and 44 had the highest mean in benevo lent sex ism. However, there was no statistically significant di fference between age groups in h o s t i l e s e x i s m . W h e n i t c a m e t o education level, results showed no stat is t ica l ly s ign i f icant d i fference i n b e n e v o l e n t s e x i s m o r h o s t i l e sexism regarding educat ion. This r e s u l t d i f f e r s f r o m A l m o s a e d ’s (2004) finding, which suggested that justifying wife abuse was minimized when women had higher education l eve l . The reason fo r tha t cou ld be that the level of educat ion had a re lat ionship wi th just i fy ing wi fe abuse specifically, considering the f a c t t h a t t h e i t e m s , w h i c h w e re used for measuring the justification of sexism did not include any that addressed the topic of wife abuse.

Regard ing the two sca les , wh ich were used in the study, it was found that The Desire of Dependency on Men Sca le had a h igh re l i ab i l i t y o f ( . 86 ) . The Benevo len t Sex ism subsca le on the o the r hand had a re l i a b i l i t y o f ( . 8 0 ) , w h i c h w a s compatible with the reliability found

35

b y G l i c k a n d F i s k e i n 1 9 9 6 t h a t ranged from (0.73 to 0.85). However, t h e re l i a b i l i t y o f H o s t i l e S e x i s m s u b s c a l e w a s ( . 7 8 ) , w h i c h w a s comparatively lower than the ones d o c u m e n t e d b y G l i c k a n d F i s k e (0.80 to 0.92).

These findings are important in reinforcing independence among S a u d i w o m e n . A s y o u n g w o m e n between 18 -24 years old and older women be tween 45 -54 yea rs o ld showed di fference in the desire of d e p e n d e n c e o n m e n , i t i s w o r t h t o d i s c o v e r w h a t c a u s e d t h i s g e n e r a t i o n g a p w h e n i t c a m e t o dependence on men. Knowing the low scores in desire of dependence on men among young women can be effective in cult ivating the specif ic factors, which caused that decrease in girls from a very young age. Also, promoting independence from men cou ld ensure empowerment a n d re s i s t a n c e t o a n y p o s s i b l e justification of sexism. As significant s c o r e s i n a m b i v a l e n t s e x i s m (benevolent and hostile) were found i n S a u d i w o m e n i n J e d d a h , i t i s very important to spread awareness about the consequences of adopting sexist attitudes on the development and life-satisfaction of women Addressing this issue and looking a t the under l y ing fac to rs , wh ich reinforce these sexist attitudes and j u s t i f i c a t i o n s c o u l d i m p ro v e t h e situation of gender inequality within the Saudi society. The limitations of this study include h a v i n g a c o n v e n i e n t s a m p l e , a s p a r t i c i p a n t s w e r e c o n v e n i e n t l y c o l l e c t e d t h ro u g h s o c i a l m e d i a , w h i c h m i g h t h a v e a f f e c t e d t h e general izabi l i ty of the sample. The sample only covered women who

l ive in Jeddah and the major i ty of them were young (18-24) and single, which a lso may have probably caused a p ro b l e m i n t h e g e n e r a l i z a t i o n of data. For future studies on the topic of des i re of dependence on m e n i n S a u d i Wo m e n , h a v i n g a large and varied sample that covers a l l reg ions o f Saud i Arab ia cou ld re f l e c t n e w f i n d i n g s . A d e t a i l e d comparison between young women and o ld women in re la t ion to the desire of dependence on men and/or jus t i fy ing sex ism might revea l signif icant f indings in what causes this difference. Including non-Saudi Women living in Saudi Arabia in the sample can be an interesting addition. This can show us how l iving in the Saudi society may influence attitudes toward the desire of dependence on men and justifying sexism.The number of years living in Saudi Arabia can also be investigated for non-Saudis to see if there was a relationship between the number of years spent l iving in Saud i Arab ia and deve lop ing any desire of dependence on men.

35

36

V. CONCLUSION

In conclusion, this research presented some impressive insights into the exploration of the desire of dependence on men and the justifications of sexism among Saudi women living in Jeddah. The findings showed low scores of desire of dependence on men in the sample, nevertheless women in the age group of 45-54 showed an above-the-average score in dependence on men. A significant correlation was found between desire of dependence on men and benevolent justification of sexism.

Saudi women in Jeddah have also scored significantly in benevolent sexism and had an average score of hostile sexism. Sexism is a global issue, which affects many women and both sexism and pathological dependency on men can hinder women’s opportunities to thrive and flourish personally. Thus, any sign of tolerance of sexism or dependency that inhibits one’s abilities should be examined carefully to eradicate it. This will improve the overall life satisfaction and position of women within society.

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[1]. Thomas Reuters Foundation “Women’s rights in the Arab world”, 12, Nov. 2013, Available: http://news.trust.org/spotlight/poll-womens-rights-in-the-arab-world. [2]. “Definition of sexism in English” (n.d.), Available: http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/e n g l i s h / s e x i s m[3]. United Nations Sustainable Development Summit, Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform, 2015, Available: https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/p o s t 2 0 1 5 / s u m m i t[4]. P. Glick, & S. T. Fiske, “The ambivalent sexism inventory: differentiating hostile and benevolent sexism”, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, vol. 70, no. 3, pp. 491,1996.[5]. P. Glick, “BS at work: how benevolent sexism undermines women and justifies backlash”, Harvard Business School Symposium; Gender & Work: Challenging Conventional Wisdom, 2013.[6]. J. L. Napier, H. Thorisdottir & J. T. Jost, “The joy of sexism? A multinational investigation of hostile and benevolent justifications for gender inequality and their relations to subjective well-being”, Sex Roles, vol. 62, no. 8-7, pp. 405-419, Apr. 2010.[7]. C. G. Sibley, N. C. Overall & J. Duckitt, “When women become more hostilely sexist toward their gender: The system-justifying effect of benevolent sexism”, Sex Roles, vol. 57, pp. 743 75, Nov. 2007.[8]. N. Almosaed, “Violence against women: a cross‐cultural perspective”, Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, vol. 24, issue 1, pp.[9]. I. P. Stiver, The meanings of «dependency» in female-male relationships. MA: Stone Center for Developmental Services and Studies,

Wellesley College, 1984.[10]. H. E. Lerner, “Female dependency in context: Some theoretical and technical considerations”, American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, vol. 53, no. 4, pp. 697-705, doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.0025.1983-1939.tb03412.x., Oct. 1983.[11]. Segen’s Medical Dictionary, “Cinderella Complex”, Farlex INC., 2012 Available May 2016 10 from http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/Cinderel la+Complex[12]. A. R. Hochschild, “The commercial spirit of intimate life and the abduction of feminism: Signs from women›s advice books”, Theory Culture and Society, vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 1-24, .[13]. R. F. Bornstein, “The complex relationship between dependency and domestic violence: converging psychological factors and social forces” American Psychologist, vol. 61, no. 6, pp. 595-606, Sept. 2006.[14]. J. T. Jost, M. R. Banaji, & B. A. Nosek, “A decade of system justification theory: Accumulated evidence of conscious and unconscious bolstering of the status quo”, Political Psychology, vol. 25, no. 6, pp. 881-919, Dec. 2004.[15]. G. P. Lau, A. C. Kay & S. J. Spencer, “Loving those who justify inequality the effects of system threat on attraction to women who embody benevolent sexist ideals”, Psychological Science, vol. 19, issue 1, pp. 20-21, .[16]. M. E. Koltko-Rivera, “Rediscovering the later version of Maslow's hierarchy of needs: Self-transcendence and opportunities for theory, research, and unification”, Review of General Psychology, vol. 10, no. 4, pp. 302-317, Dec. 2006.[17]. A. J. Nagumey, J. W. Reich & J. Newsom, “Gender moderates the effects of independence and dependence desires during the social support process”, Psychology and Aging, vol. 19, no. 1, pp. 215-218, Mar. 2004.

REFERENCES

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67-88, 2004

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Appendix ADesire of Dependence Scale

Five-point scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree)

[1]. I enjoy being taken care of by men. [2]. I would rather have men take care of things for me because it’s easier. [3]. I don’t like having to tackle my problems on my own. [4]. I would rather travel with my male relatives because it is safer. [5]. Men are supposed to pay for women regardless if the women had money or not.[6]. I always like to hear males’ opinions about the way I look. [7]. Men must be the breadwinners of the family. [8]. I prefer leaving work, which requires physical effort for men to do.[9]. I always like to consult a male about my personal issues because men are more logical. [10]. I feel comfortable in going to new places without the company of a male. [11]. My father’s/husband’s approval of the length and color of my hair is really important to me. [12]. A woman cannot go on in her life without the love and support of a man.[13]. When an emergency happens I depend on the man of the house to take care of it. [14]. I will not take any job if I was sure that I would be well taken care of financially by a man in my life.[15]. I depend on men of the house to fix things at home. [16]. My life happiness will come from a man.[17]. I believe that my freedom will come from a man.[18]. A man must carry heavy luggage/bags from a woman.

[19]. My current problems will be solved as soon as I get married.[20]. I prefer letting my father or husband or son plan the details of our traveling.

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Appendix BThe Ambivalent Sexism Inventory

Six-point Likert scale ranging from 0 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree)[1]. No matter how accomplished he is, a man is not truly complete as a person unless he has the love of a woman. [2]. Many women are actually seeking special favors, such as hiring policies that favor them over men, under the guise of asking for «equality».[3]. In a disaster, women ought to be rescued before men.[4]. Most women interpret innocent remarks or acts as being sexist.[5]. Women are too easily offended.[6]. People are not truly happy in life without being romantically involved with a member of the other sex.[7]. Feminists are seeking for women to have more power than men.[8]. Many women have a quality of purity that few men possess.[9]. Women should be cherished and protected by men. [10]. Most women fail to appreciate fully all that men do for them. [11]. Women seek to gain power by getting control over men.[12]. Every man ought to have a woman whom he adores.[13]. Men are incomplete without women. [14]. Women exaggerate problems they have at work.[15]. Once a woman gets a man to commit to her, she usually tries to put him on a tight leash.[16]. When women lose to men in a fair competition, they typically complain about being discriminated against. [17]. A good woman should be set on a pedestal by her man.[18]. Many women get a kick out of teasing men by seeming sexually available and

then refusing male advances. [19]. Women, compared to men, tend to have a superior moral sensibility. [20]. Men should be willing to sacrifice their own well-being in order to provide financially for the women in their lives.[21]. Feminists are making unreasonable demands of men.[22]. Women, as compared to men, tend to have a more refined sense of culture and good taste.

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Volume 1 Issue Spring 2017

• Stress and Coping Strategies

among Saudi Working

Women

4141

Stress Coping Strategies among Saudi WorkingWomen

Enas Alghamdi Under the supervision of Dr. Yousaf Jamal

Psychology Department Effat University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia

Abstract: Coping strategies sufficiently impact the psychological well-being. Stress and ineffective ways of coping with it may cause depression in many cases. The presence of depression is presumed to negatively affects physical and cognitive well-being. Women around the world and especially in Saudi Arabia are asked to face challenges to cope with their daily stress of professional life. Much research has been done on the relationship between coping strategies, personality traits, and work stress. But not much research has been done to investigate the relationship between work stress in women and their coping strategies. The aim of this research is to investigate the relationships between stress and various coping strategies of Saudi working women. This study was done by the quantitative method, with participants being given the Coping Orientation Problem Experienced Inventory and Perceived Stress Scale. The results of these questionnaires were analyzed through the statistical analysis program SSPS. Main findings showed a positive correlation between stress and self-distraction, denial, humor, and self-blame. A negative correlation was found between stress and active coping, emotional support, and acceptance. Furthermore, the findings show that stress correlates positively with emotional coping strategies and negatively with problem-focused strategies.

Keyword: Stress, Coping strategies, Emotional focused coping strategy, Problem-focused strategy.

4242

I. INTRODUCTION

We are living in an industrial age in which we face challenges and pressures to meet with job requirements. Meeting everyday tasks in various jobs can be mentally overwhelming. Research shows higher levels of stress-related depression increasing each year, especially in industrial areas around the world. We find ourselves in a time in which human error or the inability to perform tasks can be easily remedied by a computer, thus pressuring the working human to seek perfection in each requirement of the job.

Saudi Arabia is one of the richest developing countries, which has been establishing industries and companies that have been changing the environment and lifestyle of the individual. Furthermore, the Saudi population is contributing to help the country in its progress and development. However, in this conservative community, the female role is often heavily attached to that of housewife and family caregiver. At first, women mostly had job opportunities in a women-only environment. Only around six years ago could women work in a “mixed” environment (one with both men and women) in the fields of business and marketing. To this day, women working in mixed fields, including the medical field, are less appreciated by society. Also, the common cultural perspective is often that the working woman is not meeting her primary task—taking care of her family, or that the working woman in a mixed environment is a potential threat to her family's reputation. Consequently, the Saudi working woman often faces

a great deal of stressors.

This study seeks to investigate Saudi working women’s perceived levels of stress and their coping strategies used to deal with job requirements, as well as the relationships between these factors.

Research question

What would be the relationship between stress and coping strategies used by Saudi working women?

Hypotheses

• More use of problem-focused coping strategies would result in less perceived stress among Saudi working women. • More use of emotion-focused coping strategies would result in more perceived stress among Saudi working women.

II. LITERATURE REVIEW

The following studies discuss research done in different cultures, among various participant ages, and for both genders regarding the relationship with their perceived levels of stress or the relationship with their coping strategies.

A study was conducted by Hachaturova, (2013) indicating that the individual’s choice of strategies to cope with stress is gender specified. Participants of this study were a total of 227, between 18–53 years old, and they were working students of Moscow University [1]. Participants were given two inventories to choose from their most used coping techniques and their least used ones. All coping strategies were divided into emotional, behavioral and cognitive

43

strategies, while each category had a subtype of adaptive, somewhat adaptive, and non-adaptive ones. Results concluded the following: Generally, the more challenges faced, the higher correlation with non-adaptive behaviors among both genders. However, hardiness as a personality trait is highly correlated with the choice of adaptive coping strategies, while challenge is negatively correlated with adaptive behavior strategies.

The relationship between resistant personality and perceived level of stress is significantly negative, according to Almagiá, & Huespe . Infertility is one of the major stressors some women face, which may lead to much psychological distress. Thus, a correlational study was conducted on 115 women who were diagnosed with infertility since at least 6 months to measure their perceived levels of stress, personality traits, and coping strategies that they use to deal with their stress. Participants of this study were part of a treatment program for assisted reproduction at a public hospital in Chile. Participants' ages ranged from 20–47 years old, while %79 were in treatment for a range of 6–24 months. The participants were given 3 scales to measure their stress and their ability to cope: Scale of Perceived Stress (Remor, 2006), Stress Coping Questionnaire (CAE), and Resistant Personality Questionnaire, as developed by Moreno, Garrosa & Gonzalez . The results concluded the following: a) the control component in resilient personality has a major role in its negative correlation with the level of perceived stress among individuals,

b) focus on problem solving and control in resilient personality correlates negatively with perceived level of stress, c) open emotional expression correlates positively with negative focus, while focus on problem solving has a negative correlation with negative focus and emotional expression. Limitations of this study could be that participants were assessed for their stress perceived levels after at least 6 months of coping with that distress. Higher levels of perceived stress are observed to lead participants to have more emotional coping, open emotional expression, and negative self-focus. Perhaps, this can be explained due to the emotional distress women tend to feel when diagnosed as infertile; therefore, this finding could not be generalized.

Pregnancy is a period when women tend to have psychological and physical changes, which may increase their stress. The Journal of Midwifery and Productive Health published a study investigating the relationship between psychological hardiness and coping strategies during pregnancy, as explored by Sarani, Azhari, Mazlom, & Sherbaf (2015). The researchers followed a convenience sample approach in choosing their participants, who were pregnant women regularly visiting the healthcare centers. Participants had the following scales: 1) Kobasa's Personal Views Survey, 2) Revised Parental Coping Inventory, and 3) the Perceived Stress Scale. The results demonstrated a significant relationship between psychological hardiness and positive spiritual coping, as well as a significant relationship between hardiness and

(2012)

(2000)

[2]

[3]

43

44

avoidance coping. A limitation of this study could be the lack of medical reports on participants› medical/intake background history, which could affect the accuracy of their responses to the assessments.

Kato (2013) argued an interesting point, which is that western stress scales cannot be beneficial for collectivistic cultures [5]. Evidence shows that stressors in collectivistic cultures are often interpersonal, related to both social and work life. Interpersonal stress can be defined as an uncomfortable or negative atmosphere, attitude, feelings, or behavior among a couple of people—or more—due to the interaction between them. The most common coping strategy among collectivistic cultures is social support, seeking for the interdependency of the community. On the other hand, in individualistic cultures coping behavior often showed much less emphasis on the context. In a collectivistic culture, individuals are encouraged to live in harmony. Thus, each individual behavior can be perceived as affecting someone else’s thoughts, feelings, or behavior. In fact, the level of impact of interpersonal stress perceived from collectivistic cultures has been found to be higher than those from individualistic cultures. Cultural orientation heavily influences coping behavior in stressful events, according to Yeh, Aro-ra, & Wu (2006) . Asian students were found to display more control coping strategies, which refers to controlling one’s own behavior, feelings, and thoughts to maintain the harmony of the context and adapt to it, according to Lam and Zane (2004) . Therefore,

collectivistic cultures most commonly aim at managing conflict more than resolving it.

Kato conducted a study in Japan that investigates the validity of a newly-developed stress scale for its unique culture (2013). The participants in the study were 639 Japanese nationals. They were asked about interpersonal stress that occurred a week earlier, then requested to write how they dealt with it. Results showed the following: a) %71 of the employers were found to have interpersonal stress with their supervisors, b) most students (%83) were found to have interpersonal stress with peers, especially ones whose behavior could be perceived as inconsiderate.

In addition, Kato conducted a second study to explore further information regarding the Interpersonal Stress Scale in Japan and its validity (2013). The participants were 427 Japanese citizens. They were given a list of interpersonal stressors and were asked to choose coping strategies they use and the ones they rarely use. Coping strategies deal differently with stressors; for example, strategies include: 1) distracting coping, 2) reassuring coping, and 3) constructive coping. Results showed that distracting coping predicts less satisfaction in a relationship and less psychological functioning. Constructive coping was shown to be effective in reducing stress. A limitation was that this study may be difficult to generalize for Asians in America, the Middle East, etc.

[6]

[7]

4545

III. METHODS

The population of the current study is Saudi working women in different job professions in Jeddah.

Sample The representative sample of the population consists of Saudi women occupying different professions: school teachers, office assistants, sales supervisors, and cashiers.

Research DesignThis study follows the non-experimental approach, and a convenience sample of participants was given a survey of 38 items to answer. Stress is the dependent variable in this study. The independent variable in this study is coping strategies.

The design of the research is investigating the relationship between stress and coping strategies using a survey distributed among Saudi women working in different organizations in Jeddah.Measures The Perceived Stress Scale, according to Cohen, Kamarck & Mermelstein (1983) is a 10-item survey. In this set of questions, participants were asked to mark a scale from “never” to “very often” about the frequency of certain thoughts, behaviors, and feelings from the past month [8]. The reliability alpha coefficient is .758.

A brief COPE (Coping Orientation Problem Experienced Inventory), according to Carver, Scheier, & Weintraub, (1989) is a 27-item survey. In this set of questions, participants were asked to answer based on a scale starting from “never” to “always” based on how frequently they behave as mentioned in each item. These

items indicate the frequency of usage for 13 coping strategies: “self-distraction/mental disengagement, active coping, instrumental social support, behavioral disengagement, venting of emotions, positive reinterpretation and growth, planning, self-blame, acceptance, humor, turning to religion, denial, and emotional social support” [9]. All the mentioned coping strategies fall into two main categories: problem focused strategy, or emotional coping strategy. The reliability alpha coefficient of this scale is .816.

ProceduresIn order to protect the participants in this research, permission and a letter of approval was acquired before the study. Each participant agreed upon an informed consent from of the Research and Consultancy Institute at Effat University that states a brief explanation of the current study. All data collected from participants remained protected for research purposes only. Students have the permission from the authors for the academic usage of the scales. The survey given to participants included the following scales: Perceived Stress Scale (Cohen, Kamarck & Mermelstein, 1983) and the Coping Orientation Problem Experienced Inventory (Carver, Scheier, & Weintraub, 1989). Statistics The data collected from questionnaires were inserted in SPSS for further data analysis. The collection of data was of interval and ordinal types. The sample demographic information included the following: age, job profession, marital status, financial independence, supporting family financially, number of children,

46

years of experience, education, and parental job status. Scores were collected in a descriptive manner, including using means and standard deviation. Inferential statistics and Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient analyses were performed

to test the hypotheses.

IV. RESULTS

The results found by the data analysis procedure will be discussed and interpreted in the following section.

Table 1: Demographic Information of the Sample (N = 30)

Demographic information of participants is shown in Table 1. Participants were all working Saudi women, with ages ranging from 19–50 years old. %63 are married and %70 of them are financially independent. The education level of participants ranged

from a high school degree to a bachelor degree. Most of the participants support their family (%66.7), while %70 of them have one or both of their parents working or retired. The reliability coefficient of the variables and the scales of the study are shown in Table 2.

4747

Table 2: Reliability coefficient of the study variables

Table 3: Inter-correlation of Stress and Coping Strategies (N = 30)

Note. *p < .05, p < .01

Table 3 shows the results of the data conducted, with a positive correlation between stress and self-distraction, denial, humor, and self-blame. A negative correlation was found to be between stress, active coping, emotional support, and acceptance.

Table 4: Inter-correlation for Stress and Coping Strategies

Note. **p < .001, *p <.05

Table 4 shows that active coping strategies correlated highly with positive reinterpretation, instrumental social support, and emotional support strategies, while self-distraction correlated highly with venting of emotions and planning coping strategies. Positive reinterpretation was found to correlate with acceptance, denial, emotional support, instrumental social support, venting of emotions, and planning. In addition, emotional social support correlated highly with instrumental social support, planning, and

acceptance. Findings also indicate that instrumental social support correlates with acceptance, venting of emotions, positive reinterpretation, and planning.

Results showed that venting of emotions correlates with self-distraction, instrumental social support, positive reinterpretation, and planning, while turning to religion coping strategies were found to correlate with planning, venting of emotions, instrumental social support, emotional social support, and substance usage. Furthermore, self-blame coping strategies were found to correlate with

48

self-distraction, venting of emotions, planning, and humor. In the following, we will further discuss these data in depth.

V. DISCUSSION

This research aimed to look at Saudi working women’s levels of stress in relation to their coping strategies. There are two types of coping strategies: emotional coping strategies, which aim to reduce the impact of the stressor or the uncomfortable situation indirectly, such as denial, positive reinterpretation, self-distraction, self-blame, and emotional social support, and problem-focused coping strategies which aim directly to deal with the stressor and attempt to eliminate it, such as planning, active coping, and instrumental social support.

The first observation was that stress has a positive relationship with self-distraction, denial, humor, and self-blame. Denial and self-distraction are somewhat similar, both concepts aimed to reduce the acknowledgment of the stressor›s presence at any cause and shift the focus into something less threatening, like watching TV or shopping. However, regardless of the distraction or the refusal to be aware of the stressful situations, these coping strategies do not help with reducing the uncomfortable stimuli. In fact, these strategies may actually increase the feelings of anxiety and stress. Even worse, sometimes these coping strategies are a pattern where the individual continues an automatic denying coping behavior, is at risk of losing awareness of the situation, and yet has a subconscious awareness of the discomfort remaining within. Self-blame is found to correlate highly with depressive symptoms, in which people with depression tend more to have self-blame as a coping strategy, according to

Coyne, Aldwin, & Lazarus (1981) . There are two types of self-blame. One is focused on self-esteem, which refers to the presence of self in a situation, and the second focuses on one's actions and behavior, according to Janoff-Bulman (1979) . We tend to blame ourselves to gain control over an outside threat; thus, sometimes it can be rewarding, according to Wortman (1983) . However, self-blame usually develops to a maladaptive behavior. Janoff-Bulman explained that victims of sexual abuse usually tend to blame themselves to have some sense of control and less fear of external threats (1979). Also, humor correlates positively with stress. This can be explained in the sense that, in the Saudi culture, there is not much appreciation for showing one's distress or discomfort, as it is a sign of impatience. Usually, in a collectivistic culture, it is hard to express one's true emotions freely due to the disturbance of harmony that doing so might bring to society. Adding to that, humor tends to attract people and gather them, which creates a more peaceful social atmosphere. All these coping strategies that positively correlate with stress are found to be emotionally focused coping strategies.

On the other hand, findings indicated that stress has a negative relationship with active coping, acceptance, and emotional social support. In active coping, we try to be creative to solve problems we face or find solutions for the discomfort. This can effectively and directly deal with various levels of stress, since we are trying to remove as much of the stressor as possible. Acknowledging the stress itself is an important step of controlling one's discomfort in order to gain the ability and capacity to deal with the struggle as objectively as possible. It is hypothesized that once we acknowledge

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a reality with its stressful stimulus, it gives us the means to eliminate or deal with it efficiently. Emotional social support is a very important coping strategy in dealing with stressors, especially in collectivistic cultures, according to Kim, Sherman, & Taylor (2008) . Literature supports that coping behavior can be targeted differently based on cultures, according to Yeh, Arora, & Wu (2006). For example, Saudi culture expects and encourages women to be more involved emotionally than men. Thus, emotional social support is an appreciated type of coping in this context, and it is rewarding at the same time for women. Emotional social support usually happens once one communicates thoughts and feelings regarding the stressor to reduce or distract oneself from the anxiety stimuli.

Another key finding is the positive correlation of the coping strategy, turning to religion, with the following: emotional venting, planning, instrumental social support, emotional social support, and substance usage coping strategies. It is very interesting to see the positive relationship between coping by turning to religion and substance usage. Some of the mentioned examples of the substance usage were smoking tobacco/shisha or taking medications. It is against the Islamic religion to abuse one’s health in any way, but perhaps this use of substances can be explained as an indirect self-distraction strategy that promotes one's acceptance of fate–which is a religious concept– and helps to increase one’s patience. Another explanation can be that substance usage may be an indirect emotional venting of uncomfortable emotions into self-distractive behavior or medicating. Or perhaps, since smoking is becoming more acceptable for women in Saudi Arabia, they use it as an entertainment

tool for social gathering, and thus it is related to both emotional and instrumental social support. Turning to religion as a coping strategy was also found to correlate with planning, which can be understood by the concept of faith, since it is considered by many to be a guide and purpose that indicates what an individual ought to do in life. Thus, the remaining actions taken by this individual to reach a purpose in life ought to be planned according to the belief as well as to earn the spiritual and mental rewards.

In addition, another interesting observation is that while none of the participants lives on her own, %70 of them considered themselves financially independent. Being financially independent in the western world refers to the ability of an individual to live on one’s own and meet all the financial requirements of one’s living. However, it seems for our sample of Saudi participants that being financially independent means being able to provide for oneself regardless of the living status. Perhaps the current regulations prohibiting women from driving or buying a house without a male guardian’s approval, as well as the many other social setbacks women face, can be an explanation of this phenomena. Similarly, none of the participants had their mother as the only financial provider, while %53.3 had their father as the only financial provider. However, it is very interesting to know that those female participants are working, and %66.7 of them are supporting their family. This indicates strongly that women of Saudi culture are aiming for a better economic and social context for themselves and their children in the future.

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VI. CONCLUSION

Increasing research shows us the impact that coping strategies have on our daily stress, whether working or socializing. Coping strategies can indicate a great deal of information regarding one's cognitive, physical, and psychological well-being. However, it is very important to note that we ought to express and act upon different coping strategies while considering our individual situations and abilities. There might not be a set of perfect strategies to remedy all stressful events; however, this study found that problem-focused strategies, such as planning in work environment, are more beneficial than emotionally-focused strategies, and this finding is consistent with the previous studies done in this area.

Limitations

Although all scales were standardized in this study, some parts might have lost their original meaning in the translation process. However, a great deal of care was taken during the translation process. The sample of 30 participants is small, and could have negatively impacted the process of data analysis. Also, the participants were all educated with at least a high school degree, and all were living in Jeddah, which does not represent the whole population of working Saudi women around the country. Furthermore, most participants worked in an educational system, which again does not represent the whole population of working Saudi women. In addition, the time given to prepare this research was very limited, which has impacted the project greatly.

RecommendationsFurther data analyses and a higher number of data collection need to take

place in order to discuss and gain more information. Developing a Saudi Stress Scale and implementing it could be very helpful and culturally sensitive, leading to more accurate data. Conducting qualitative methods to observe in-depth information in future research could also have a great impact in this field.

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REFERENCES

[1]. M. R. Hachaturova, “Hardiness as a resource of personality’s coping behaviour in difficult situations”, AJIS Academic Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies, 2013.[2]. E. B. Almagia & M. Huespe, “Perceived stress, coping and hardy personality in infertile women”, Liber, vol. 19, no. 1, pp. 113-119,[3]. B. Moreno, B. Garrosa & J. Gonzalez, “Personalidad resistente, burnout y salud”, Escritos de Psicologia, vol. 4, pp. 64-77, [4]. A. Sarani, S. Azhari, S. R. Mazlom, & H. A. Sherbaf, “The relationship between psychological hardiness and coping strategies during pregnancy”, Journal of Midwifery & Reproductive Health, vol. 3, issue 3, pp. 408-417, July 2015.[5]. T. Kato, “Assessing coping with interpersonal stress: Development and validation of the Interpersonal Stress Coping Scale in Japan”, International Perspectives in Psychology: Research, Practice, Consultation, vol. 2, issue 2, pp. 100-115,[6]. C. J. Yeh, A. K. Arora & K. A. Wu, “A new theoretical model of collectivistic coping”, Handbook of Multicultural Perspectives on Stress and Coping, pp. 55-72,[7]. A. G. Lam & N. W. Zane, “Ethnic differences in coping with interpersonal stressors: A test of self-construals as cultural mediators”, Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, vol. 35, pp.446-459,

[8]. S. Cohen, T. Kamarck, & R. Mermelstein, “A global measure of perceived stress”, Journal of Health & Social Behavior, vol. 24, no. 4, pp. 385-396,[9]. C. S. Carver, M. F. Scheier, & J. K. Weintraub, “Assessing coping strategies:

A theoretically based approach”, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, vol. 56, pp. 267-283, [10]. J. C. Coyne, C. Aldwin, and R. S. Lazarus. «Depression and coping in stressful episodes». Journal of Abnormal Psychology, vol. 90, no. 5, pp.439-447 1981. [11]. R. Janoff-Bulman, “Characterological versus behavioral self-blame: inquiries into depression and rape”, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, vol. 37, no. 10, pp. 809-1798, [12]. C. B. Wortman, “Coping with victimization: Conclusions and implications for future research”, Journal of Social Issues, vol. 39, no. 2, pp. 195-221, [13]. H. S. Kim, D. K. Sherman & S. E. Taylor, “Culture and social support”, American Psychologist, vol. 63, no. 6, pp. 26-518, Sep. 2008.

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Volume 1 Issue Spring 2017

Effects of CCK or TCK on

Developing Children’s Language

Acquisition and Personal

Experience

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Effects of CCK or TCK on Developing Children’s Language

Acquisition and Personal Experience

Rawan Abudawood, Rawan BalahmarUnder the supervision of Ms. Aida Omet and Dr. Areeg Ibrahim

Effat University, English and Translation Department, Jeddah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Abstract: This paper focuses on the way in which children’s language and personal experience develop when they are identified as Cross-Cultural Kids (CCKs) or Third Culture Kids (TCKs). Globalization played a role in increasing the number of CCKs and TCKs. As a result, many research papers have discussed this issue. However, most research papers were discussing the issue negatively, focusing on lack of patriotism, and stability, while ignoring the privileges these children have, such as developing their personality and language acquisition. The paper has a mixed method of research as the data was collected through face-to-face interviews and a survey on Facebook undertaken by CCKs and TCKs. Results showed that despite the fact that CCKs and TCKs faced many challenges, they have gained unique personal experience, tolerance to different cultures and advanced language acquisition. It seems that the advantages of being a CCK/TCK are more than the disadvantages, which can be overcome later. As a result, further research must look at the benefits and privileges rather than temporary problems.

Keywords: CCK, TCK, language acquisition, personal experience, instability, globalization.

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I. ACKNOWLEDGMENT

We thank Ms. Aida Omet and Dr. Areeg Ibrahim Mohamed for their continuous support in conducting this research. Thanks also are to Mr. Bentley Brown, Mr. Usman Akhtar, Ms. Baiann Aldulijan, Ms. Dorothy Cruz, and Mr. Ian Gauvreau who helped us completing this research by their generous collaboration and participation. This research would not be completed without the anonymous participants who strongly and effectively contributed to our research results. We would also like to thank Ms. Erika Kercheval who willingly helped us with whatever we needed.

II. INTRODUCTION

Globalization, immigration, international careers and many other factors can increase the numbers of children who have to follow their parents to unfamiliar surroundings [1]. Due to these kinds of situations, the children have to adapt to grow up in a culture different from their own parents’ culture. A very simple example of a Third Culture Kid (TCK) would be a child who is born to Saudi parents studying abroad. This child grows up in a totally different culture from his/her parents’ culture. For instance, if his/her parents are studying in the West and they had to settle there, later on, the child will be most likely closer to the Western culture than the Saudi culture his/her parents are actually from. As a result, these children are identified as Third Culture Kids (TCKs). According to Pollock and Van Reken [2], “The TCK frequently builds relationships to all of the cultures, while not having full ownership in any’’. Noting that TCKs are not a new phenomenon and that they have been around for a long time, many

people have not noticed them much yet. However, nowadays the awareness of TCKs has increased because of many reasons. Those reasons, briefly, are the increase of their number, the rise of their public voice, and the increase of their significance [2]. These globalized circumstances can even lead to having Bi/multicultural as well as Bi/multiracial homes. For example, a child might be born from a couple of two different races or ethnicities. This child is identified as a Cross-Cultural Kid (CCK). This research is significant because we will highlight two specific groups that are increasing day by day in this globalized world. We will also discuss CCKs and TCKs by illustrating their ability to acquire languages and their unique personal experience. Therefore, this research will discuss the importance of knowing about CCKs and TCKs, the language acquisition, the personal characteristics and the practical skills that make CCKs/ TCKs unique, and the challenges CCKs/ TCKs most probably would face.

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III. RESEARCH QUESTION

What is the relationship between being a CCK/ a TCK and language acquisition as well as being more culturally knowledgeable and tolerant? This is the question this research aims to answer. However, it is important to realize that many research papers have not focused on skills that CCKs and TCKs have gained through their life. Therefore, we will discuss CCKs and TCKs from a point of view that is different from many researchers who have already discussed the downsides of such experience. In fact, the purpose of this research is to prove the strengths and the qualities CCKs and TCKs have despite the problems they might face.

IV. LITERATURE REVIEW

Many research papers have discussed CCKs and TCKs from a variety of frames. Some of the papers have focused on the negative side of being a CCK or a TCK. However, other papers have focused on the positive side of these special cases. To start with, according to Pollock and Van Reken [2], a Third Culture Kid (TCK) is defined as a “person who has spent a significant part of his or her developmental years outside the parents’ culture” and “[a] cross-cultural kid (CCK) is a person who is living or has lived in—or meaningfully interacted with—two or more cultural environments for a significant period of time during childhood (up to age 18)”. Although the literature presents these two cases in a variety of aspects, this paper will primarily focus on the benefits of being a CCK or a TCK.

Acquiring a language can be of a greater benefit than learning it. “According to Krashen, acquisition is a subconscious

process, while learning is conscious. Although both play a role in developing second-language competence, acquisition is far more important, since the competence developed through it, is responsible for generating language and thus accounts for language fluency” [3]. Further, Krashen compared the ‘acquired system’ to the procedure the children undergo in acquiring their first language. With that being said, TCKs and CCKs are exposed to different environments that played a role in acquiring languages other than their mother tongue, and this resulted in their fluency in more than one language.

Identity determines where one’s position is among all these different opinions and perspectives the world has. Fail et aldescribed TCKs as unstable, significantly, they refer to TCKs’ identity and the sense of belonging that TCKs experience and struggle with more than others do [4]. Moreover, Josselson stated, “Identity is the stable, consistent, and reliable sense of who one is and what one stands for in the world” [4]. We understand that these complexities of CCKs and TCKs do exist. Take, for example, Brice Royer, the founder of TCKid.com. His father is a half-French/half-Vietnamese UN peacekeeper while his mom is Ethiopian. Brice lived in seven countries before he was eighteen including France, Mayotte, La Reunion, Ethiopia, Egypt, Canada, and England. He writes, “When people ask me ‘Where are you from?,’ I just joke around and say, ‘My mom says I’m from heaven’.” What other answer can he give? [5].

However, we believe that on the other hand, CCKs and TCKs can progress and be successful without a certain sense of belonging to a specific identity or a country. To emphasize, we think that

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such instability cannot be an obstacle that prevents CCKs and TCKs from achieving their goals thanks to the other priceless gifts they have.

CCKs and TCKs can be more open and tolerant of other cultures than any child who has only lived in one culture. Based on a questionnaire, done by Pollock and Van Reken, TCKs scored lower when it came to emotional stability than open-mindedness and cultural empathy [2]. Some Adult Third Culture Kids (ATCKs) have stated that their experience of growing among different worlds has blessed them with many valuable gifts [7]. According to Mann, GMS, Heineck, and CRP “TCKs are four times more likely than non-TCKs to earn a bachelor’s degree, and 40 percent go on to earn an advanced degree” [6]. Furthermore, TCKs’ everyday life is provided with the context to interact and collaborate with different people from different backgrounds smoothly. Dewaele and Oudenhoven stated, “personality is shaped by social and biographical factors. Acculturation is stressful, but the experience of having to fit in and being in contact with different languages and cultures strengthens Cultural Empathy and Open mindedness.” [1], with that being said, we can conclude that not only different cultures affect CCKs’ and TCKs’ experience, but also different languages. CCKs and TCKs have gained the power to communicate effectively in different languages. This power helps CCKs and TCKs to overcome the difficulties they might face, wherein they have acquired a wider view, perspective, and outlook that is different from any other child.

CCKs and TCKs are important, particularly nowadays. This goes back to the fact that they are capable of thinking “outside the box” which can result in offering creative ideas that fit

this globalized world. They can also be considered as a source of inspiration and strength [5]. However, it seems that many researchers have considered the disadvantages of being a CCK or a TCK especially the insecurity with regards to identity without highlighting their advantages such as language acquisition and cultural tolerance. As a result, in this research, we will concentrate more and emphasize the benefits CCKs and TCKs obtain through their life rather than their disadvantages.

V. METHODOLOGY

The Sample:

Participants in our research are CCKs and TCKs who are now adults and that makes them ACCKs/ATCKs. Our participants differ in their age and their degree of education. For example, some of them are highly educated and some of them are still undergraduate. To begin with, the interview sample contains three faculty members who are ACCKs and ATCKs in a private University in Western Saudi Arabia. Therefore, all of the participants have degrees and are well educated. However, the survey sample also contains a group of ACCKs and ATCKs on Facebook. So their educational degree varies and that might affect the results. The research paper focuses on the influence of being a CCK/TCK on one’s personality and viewpoint.

We want to observe how being a CCK/TCK influences their personality and viewpoint through analyzing their answers in the interview and the survey. Several research papers have discussed the negative aspects of CCKs and TCKs. As a result, we decided to focus more on the positive aspects that would help form the personality of the child and

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shape her/his thoughts and viewpoints positively. Further, we want to discuss to what extent being a CCK/TCK may influence the person’s experience and knowledge.

Research Design:

The research was undertaken as a mixed method research. It consisted of one-to-one interviews and a survey done with the ACCKs and ATCKs. Wherein, the answers were meeting the research objectives outlined above.

Instrumentation:

The materials that are used in collecting data from participant are: mobile to record the interview, paper, pencil, and Survey Monkey software to collect the survey data. The procedure consists of two parts: Interview and Survey. Firstly, the interview is conducted at Effat University, at the Western part of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The interview is recorded and analysed later. Secondly, the survey is collected online through different participants who are ACCKs/ATCKs on social media. Those participants agreed to participate in our research after introducing the topic which they found interesting as ACCKs/ATCKs themselves.

Ethical Consideration:

The consent form is given to each participant even online. Moreover, their names and private information are kept anonyms.

Validity and Reliability:

As far as validity, we believe that the instrument is valid because it results in data that serves our research purpose. We also believe that the instrument is reliable as it produces consistent data to serve our research.

Survey Questions’ Notes:

The survey questions consist of ten questions. Eight questions are multiple-choice questions and two are open-ended questions, wherein, the participant has the freedom to write everything s/he feels. Overall, the survey questions are expressed clearly. For instance, if a question might have a personal different opinion than the choices available we added “Other” to fill it with their own answer.

Interview Questions’ Notes:

All the questions are clear and do not need any further explanations. Despite that, an introducing paragraph is attached to the consent form in order to make the status of the participants clear, and the reason why they are chosen. The following is used to introduce the topic.

Introducing the research topic:

The research paper discusses the influence of being a CCK/TCK on one’s own personality and viewpoint. A Cross Culture Kid (CCK) is, according to Pollock and Van Reken [2], a person who has lived in more than one cultural environment for a period of time during his/her childhood

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and Third Culture Kid (TCK) is a person who has spent a lot of his/her developmental years outside their native culture.

VI. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONSurvey Results: The survey was distributed between 56 participants who were of various nationalities and lived in different countries. The following results are the most important ones related to the research objectives. The results are as follows: 42.86% of the participants actually spent several years of their childhood moving around different countries as well as outside their home country. The majority of the participants, 76.79%, are from parents of the same ethnicity. Most of those participants, 42.86%, speak 3 languages. This illustrates the fact that CCKs and TCKs can easily acquire languages, unlike non-CCKs /-TCKs. Moreover, most of the participants, 76.79%, feel they can easily communicate with new people from different cultures. 98.21% of the participants also feel that they can easily discuss different opinions and accept differences. The age varied between the participants, but most of the participants, 33.93%, were older than 40 years old. Finally, the majority of the participants find that their own experience as CCKs/TCKs has influenced their lives positively and 58.93% would raise their children the same way they were raised.

Interview Results:

The interviews were conducted with CCK and TCK participants who were neither from the same country nor the same nationality. The following results show the most significant answers that relate to the research objectives. The participants

were answering people about “where are you from” with a semi-detailed answer, whereas, the participants would tell their origins and where they grew up, to fulfill others’ curiosity. Further, all the participants were bilingual, wherein, they speak two languages. However, one of the participants speaks his mother tongue at a conversational level only, as s/he did not go to school to learn the language, instead only picked it up at home. One of the participants did not live outside their country, but moved back and forth between the other culture and country and their own country, then moved to live in the other country for ten years, however, s/he moved back to his/her country as they felt the sense of belonging at home. Another participant did not live anywhere but in the other country, and visited the home country from time to time, as s/he felt the sense of belonging towards the other country. Moreover, all the participants believed that their experience enabled them to be open-minded and tolerant of other cultures, as they were exposed to situations that made them understand the world better and have a broader perspective about the globe. Lastly, all the participants were willing to raise their children in a similar experience and encourage others to do so.

Interpretation of Survey Results:

The research focuses on the effects of being a CCK/TCK on the person’s personality, experience, knowledge, viewpoint, and open-mindedness. Therefore, we conducted the survey by focusing on the influence of being a CCK/TCK on one’s own personality and viewpoint. To begin with, the participants of our survey are 56 participants in total who are mostly older than 40 years

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old and from various countries. All the participants of our survey spent several years of their childhood either moving around different countries or outside their home country or even both. We understand that some of the participants were from parents of the same ethnicity and the others were from parents of different ethnicities. However, in both circumstances almost all the participants are able to communicate easily with new people from new different cultures and the majority is even capable of speaking 3 languages at least. The participants proved the cultural tolerance and open-mindedness they have wherein 55 of the participants actually feel they can easily discuss different opinions and accept differences. As a matter of fact, most of the answers in relation to the open-ended question, “Do you consider your experience as a CCK/TCK has influenced your life positively or negatively? And why?”, stated that almost all the participants consider their experiences as CCKs/TCKs to have influenced their lives positively especially when it comes to having wider perspectives on people and cultures. To emphasize, most of the participants would raise their children the same way they were raised. This actually affirms the fact that CCKs/TCKs are blessed with various gifts many other individuals would not have.

Interpretation of Interviews’ results:

The research aims to study the effects of being a CCK/TCK on language acquisition and personal experience. With regards to language acquisition, Kreshen stated [7] “that ‘acquired system’ requires meaningful interaction in the target language – natural communication – in which speakers are concentrated not in the form of their utterances, but in the communicative act”. A proof would be

the participant mentioned previously who speaks the mother tongue at a conversational level only, as s/he did not go to school to learn the language, instead only picking it up at home. In addition, we believe that CCKs and TCKs are more open-minded, experienced and tolerant towards other cultures compared to non-CCK/non-TCK. As a result, the interviews and surveys we have done focus on to what extent this seems to be true.

The interviews examine the experiences of CCK/TCK participants concerning a variety of perspectives. One of the questions was trying to answer which country meant home to them. This is due to the fact that CCKs and TCKs lived in two or more countries and it is important to see how this affected their sense of home. The answers showed that the participants feel home where they lived the majority of their lives. Likewise, some say that they consider themselves from that country. On the other hand, some of the participants in the interview actually feel home, depending on the country they are currently living in. However, one of the questions seeks to study CCK/TCK answers for (where are you from?). Their answers were clear and concise, as they answer honestly that they are from more than one country/culture. Further, as some CCK and TCK participants have spent their childhood in many different countries, this may affect their attitude towards non-CCKs/non-TCKs. The answers were unsurprising. Whereas, though they questioned themselves at some stage of their lives that why others have one culture and they have two or more, they now feel that they are so lucky and glad to have such an experience. Furthermore, when they were asked if they would let their children experience the same and would

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they recommend others to do the same, their answers were big “yeas”. A set of questions was trying to examine the participants’ answers when it comes to open-mindedness, interacting with other cultures and accepting other people with the influence of their experience as CCKs/TCKs. The answers supported our hypothesis wherein they said their experience shaped their personalities and made them more experienced. Moreover, the participants insisted on the fact that being CCK/TCK enabled them to have a broader view of the world and to accept and interact with others from different backgrounds easily as well as accepting others’ viewpoints and opinions. In addition, some believed that if they were not CCKs/TCKs, they would not be as wise as they are now.

Limitations:

One of the major limitation of this research is the sample. The CCKs and TCKs in our community, the University, are quite a few, which limited our access to a larger number of participants to meet them personally and during our working hours 8 a.m.- 4 p.m. in Fall 2016.

Recommendations:

The research proves that what CCKs and TCKs gained through their lives was positive, helped them in acquiring many languages, and formed their personalities, unlike some research papers that described CCKs and TCKs negatively. We recommend further research to bear in mind the fact that CCKs’ and TCKs’ experiences helped shape their personality positively. Finally, these experiences seem to generate better generations that are tolerant to differences and fluent in many languages.

VII. CONCLUSIONIn conclusion, it seems that the number of CCKs (Cross-Cultural Kinds) and TCKs (Third Culture Kids) will keep on increasing as a result of the globalized world we live in today. CCKs and TCKs are unique due to their incredible ability of developing valuable skills such as multilingualism and open-mindedness; in addition to the many other exceptional skills CCKs and TCKs gain by time. Some children can be even both a CCK and a TCK. For example, President Obama is considered a CCK because he was born to a white American mother and an African father. We might also consider him as a TCK because he has lived part of his life in Indonesia. Byerly described President Obama as “the prototypical examples of a successful TCK: having a global perspective, being socially adaptable, intellectually flexible, able to think outside the box and reconcile different point of view” [1]. These different qualities are mostly part of the CCKs’ and TCKs’ personalities. Therefore, we believe that focusing on the qualities and the benefits CCKs and TCKs gain through their lives is more important than discussing CCKs and TCKs from a negative point of view that would eliminate and disregard the blessings they have.

VIII. APPENDICESAPPINDEX1 Transcription of the Interviews:

(R) represents the interviewer and (E) represents the Interviewee:First Interview:R: Can you introduce yourself please? (including the following: where you were raised, nationality, parents’ nationalities, and countries you lived in)E: I was raised in a mixture of United States and Chad then Africa. My nationality: I

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have an American passport. I have some Chadian documents. I would consider myself Chadian and American although I don’t like the idea of nationality to begin with and my parents’ nationalities are American. I’ve lived in the United States, Chad, France, Sudan, Egypt, Tunisia, Libya, Lebanon, and Saudi Arabia.R: When someone asks you: “where are you from?”, what would your answer be?E: Ideally, I want to like fight this question; I like it but it’s tough. If I had a limited time I would have to say the usual response: I am from America but, I grew up in Chad. This is the fastest way to at least hint that I am not exactly what you expect from America and I am not exactly what you expect from Chad.R: This might be a tougher question [laughing]: where would you consider home?E: For me home is where I am physically living. So Jeddah is home right now. It is based on where I am actually living right now.R: It is known that CCKs/TCKs are usually bilingual, so how many languages do you speak and to what extent?E: I speak English, Arabic, and French all fluently. Then I also speak Urdu, Hindi, some Spanish and I’ve studied Chinese.R: As an ATCK who used to move around a lot (depending on their childhood), how did you feel toward non CCKs/TCKs? To explain it more you know non CCKs/ TCKs do not move around a lot; they stay at the same school; same places. So did you feel like their lives were more stable or were actually boring?E: I think by the time I was a teenager like 11,12,13,14 like this realizing that seeing my own life I had to go between very different places and different ways of thinking. One of my friends described this as a light switch: you switch it on here and off here. It is also from a young

time to grow up in America in a very like privileged fortunate kind of family my dad is a doctor and my mom is an engineer and to be in American private school to grow up in that and then to move to Chad where like many of these things were not there and my dad is still a doctor and my mom both are still working there but with a different perspective that after Chad everything is nice to me everything is comfortable; I’m talking about physical things. So for example I worked in Sudan after I left Chad and I would have my teammates who are Sudanese and we would be in a hotel room or a guest house or something and they would complain that the air-conditioning is not working and I’m like air-conditioning exists in a very small number of houses and only in the capital of Chad so the air-conditioning was a very big privilege so it makes everywhere I live at easier after that. It’s very comfortable! R: As someone who has been engaged in many different cultures, do you feel you can easily communicate with new people from different cultures?E: Yeah definitely!R: Some people find it hard to accept others’ viewpoints, so how do you feel about accepting different opinions?E: So this one in a short period of time I can accept anything and in a longer period of time I’m actually like any other human. Actually just because I lived in different places doesn’t mean that I accept everything. In fact, sometimes I feel that I’m a human with very limited experience and knowledge and everything but I’ve seen at least enough to know when someone is lying or hypercritical or abusing religion or culture or something. For example, if someone is like they are new in a developed country and they like everything look at them and their amazing food and look at

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them and their amazing food and look at how happy they are living and how free they are and .. and .. and… So I am a little critical about this thing because even when you are like oh mashAllah this Saudi American Sudanese culture is so amazing it’s a little like when someone does something and we say it is okay that is in their culture to do whatever they like so I don’t like this!R: If you someday have kids, or if you have kids — would you want to raise them in the same way that you were raised?E: Definitely yes! That I sound like an old-school conservative family and stuff but the fact that I moved a lot conditioned me to be still moving around a lot. I do not feel rooted anywhere! I can in two three years develop some roots I have a connection then I go somewhere else. So I imagine that I will not be able to get rid of this pattern by the time I have children. So likely I will be moving around working here for five years here for two years and here for three years. I hate the idea of getting a house and staying in one place. I hate this idea and I feel that as a child I didn’t choose; it was kind of enforced on me by my parents because it was their decision and when they told me I cried of course to imagine a life without an air-conditioning and without a high school. I moved when I was 11 years old. So after two years in Chad, it was actually impossible to imagine my life without being in Chad; it’s impossible! So I started hating the idea of a family being settled in one place and never learning anything else and I imagine my life without the ability to speak different languages. So the worst thing I would imagine for my future children is to be settled in one place and without moving and if that happened I would at least give them some travel opportunities from

time to time! R: So would you encourage other people to do the same?E: Of course, I see it really important to travel to different places and learn from others!R: Where would you see yourself if you were not an ATCK?E: I’m very influenced I can see it by my father. I’m very much thankful to him and until now we always argue like best friends even though we are living far away from each other. I really respect my father. So one thing I see in him is that the reason he went to Chad in the beginning is this desire and belief he has that all people should be equal so I think I would probably have something like this and maybe I would choose to travel if I were given this chance. So if I wasn’t a TCK and I was living only in America, then I would have the desire at least to travel and learn new things and more languages. R: How has being a TCK influenced your life experience?E: It changed who I am completely. It changed my outlook on life and mostly all the influence it had on me is a positive influence. However, there might be one negativity which is that sometimes I feel no one understands me but this one is applicable to many people not only CCKs/TCKs.R: Finally, how would you describe your journey in life?E: Of course a lot of unexpected things. I guess there is a bit of risk taken and sometimes when I don’t take risks, or challenges I feel so bored. So challenges because when I was like 9 years old and my parents told me we will have to move I cried because this was actually a big challenge to me. My first year in Chad for example I stayed the whole time at my home except sometimes I just go out

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to play basketball and get back home. I was scared of the society. I was not able to understand Arabic at that time. For instance, when I used to go out some men would stop me for half an hour just to keep asking me certain questions and they were calling me with words such as “Christian”. So all this actually made me feel little scared of the society back then. Later on, we moved to a small town and in this small town I had to engage in the community and communicate with the people. All of a sudden I was actually enrolled in a football team and few years later I started participating in some programs with my friends. All this was when I was like between 13 years old to 17 or 18 years old. I believe if my father did not choose this path I wouldn’t be who I am now. This has affected my life so much in the most imaginable way. I will force my children to have such experience as well [laughing].

Second Interview:

R: Here is the consent form and this page if you want to read more about the topic before starting. E: Consent form, ok, hmmm…so most of my life though I lived here (Saudi Arabia), I lived about ten years in America but I was already eighteen. Does that consider?R: Mmm… E: Because here it says two or more cultures … “childhood”, does that consider to be part of your project?R: So you lived here but then moved after eighteen for ten years, right?E: Yes, but I used to visit America during my childhood, so is that fine?R: Yes, yesE: Good…… [sign]..ok?R: Ok..R: Can you introduce yourself please? (Including the following: where you were raised, nationality, parents’ nationalities,

and countries you lived in)E: My name is ….. I am …. at….. my mom is American and my father is Saudi.R: When someone asks you: “where are you from?” what would your answer be?E: Depends on where I am, if I was in America I say that I am half Saudi half American, but I am from Saudi Arabia; but if I am here I would just say I am from Saudi Arabia.R: What about your outlook?E: My outlook I have to say is split half ways, cause there are things that I am very Americanized about sometimes it is more about fashion I go towards America, food is America, all that is America. Because even though I was raised over here I was not influenced too much about the Saudi culture because my Saudi side of family lived so far away. So it has to be that our family was brought mostly in America and American tradition because of my mom who is fully American.

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R: Where would you feel the sense of belonging? America or Saudi Arabia?E: That is very hard to say; I think that I have more connection to Saudi Arabia; I would say and I don’t know why that is; even if I lived in America for like ten years, I always say Saudi Arabia is my home where I went towards at the end.R: It is known that CCKs/TCKs are usually bilingual, so how many languages do you speak and to what extent?E: I am fluent in English and in Arabic, fluent writing, reading, and speaking. My school was in Arabic, international school and college was all in English so I am fluent in both.R: As an ATCK you used to move around a lot, didn't you?E: NoR: But you used to go back and forth between America to Saudi Arabia?E: Yes, we spend the whole summer in America, two to two and a half months every year since I was six years old.R: So how did you feel toward non CCKs/TCKs? E: I feel I am very lucky because my friends even though they had an American moms and Saudi father, they did not go to America as much as I did, so I feel I am lucky to have that ability to go to America every summer, and spend my whole summer over there; I never felt unstable, in contrast I felt fun to go out and try a different culture which was way different than Saudi Arabia.R: As someone who has been engaged in many different cultures, do you feel you can easily communicate with new people from different cultures?E: Yah! Because I feel like I know what it feels to be in the outside a little bit even though I was Saudi I was known as the American girl (البنــت األمريكيــة البنــت االمريكيــة) so when I moved to America, whenever I saw a foreign girl I was trying to connect with

her, because when I moved to America I was always the Saudi girl, the Saudi girl, I always felt like no matter where I was, I was considered a foreigner, so but I was fitting in, like stood out, or something but I understand the foreigners. R: Some people find it hard to accept others’ viewpoints, so as an adult now how do you feel about accepting different opinions?E: I believe everybody has his own opinion and religious beliefs; everybody is entitled with their opinion and I accept that as long as they accept my opinion and my religious beliefs. So I am very careful with whom I discuss, especially if I know they are close-minded, I will not share my opinion but I accept everyone.R: If you someday have kids, or if you have kids — would you want to raise them in the same way that you were raised?E: I would if I could, if I have the financial ability to go back and forth to America, because it was good to be exposed to completely two different cultures, as it helped me to find a balance and knowing who you are. Cross-culture is really important at an early age where you do not have an opinion yet, so it is nice to expose them to different things, so I would if I could.R: would you advise others to do so?E: I do, one thing that I definitely do when I was advising students that they should be taking the opportunity to study abroad because learning in a different culture is absolutely amazing; traveling the world is absolutely amazing cause they say America is full of everybody why should I leave, you will take part of America with you and see different things, so I always say you should travel.R: Where would you see yourself if you were not an ATCK?E: I don’t know that is a very hard

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question. I have never been that, I can’t tell because I was raised to accept others and accepting differencesR: I believe you already answered this question: How has being a TCK influenced your life experience?E: Yes as I said it helped me finding who I am and finding balance to take what I want out of each culture. R: Finally, how would you describe your journey in life?E: Oooh! That is very hard, cause growing up from the first grade to the fifth grade that was hard, I was looked at as the American girl because back then the American is kafer (faithless) immediately, though there was Muslim Americans but they look at it from one angle; your mom is kafer so you are a kafer. Because I was always discriminated but then it helped me finding who I was back in America .I was American but I was Muslim Saudi so accepting me was after then when I grew up. It helped me making my life decisions. R: Thank you so muchE: No problem!

Third Interview:

R: Here is the consent form and here is more information about the topic, if you would like to read more.E: Yes! Mm… ok (signed)R: Can you introduce yourself, please?E: Yes, my name is …. I was born in England, to parents from Pakistan; I have been teaching in Effat now for over two years and it is my first time outside England. It is nice to have the British culture and the Pakistani culture and now I have the third the Saudi culture, to see similarities and differences and how we are in some ways different but similar at the same time. So it is nice to view this culture because of the misunderstanding of the media. Because it is my first time

for me to see how false, that image has been portrayed in the media. So it is interesting, interesting to see what it really is like to be a Saudi. Somethings I understand and I can see why the media portrays things in this way, but there is lots of thing I feel like, it’s not what it should be or how it is portrayed in the media is totally false. So, it is interesting to converse time here and have experiences from the Saudi culture. And I am glad that I am teaching at a girls’ university because otherwise if I taught at King Abdul-Aziz I would never have interacted with women to this level to get that deep; it would be just the male side of things and what man thinks; girls I would never heard their side of the story. If I was not at Effat, I would have only Saudi friends, and it is easy to have Saudi friends, but it would be almost impossible to make Saudi female friends to this purpose I got to hear both the men and the boys think and the girls and women think. So it has been helpful.R: So basically your parents are P a k i s t a n i sE: Yes, both were born in Pakistan and then moved to England and met in there R: When someone asks you where you are from, what would your answer be?E: I always say, British-Pakistani, because people if I say I am from England, they are curious, where are you really from? So with me I have meant to give people the answers of both questions British-Pakistani, and was born in England so I can’t take that out and just say Pakistani cause I feel more British than Pakistani in that sense, although I look Pakistani but I feel more close and tight in England because I was born and raised all my life, culturally and my ethnicity it is more British. But then at the same time I do say British-Pakistani as well because there is things from the Pakistani culture

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that I enjoy and I really like and that I want to attempt myself as well.R: It is known that CCKs and TCKs are usually bilingual, so how many languages do you speak and to what extent?E: I can speak English; it is my First language that I feel most comfortable with and also can speak Urdu as well, Urdu is the language of Pakistan but with Urdu I did not really learn it with going to school so it is more kind of picking it up with family and Bollywood films and that kind of thing at home so I am not fluent in Urdu I am more conversational. So I can go and have a decent conversation with people and Pakistanis would really know that I am not Pakistani so they would say where are really from and I say I from England, but I can have conversation so I know how to speak it to that conversational level, so I am proud and I can interpret what individuals back in England say; so my job I would interpret and translate to people who couldn’t speak the language; and the British assume that I can speak another language, though I have friends who are born there, who are British-Pakistani or British-Indian, but can’t speak the language, because at home they did not have the need; to be fair only because our grandmother can’t speak English is why we spoke Urdu because it was just respectful not to speak English while she was there because she doesn’t understand it. Our parents all the time were speaking English so I kind of forgot to speak my mother tongue Urdu because our Grandmother that is where the Urdu was reinforced.R: As an adult CCK/TCK who used to move around a lot, did you?E: NoR: Not a lot?E: No.. no.. no.. this is my first time that I moved abroad

R: So it is only from England to Pakistan and the way roundE: No.. no.. I have visited Pakistan, but never stayed there, my mother takes us there every summer, every two years maximum not more than that for 6 weeks and that helped me in the Urdu and get what the culture, but this is my first time to move from EnglandR: Ok, so how do you feel about non TCKs around you when you were young, do you feel you were different or you were luckier?E: Yah! I do not want to say more lucky, but, I have been given a chance to experience a different culture, when I grew up it was a bit hard, and I will talk about this. In the house, you, in the home you have the Pakistani culture but outside you have the British culture, so it was sometimes tough to distinguish between the two and you ended being two people. And then you have a bit of question which one I am. In the house I am the good Pakistani boy but then with your friends you would do the cool things and do things that your parent may be proud of, so it kind of finding a balance. Initially it was tough and I questioned why they are so lucky they have only one culture, they are the same at home and they are the same outside, me I have to be two things. But now I am actually seeing from a different way I start seeing that I have been in the two cultures and I have taken the good things in both cultures and put away the bad things from both. So now as an adult I am glad to have the two, and after thinking why they have only one I start thinking maybe they have disadvantage and especially coming to Saudi Arabia and I have the British eye, the Western mind but I also see it as a Muslim. So it helped me adapt very easily and see the positives and not just sit and compare it to

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the west, otherwise you would hate it in here and learn to adapt and see it from a different angle and see things that both cultures in me helps me a lot.R: As someone who has engaged in two different cultures, let’s say, do you think you can easily communicate with new people from different cultures?E: YES! It helps me because I can understand now how different cultures although they are different, they also have some similarities. So when you find someone from a different culture, find something similar in the ground because you will find somethings, not everyone is totally different even cultures that are so different you will always find something similar so now it helps me to find things that we are in the same level with; start on that and you can bring up your relationship and friendship, understand that in a different situation they may do not want to talk to you because their culture is different; do not take it as they are not friendly; it could be that they are scared they are worried their culture has not approached men. I do not judge as I did when I was younger, I understood that people have their reasons to not come close and it is not in every culture to come and say hello my name is, now I understand that I should come and say hello and if they did not say hello back I should take it as a negative. So it helps understand different cultures and trying to find things that are similar, and then not judging them for their action and behavior. If it is negative ok then it is different if it kind of accusing me verbally there is no one, no culture that allows that but other things I would let them do whatever they like; it may be custom to the culture and give them some while.R: Some people find it hard to accept other’s point of view, as an adult how do you feel about accepting others?

E: I feel ok by accepting different opinions. There is again what that thing is, so when it comes to religion and it is a sensitive topic nice to listen to people what they have to say all; I believe in you should not inforce other people, it is nice to have an opinion but don’t force or inforce other person, don’t force Islam on me at the same time don’t inforce how Islam is bad on me that is up to me and my decision as what I will do with my own religion for example. It is nice to have discussions and people with different opinion be nice to them and discuss them and see their point of view and things as long as they are cool and no pressure on you to act a certain way or to take onward what you’ve told I will take the decision, it only when you know situation with people, where they say this is how it is and this is how you do in your life what you are doing is wrong. When you start judging me in that kind of situation no I am not cool with this anymore I want to have a nice discussion and just discuss them and having opinions, but you are starting to judge me now, only Allah can judge me in the other day, Allah says we are equal and he will judge us, me and everyone else we can just give our opinions so you can’t judge everyone else. It is nice to have others’ opinions and discuss them but without forcing me or telling me to act a certain way.R: If you someday have kids, or if you have kids would you raise them the same way that you were raised?E: Yes! Definitely.. definitely give them the feeling of both cultures and it is good for them; one thing the language as well; they know both languages in the future. Secondly it would be nice for them to choose both culture and know from both cultures what are the good things and what are the bad things, because it helps you developing your character and your

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personality. You can really see the world from a different perspective and it opens up horizons; you are more willing to adapt and change when you go to different cultures without having them to adapt to your way, you are more likely to understand their way and adapt. Again the example of Saudis; some come from the west and act in a way or their relationships should be like the west but in a way that not really right, you are coming to their country there are some things you should have principles for, do not lose yourself totally, but there are things you should learn from them and find a middle ground, it should not be my way or the highway, it is either me or do not talk to me. You should have a balance and taking into account their culture and they know for so many years you can’t change it in a matter for a second. So coming from two different cultures, has taught me that, when you come from two different cultures you learn and adapt and see what and how they work and make small changes if these things are negative, you make difference slowly but there are positive things let it be, because that is good these are symbols of the country. It works that way and this is how you should be left out.R: So you would advise others or encourage others to do so?E: Yes definitelyR: Where would you see yourself if you were not a CCK/TCK?E: I see myself as a bit close-minded, I think, I think I would be close-minded and I won’t be as flexible or adaptable with my personality with my working with different people in different cultures and because my culture is my eyes and this is the only culture I know I would see it as the perfect culture and this is how it should be, because this is when I know if something is different I would ask

why are you different maybe I would be curious but I would still hold onto my own beliefs in that sense because I have seen different cultures, only two but that made me realize that one culture is not always the best, having more than one culture and choosing the good and bad out of them. So, if I wasn’t, maybe I would think only British culture is the best culture out there and everybody should adapt to the British culture cause this is how it should be and maybe should be a certain way, maybe. Maybe I would be the other way and I would think oh my God my culture is the worst culture ever and I need to change it leaving the culture, I don’t know how to answer that question it depends on how proud I would be and what kind of ego. If I have pride of that culture then I want everyone to change to that culture, if I did find myself in that culture I would find other culture. R: So, how has being CCK/TCK influenced your life experience?E: Hmmm! My life experiences. It adds experience to my life that I want to explore different cultures and go abroad and find how people live in other countries and cultures. I like how people are born in a different country. I am curious; I like to see and share with others how they feel this way or it is only me.R: How would you describe your life in general?E: I’m pretty happy with my life in general; there is always room for improvements. I plan things and then they do not happen and some happen. I do not put pressure on myself by 30 I would do this and 35 I will be this; I used to do this when I was your age but now I more kind of going with the flow. Sometimes Allah has His own plans for you.R: Ok thank you so muchE: Thank you!

 

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Appendix 2:

Interview questions:1) Can you introduce yourself please? (Name, where he/she was raised, nationality, parent’s nationality, include the countries they have lived in)2) When someone asks you: “where are you from?”, what would your answer be?3) So I can say that … is where you consider home right? [the blank space depends on his/her answer]4) It is known that CCKs/TCKs are usually bilingual, so how many languages do you speak and to what extent?5) As an ACCK/ATCK who used to move around a lot (depending on their childhood), how did you feel toward non CCKs/TCKs? To explain it more you know non CCKs/ TCKs do not move around a lot they stay at the same school, same places. So did you feel like their lives were more stable or were actually boring? 6) As someone who has been engaged in many different cultures, do you feel you can easily communicate with new people from different cultures?7) Some people find it hard to accept others’ viewpoints and differences, so how do you feel about accepting different opinions?8) If you someday have kids, or if you have kids — would you want to raise them in the same way that you were raised? Would you encourage others to? 9) Where would you see yourself if you were not an ACCK/ATCK?10) How has being a CCK/TCK influenced your life experience? 11) Finally, how would you describe your journey in life?

Survey questions:Q1: Did you spend several years of

your childhood moving around different countries or outside your home country?- Yes, I spent several years of my childhood moving around different countr ies .- Yes, I spent several years of my childhood outside my home country.- Yes, I spent several years of my childhood moving around different countries and outside my home country.- No, I did not. - Other (please specify).

Q2: Are your parents from different ethnicities («ethnicity is a category of people who identify with each other based on similarities, such as common ancestral, language, social, cultural or national experiences»)? For example, your mother is Spanish and your father is Arab.- Yes.- No.

Q3: When someone asks you: «where are you from?», how would you answer?- I would pick my birthplace to finish with this question fast without explaining.- I would pick my birthplace because I actually feel most of the belonging towards it.- I would pick one of the other countries I lived at where I feel most of the belonging towards it.- I would prefer not to answer this quest ion.- Other (please specify).

Q4: How many languages do you speak?- 1 language.- 2 languages.- 3 languages.- 4 languages or more.

Q5: As someone who has been engaged in many different cultures, do you feel

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you can easily communicate with new people from different cultures?- Yes, I feel I can easily communicate with new people from different cultures.- Sometimes I feel I can easily communicate with new people from different cultures.- No, I do not feel I can easily communicate with new people from different cultures.

Q6: Some people find it hard to accept others' viewpoints, as an adult, how do you feel about accepting different opinions?- I feel I can easily discuss different opinions and accept differences.- I feel I can discuss different opinions, but I cannot accept differences.- I do not like to discuss different opinions and differences because I believe my opinion is always true.

Q7: If you someday have kids, or if you have kids. Would you want to raise them in the same way that you were raised?- Yes.- Maybe.- No.

Q8: How old are you?- 20 or less.- 30 - 21.- 40 - 30.- 40 or more.

Q9: What is your nationality? What are the countries you lived in?

Q10: Do you consider your experience as a CCK/TCK has influenced your life positively or negatively? And why?

Informed Consent Form:Your opinion is being solicited to participate in a class assignment and

can be used for presentation as research data. You will be asked to participate in an interview. Your participation will help provide valuable insight and there are no foreseeable risks for participating in the study. Your identity will be protected and your participation is voluntary. If you accept to participate in this study please sign below:

Full name: ______________________Signature: ______________________ Date: __________________________

1- The bar chart illustrates where the participants spent their time during their childhood. The majority of the participants spent some time moving around, and none of them stayed at one country.

Appendix 3:

Appendix 4: Results

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2- The chart shows if the participants’ parents are from the same ethnicity or from different ethnicities. It can be seen that the majority of the participants are from parents with the same ethnicities. Further, some of the participants’ parents are from different ethnicities.

3- The chart presents the answers for “where are you from?” question. The answers vary as some want to finish quickly with the question and some would tell their origins and different cultures, the others would say where they feel the sense of belonging. Moreover, the majority of the participants, who chose “other”, said it depends on where they were and to whom they are talking and they may say they are citizen of their passport country.

4- The bar chart shows the answers of the participants about how many languages they speak. As it can be seen a small number only speak one language. Further, the majority speaks more than one language, and the highest percentage are the participants who speak three languages.

5- The bar chart illustrates the participants’ communication easiness when meeting new people from different cultures. It can be obviously seen that the number of participants who can easily communicate with new people from different cultures is more than the number of participants who can sometimes feel they can easily communicate with new people from different cultures. Moreover, the bar chart shows that there are no participants at all who feel they cannot communicate with new people from different cultures. To sum up, these statistics prove that there is a high level of cultural tolerance and open-mindedness around CCKs/TCKs.

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6- Again, this bar chart emphasizes the fact that CCKs/TCKs have a high level of cultural tolerance and open-mindedness. To demonstrate, there is a huge gap between the first answer and the second answer. Almost all the participants feel they can easily discuss different opinions and accept differences. On the other hand, based on the bar chart, it can be clearly seen that it is impossible for CCKs/TCKs to be stubborn and narrow-minded.

experience. Therefore, the majority of the participants would want to raise their kids the same way they were raised. Looking at the bar chart, it can be seen that the number of participants who do not wish to raise their kids the same way they were raised is actually very limited which equals 5 only out of 56 participants.

8- This pie chart displays the age of the participants. Looking at the pie chart, the majority of the participants are 40 years old or more. Therefore, this can support the research positively wherein the majority of the participants are actually adults and have experienced enough through their lives.

7- This bar chart illustrates the fact that CCKs/TCKs feel and actually have many valuable gifts they gained through their

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9- This open-ended question investigates the nationality and the countries the participants lived in. Some identified their nationality as where they were born. In addition, some participants lived in that country and many others, however, some lived outside their country (nationality country). All the participants have been exposed to at least two countries beside their home country.

10- Finally, the last question is an open ended question to give the participants the chance to express their view of their experience freely. The answers were as expected, most of the answers were actually positive. For instance, this is an answer of one of the participants: “Positive. I've gotten to experience, explore places, and cultures that the majority of the world only read about or see in films. I've had the privilege to live and experience countries in way that most people do not. To live somewhere and to visit are two very different things.”

To summarize, many CCKs/TCKs might not feel the valuable opportunity they were given when they are at young age. However, as soon as they get older and more experienced, most of the CCKs/TCKs realize how unique their experience and lifestyle is.

REFERENCES

[1]. J. Dewaele and J. P. Oudenhoven, “The effect of multilingualism/multiculturalism on personality: No gain without pain for third culture kids?”, International Journal of Multilingualism, no. 6, pp. 459-443, d o i : 10 .1080147907109030399062009.[2]. D. C. Pollock, & R. E..Van Reken , Third Culture Kids: Growing Up Among Worlds, Boston: Nicholas Brealey Publishing, 2009.[3]. E. T. Tricomi, “Krashen's Second-Language Acquisition Theory and the Teaching of Edited American English,” Basic Writing, Available: https://wac.colostate.edu/jbw/v5n2/tricomi.pdf, pp. 59-69, .[4]. K. A. Walters and F. P. Auton-Cuff, “A story to tell: The identity development of women growing up as third culture kids,” Mental Health, Religion & Culture, vol. 12, no. 7, pp. 772-755, doi:/10.108013674670903029153, 2009.[5]. R. V. Reken, “Third culture kids”, The Telegraph, Available: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/expateducation/6545869/Third-culture-kids.html, 2009.[6]. J. Mann, GMS, J. Heineck, and CRP, “Third-Culture Kids”, Mobility Magazine, Aug. 2012, Available: http://www.worldwideerc.org/Resources/MOBILITYarticles/Pages/0812mann.aspx.[7]. R. Schütz, “Stephen Krashen's Theory of Second Language Acquisition (Assimilação Natural - o Construtivismo no Ensino de Linguas)”, Available: http://www.sk.com.br/sk-krash.html, 1998.

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Volume 1 Issue Spring 2017

Relationship between Beliefs

about the Functions of Dreams

and Dream Attitudes:

An Exploratory Study in Saudi

Arabian Cultural Milieu

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Relationship between Beliefs about the Functions of Dreams

and Dream Attitudes:

An Exploratory Study in Saudi Arabian Cultural Milieu

Sanaa Al-QuaitiUnder the supervision of Dr. Tabassum Rashid

Department of PsychologyEffat University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia

Abstract: Research on beliefs and attitudes towards dreams has been conducted across the world among different populations; however, a very limited number of these researches involve Arab samples. The purpose of this research is to explore the relationship between beliefs about the function of dreams and the attitudes towards dreams. The sample is comprised of 200 adult participants of both genders from Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. The participants were asked to respond to a survey comprising of the items of two different scales: Revised Dream Attitudes and Olsen's list of Beliefs about the Function of Dreams, electronically via social media websites and applications. Results indicated a significant relationship between beliefs about the function of dreams and dream attitudes. However, no significant differences were found between age, gender and beliefs about dreams. The results are discussed in the context of various dream theories and their implications in clinical and other settings. Further investigations exploring the significance and relationship of dreams with physical and psychological health, emotional states, etc., among varied samples in the Arab cultures are recommended.

Keywords: dreams, dream attitudes, dream functions, beliefs, dream research

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I.INTRODUCTION

The topic of dreams, their interpretation, and analysis have been a popular area of interest for many scientists, philosophers, and thinkers. They have always been curious about topics such as what happens in the human brain while dreaming, the meaning behind dreams, and the impact they have on our emotional well-being (Aristotle, 350 B.C.E; Freud, 1913; and Jung, 1962). This interest is also shared by the public but in a more extreme manner. People are sometimes too invested in the content of their dreams and spend an extensive amount of time trying to extract meanings to associate them with their real-life experiences.

Dream research has been done across the world to assess different populations and their beliefs and attitudes towards dreams (Schredl, Kleinferchner, and Gell 1996; Szmigielska & Holda, 2007; and Olsen 2012) . However, not enough of these studies has hosted Arab samples. This is the main motive behind performing this study in Saudi Arabia. Because to acquire a holistic understanding of dreams and people’s attitudes towards them, one cannot neglect a culture as widespread as the Middle Eastern culture. By conducting a study in Saudi Arabia, one of the largest Middle Eastern countries with a population of 28.83 million, as according to the World Bank in «Population, total | Data» (2015) [ ], thus, the findings of the current study can be used to make inferences about the Middle Eastern society and encourage other researchers to carry out more studies in this region.

II. RESEARCH QUESTIONS

This study will investigate the Saudi

population’s beliefs about the function of dreams and their attitudes towards them while comparing between the gender and age differences within them. The research questions for this study are: 1- Is there a significant difference between scores in dream attitudes and positive beliefs about the function of dreams?2- Is there a significant difference in scores between age groups regarding their beliefs about the function of dreams?3- Is there a significant difference in scores on beliefs about the function of dreams between genders in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia?

In addition to answering the research questions, this study will append to the overall worldwide research base by providing a unique sample from the Middle East. It will also provide a discussion of the findings and recommendations for future research.

III. LITERATURE REVIEWDating back to the pre-scientific times, the topic of dreams has been discussed by many philosophers and thinkers, and it is still discussed and researched until this day and age. The following section will examine the topic of dreams, the beliefs about them, and the attitudes towards them throughout history.

According to the Oxford Dictionaries (2016), Dreams are “A series of thoughts, images, and sensations occurring in a person's mind during sleep”[2]. Hem (2002) found that dreams can take up to 6 years of the average life of a human being (as cited by Olsen, (2012) [ ]. There is no one theory of the function or source of dreams. And people’s beliefs about

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the source of dreams are directly related to their attitudes towards them. If one believes that the dream is a message from God, one will consider them more important as opposed to someone who believes that dreams are merely chemical messages being sent across the brain and hold no actual value or connection to their waking life.

Fishbein and Raven (1962) described beliefs as the perceived probability of the existence of a target[4]. In the Oxford Dictionaries (2016), belief is defined as “An acceptance that something exists or is true, especially one without proof”[5]. So, the ‘beliefs about function dreams’ are about what people believe the source and the purpose of dreams are. As stated earlier, people’s attitudes towards dreams are dependent on their beliefs about the source of them. Throughout history, there have been many different theories about the source of dreams. Olsen (2012) divided the views into pre-scientific and scientific eras. Pre-scientific views were then categorized according to the historic era in which they took place. These categories are Ancient History (~3000 BC), Classical History (~400 BC), and the Post-classical/Medieval times (~200 AC 1700- AC). The ancient history, exhibited in Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Greece, the common view was that God was the main source of dreams. According to this belief, dreams had “prophetic properties” and were important in decision-making. The ancient thinkers saw dreams as a divine inspiration rather than manifestations of the individual mind. They further acknowledged two different types of dreams: true or valuable dreams, and empty dreams. The former would hold significant importance and meaning for the dreamer, whereas the latter would only occur to mislead him/

her as these dreams contained no real value, according to Freud (1913, p. 1-2)[ ]. Antiphon, the first known author of a book discussing dreams, was against the idea that dreams are supernatural manifestations. Instead, he believed that they were results of natural conditions, according to Crisp (2012)[ ]. In the Classical history, Asians and Hippocrates connected the origin of dreams to the human soul. The Asians believed that when we sleep, our souls leave our bodies and travel somewhere else, and this journey is depicted in our dreams. Hippocrates, on the other hand, believed that dreams are the result of some images our souls receive during the day which are then played in our sleep. Aristotle, however, had a different view focused on our physical being rather than our souls. In Aristotle’s book (On Dreams, 350 B.C.E), concerning dreams and their interpretation, he explained that dreams are mental images occurring in one’s sleep, as mentioned in Papachristou (2014)[ ]. This book was the first to discuss the psychological aspect of dreams. In his theory on dreams, Aristotle explained a connection between dreams and physiology as some dreams might affect the person’s sensation (i.e., feeling hot or cold according to the environment in one’s dream). He thought that dreams contain warnings about our bodily dysfunctions and diseases. According to Van de Castle (1994), Aristotle was somewhat correct in this assumption as it was proved by researches done later. As for the Post-Classical/Medieval times, some American and Mexican tribes considered dreams messages from ancestors. Muslims believed -and most still believe- that God is the source of dreams (the good ones). Opposing views in Emperor Constantine’s period also existed as it was a common belief

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amongst some Christians that dreams are destructive and harmful messages sent by the devil/Satan.

The scientific approaches about the function of dream came in later in the 19th century. The psychoanalytic school of thought had been very popular in that time and was led by Sigmund Freud. He believed that dreams were derived from the unconscious mind displaying our deepest desires[6]. Another psychoanalyst, Carl Jung, brought up another perspective to this topic in his book Memories, Dreams, Reflections. He explained that dreams not only express our desires, but they are also useful in solving real-life problems, helping us understand ourselves, and based on that understanding, dreams can help in our journey towards self-growth, says Jung (1962)[ ]. In 1953, REM-sleep was discovered, and this discovery lead scientists to try and develop cognitive

theories about the function of dreams, says Hem (2002), as cited by Olsen (2012) [ ]. In his research, Allan Hobson (2002) came up with his activation synthesis theory, which, if explained in the simplest terms, describes dreams as mere chemical transmissions of messages from the brain stem occurring in the human brain[11]. This theory was later disproved by Mark Solms’s conclusions that “patients with damaged brain stems still have dreams”, says Solms (2000), as cited by Olsen (2012)[ ]. Wagner, Geis, Haider, Verleger & Born (2004) scientifically supported Carl Jung’s theory that dreams help us solve our personal problems[12]. It has also been hypothesized that there is a relationship between our real-life experiences and dreams. This hypothesis is called the continuity hypothesis and it states, “what we do or think about while awake is reflected in the content of our dreams – in other words, there is continuity between waking life and dreams”, according to Olsen (2012). These findings represent the main scientific theories on the function of dreams.

Some research has been done to assess the general population’s views on the function of dreams. In Szmigielska and Holda’s study in 2007, participants reported various sources of dreams such as; events of their life, thoughts of the day, the subconscious mind, their overall mood, wishes, fears, and desires, according to Szmigielska & Holda (2007)[ ]. Female students who were participants of another study done by Morewedge and Norton in 2009 believed that their dreams were manifestations of the unconscious mind[14]. This supports Freud’s theory that the dreams are “a royal road to the unconscious”[15]. According to APA’s Glossary of Psychological Terms (2016), attitude is

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“the learned, relatively stable tendency to respond to people, concepts, and events in an evaluative way”[16] . In their book The Psychology of Attitudes (1993), Eagly and Chaiken defined attitudes as the “psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluating an entity with some degree of favor or disfavor”[17]. One can have one of three attitudes towards dreams: positive/approving, negative/disapproving, or neutral. The approving attitudes are positively correlated with the ability to recall the dream, according to Cernovsky (1984)[ ]. Although Watkins (1986) found that individuals of Western culture considered dreams meaningless, as cited in Meyer & Shore (2001)[ ]. In David King’s thesis for the degree of Honors Bachelor of Science in Psychology (2006), he concluded that most people believe that their dreams are important and contain valuable information. This shows the possibility of a change in individual attitudes from the same culture occurring over time[20]. Schredl, Kleinferchner, and Gell (1996), explained how individuals are reflective of their dreams’ content and admit that they represent aspects of their waking life[21]. Later, King (2006) found that although some individuals did not consider their dreams important, they still believed there was a connection between dreams and their waking life. However, individuals who experience nightmares actively try to interpret their dreams and some even try to change aspects of their lives because of the content of these nightmare, says Kothe & Pietrowsky (2001)[ ]. Selterman (2016), studied the connection between dream attitudes and subjective well-being of individuals. The results of this study suggested that having a positive attitude towards dreams resulted in greater life-satisfaction and increased subjective

psychological well-being[23]. Meyer and Shore (2001) studied children’s attitudes towards dreams. They found that as children grow older, they share the same beliefs as adults that their dreams are unreal or just “in their head”[19]. These findings are directly related to Watkin’s suggestion about individuals of the Western culture and their assumptions about dreams[24]. Schredl (2009) found that women are more likely to share their dreams than men and are better at recalling the content[25]. This could be linked to Cernovsky’s findings that having positive attitudes towards dreams results in better recollection[18]. This leads us to assume that women place more importance on dreams than men do and therefore, they are better at recalling them and are more likely to share them. This assumption was later proven in a study conducted by Schredl, Berres, Klingauf, Schellhaas, and Göritz in 2014, which aimed to develop a questionnaire on several dream-related aspects including dream recall and dream attitudes, the researchers found that “women tend to tell dreams more often, attribute more often meaning to dreams, and have more positive attitudes towards dreaming”[26]. Consistent with a study by Schredl and Piel (2008) based in Germany, the results of Salem, Ragab, and Abdel Razik (2009), showed that females are more likely to seek interpretation of their dreams than males[27]& [28].

In Islam, there are three types of dreams: visions (good dreams), nightmares (bad dreams), and dreams from one’s self. These dreams were mentioned in the following prophetic Hadith: “There are three types of dreams: a righteous dream which is glad tidings from Allah, the dream which causes sadness is from Shaitan, and a dream from the ramblings of the mind”, according to

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myIslamicDream (2017)[ ]. Kinberg (1993), demonstrated how some of the “good dreams” have either literal meaning --they have a clear, spoken message that does not need much explanation-- or symbolic meaning, in the sense that they require interpretation[30]. The interpretation of dreams plays a role in most Muslim societies across history, according to Green (2003)[ ]. This statement can be supported by Salem, Ragab, and Abdel Razik (2009), in their research regarding the significance of dreams among university students in the United Arab Emirates[28]. In their study, Salem et al (2009) concluded that the participants placed high importance on their dreams, allowed their daily lives to get affected by them, and were very serious about the content of their dreams. Hoffman (1997), concluded that “dreams provide Muslims with direct experiential confirmation for their faith” (as cited by Salem et al (2009)[ ].

In summary, three main factors in this study make it a novel contribution to the knowledge base: the unique combination of the tested attributes (belief about function of dreams & dream attitudes), and the Arab, Muslim participants providing a cultural variance to the overall world-wide data.

IV. METHODOLOGY

This study investigated participants’ a) beliefs on the function of dreams, and b) attitudes towards dreams. Olsen’s list of statements about the beliefs on the function of dreams measure the former, and the revised version of Dream Attitudes Scale measure the latter. These measures were used in studies with similar research questions, such as with Selterman (2016) and Olsen (2012). And after they have been reviewed and

translated, they appeared to be suitable for the sample of this study. The research targeted adult males and females in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. The two measures were distributed in English and Arabic through social networking applications (WhatsApp, Twitter, Path).

Participants

The sample included 205 participants from Jeddah, Saudi Arabia (69 males and 136 females). 135 of the participants were between the ages (18-35), were between the ages (36-55), and 12 were 55 years old and above.

Procedure The scales were sent in form of surveys made in English and Arabic via Google Forms across different social media outlets (WhatsApp, Twitter, Path) to draw the needed number of participants. The sampling method therefore was convenience sampling.

Measures

To assess the participant’s beliefs on the function of dreams, a list of items developed by Olsen (2012) was used in this study. This list contained twelve items. Each item was a statement that represents views on the function of dreams. The items had statements like “Dreams are the result of random chemical messaging in our brain” and “Dreams contain messages from God or other non-human sources”. The participants answered this scale by either agreeing or disagreeing with these statements on a 5 -item Likert scale. The Dream Attitudes Scale revised version (DAS-R) was used to measure dream attitudes. DAS was developed to determine a) whether people believe that dreams contain important information, and b) if so, then, what are the topics that these dreams contain important

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information about. The first part was measured by answering a simple true/false/not sure statement. The second part was measured by a checklist of 8 items. Each item represented a topic that dreams may contain information about. These topics were “my personality, my mood, my spiritual beliefs, my current physical health, my past, decisions I am currently making, relationships, and future events”, as suggested by King (2006)[ ]. The participants were supposed to check the topic that they consider their dreams contained important information about. They were also able to add any other topic they had in mind if it was not listed amongst the items. In the revised version of DAS, another item was added to narrow down the participant’s responses and focus on the most important one. This item stated: “if you have checked more than one option above, please indicate which one is most important/significant to you by circling that choice.”

Both scales were translated into Arabic to be more convenient for the Saudi population as the first language in Saudi Arabia is Arabic. Adequate measures were taken to assess the reliability of the Arabic versions of scales.

V. RESULTS

The total number of participants in this study were 205 male and female adults of different ages from Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. To answer the research questions, a one-way ANOVA analysis was conducted to compare between groups regarding their age and gender, to compare between their scores on both scales, and find out whether there are significant differences or not.

Personal Data of Respondents:

This section will represent personal data of the 205 participants (see Table 1). For the participants’ convenience, two versions of the questionnaires were made available; one in English, and the other in Arabic. (%87.3) of the participants answered the Arabic version while (%12.7) answered the English version. Females had a higher response rate of (%66.3) while the male respondents were (%33.7). Participants’ ages were divided into three age groups: (18-35), (36-55), and (+55 %). of the participants were between the ages 18 and 35. were between the ages 35 and 55, and %5.9 of the total participants were 55 and above.

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Reliability Statistics

In this study, there were two assessment tools used: 1) Beliefs About Function of Dreams Scale, and 2) Revised Dream Attitude Scale.

Reliability Statistics for Beliefs About the Function of Dreams (BFD)

The reliability of the Beliefs About the Function of Dreams Scale after the removal of items 3 and 4 was 0.746 (see Table 2).

General DAS-R statistics

Regarding the first item on the Dream Attitudes Scale - Revised, which stated “I believe dreams contain important/relevant information”, 50.2% of the participants selected ‘true’, 39.5% selected ‘not sure’, and 10.2% selected ‘false’.

Table 3 will demonstrate the participants’ responses to Item 2, in which they chose from a checklist the topics they believed their dreams contained important information

about.

Participants who chose ‘others’ were given an option to write the attitudes their dreams contained: “messages from God”, “traumas”, “non-important information”, and “my wishes”.

In the last item of DAS-R, participants were meant to indicate the most important/significant topics from the previous checklist. There was a tie between participants who selected “my moods” and “current decisions I am making” of 15.6 . 28.3 of the participants chose “my personality”,

14.6% of the participants chose “my spiritual beliefs” while 6.3%, 3.9 %, 2% 0.5% were “my current physical health”, “my past”, “others”, and “future events” respectively. “My relationships” was not rated as more important/significant by any of the participants.

The following section will demonstrate the results of this study by, addressing each research question, presenting the personal data of the participants and the reliability of the used assessments.

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Research Question 1: Is there significance between scores in dream attitudes and positive beliefs about the function of dreams?

There was a statistically significant difference between scores of BFD and Dream Attitude Scale’s first item as determined by one-way ANOVA [F p = .000] (see Table 4). Post hoc comparisons using the Tukey HSD test indicated that the mean score for

people who chose ‘true’ (M = 36.9 SD = 6.1) was significantly different than a) the ones who chose ‘false’ (M = 29, SD = 5.8) at (p = .000) and b) the ones who chose ‘not sure’ (M = 33.6, SD = 5.1) at (p = .000). There was also a significant difference between the participants who chose ‘false’ and a) the ones who chose ‘true’ at (p = .000), and b) ‘not sure’ at (p = 0.003). Significant differences were also found between the choice ‘not sure’ and a) ‘true’ at (p = .000), and b) ‘false’ at (p = 0.003) (see Tables 6 & 5).

(2.202)=19,967 ,

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Research Question 2: Is there a significant difference in scores between age groups regarding their beliefs about the function of dreams?

There was no significant difference found among age group in their total BFD scores. However, in items 11 and 6, the statistical significance was found at (p = .010) and (p = .037) respectively. Item 6, which was “Dreams have a creative/problem-solving function” showed statistically significant differences among age groups. A one-way ANOVA analysis indicated a statistically significant difference among age groups in their scores on item 6 [F p = .010] (see Table 8). The mean score of participants between the ages 18 and 36

(M = 3.19, SD = 1.13) was significantly different than the mean score of participants between the ages 36 and 55 (M = 3.71, SD = 1.11). However, no significance was found between the mean scores of participants between (18-35) and the ones between the ages (+55) that had the mean and standard deviation of (M = 3.08, SD = .996) (see Table 7).

Post hoc comparisons using Tukey HSD showed that the mean score of participants between the ages (18 and 36) was significantly different than the mean score of participants between the ages (36 and 55) at (p = 0.009). However, no significant difference was found between the age groups of (18-35) and (+55) or (36-55) and (+55) (see Table 9).

(2.202) =4,743,

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Item 11 stated “Dreams contain messages from the diseased/dead”. As determined by one-way ANOVA analysis, there was also a significant difference among participants between the age groups in their scores on item 11 [F p = .037] (see Table 11). The mean score of participants between the ages 18 and 36 (M = 3.02, SD = 1.25) was significantly different than the mean score of participants between the ages 36 and 55 (M = 2.48, SD = 1.47). However, no significance was found

between the mean scores of participants between (18-35) and the ones between the ages (+55) that had the mean and standard deviation of (M = 2.92, SD = 1.51) (see Table 10). Post hoc comparisons using Tukey HSD showed that the mean score of participants between the ages (18 and 36) was significantly different than the mean score of participants between the ages (36 and 55) at (p = 0.028). However, no significant difference was found between the age groups of (18-35) and (+55) or (36-55) and (+55) (see Table 12).

(2.202)=3,338,

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Research Question 3: Is there a significant difference in scores on beliefs about the function of dreams between genders in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia?

After conducting one-way ANOVA, there was no significant difference in scores of BFD between males (M = 39.4, SD = 6.4) and females (M = 39.9, SD = 6.1).

VI. DISCUSSION

In a study done by King (2006) that also used the Dream Attitudes Scale, the participants’ choices for the final item, which asked participants to circle the most important/significant dream attitude ranked from most important to least important were as follows “decisions I am currently making”, followed by “relationships, future events, my moods, my past, my personality, and my spiritual beliefs”. The current study showed that moods and current decisions were the leading topics participants believed dreams included important information about. These results were consistent with King’s (2006) where the highest percentage of participants chose “current decisions I am making”. “My spiritual beliefs” ranked least important by the participants in King’s study which was comprised of university students in Ontario, Canada. In the current Saudi sample however, “my spiritual beliefs” was rated as the third most important attitude after “current decisions I am making” and “my moods”. Explanations of this choice can be easily made because religion and spirituality are an integral part of the Saudi society while it might not be so among the students in Canada. According to Salem et al. (2009), “the basic references to dreams and dreaming found in the Qur’an and Hadith are still influential in the modern

Muslim world, reflecting the idea that Muslims generally regard dreaming highly”[28]. Hoffman (1997) also made similar conclusions in his study “The Role of Visions in Contemporary Egyptian Religious Life”[32].

Surprisingly enough, none of the participants rated “my relationships” as the most important/significant attitude, which, in King’s research was the second most ranked choice. An explanation for participants’ avoidance of this choice may be because translating the term “relationships” into the Arabic, used the word ‘عالقــايت’ which is generally used to describe romantic relationships rather than family bonds. These participants may have misunderstood this term as being restricted to only romantic relationships which are, among some people in Saudi, considered a cultural taboo. It is possible that because the Saudi population is secretive about romantic relationships, the participants tended to refrain from discussing them even when complete anonymity is guaranteed. “Future events” was ranked third in King’s study, while it was second last in the current study. This may be because the current study included samples of all ages, rather than being confined to university students who are mostly preoccupied by planning their future, their dream jobs, and career, wherein people who are no longer students and are already in jobs do not have much future events in mind. And perhaps, they are mostly concerned about the here and now rather than the future. This could be a possible explanation for why only %0.5 of the participants rated “future events” as most important/significant attitude. While “current decisions I am making” and “my moods”, which are concepts relatively related to the present were rated as the highest two.

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Regarding the scale of Beliefs About Function of Dreams, items 3 and 4 were deleted due to their similar content, and negative effect on the inter-reliability of the scale. The items stated, “Dreams are garbage products of the mind”, and “Dreams are the result of random chemical messaging in our brain”. These two statements imply that the dreams are meaningless and were damaging to the inter-reliability of the scale, and were therefore deleted.

Research Question 1: Is there significance between scores in dream attitudes and positive beliefs about the function of dreams?The research successfully found statistically significant results between the total score of Beliefs About the Function of Dreams scale and item 1 from the Dream Attitudes Scale (TotalBFD & DAS-1). Meaning, participants who scored high on BFD also chose “True” on item 1 on the Dream Attitude Scale which asked about whether the participants believe in the importance of dreams or not. This conclusion is understandable because individuals who believe that dreams are meaningful will have a positive attitude towards them.

Research Question 2: Is there a significant difference in scores between age groups regarding their beliefs about the function of dreams?Although there was no significant difference found in the results of BFD with regards to the participants’ age, items 11 and 6 showed significant differences among age groups. Item 6 was “Dreams have a creative/problem-solving function”. And in this item, participants between the ages (36-55) had higher means than participants between the ages (18-35). This may be understood in the sense that people between the

ages (36-55) are more reflective about their dreams, and therefore, they ponder upon the content of their dreams in their waking life, and by that deliberation, they draw conclusions that help them solve real-life problems, according to Chard (2014) . However, younger adults are more sentimental about their dreams and are mostly concerned with how the events in their dreams made them feel, rather than reflecting upon them in a more functional manner. In item 11 that stated, “Dreams contain messages from the diseased/dead”, participants between the ages (18-35) scored significantly higher means than the participants between the ages (36-55). This was surprising because usually, older adults are the ones known for their mystic beliefs rather than the younger ones. An explanation for this could be that dealing with grief is harder for young adults compared to older adults. As a person grows older, he/she becomes more and more accustomed to death and loss. That is not the case, however, if the person is still young. Therefore, derived from their passion towards the people they lost or might lose, and as a means of dealing with grief, they dream about them, and believe that these dreams are messages from them. Both items failed to find any significant differences with participants who were 55 and above. This could be because participants that were 55 and above only formed %5.9 of the sample. According to Smith (2008), studies that examined survey participation and nonparticipation, younger populations were more likely to respond to surveys compared to older populations. This could explain why the study had insufficient representation from older populations [34].

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Research Question 3: Is there a significant difference in scores on beliefs about the function of dreams between genders in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia?There were no significant findings in the results of BFD with respect to the participants’ gender. This could be due to the lack of male representation in the participants. As males formed only (%33.7) of the participants. That may be because a) males were not as accessible as females were, as the questionnaire was sent out through the author’s social media accounts in which females formed the clear majority, b) the research topic did not interest them, as the topic of dreams is more interesting for females than males. According to Olsen (2012), it is very common in dream research to have to more female participants than males, or c) because males are less likely to respond to surveys than females, according to Smith (2008).

VII. CONCLUSION

From this study, it can be concluded that most people who consider dreams as meaningful also have a positive attitude towards them. Although no significant differences were found between ages or genders, the study has provided some valuable information about the dream topics that are most important in this society. It is anticipated that further research will investigate this topic to answer other dream-related questions that still have not been answered.

The limitations of the study concern a) the sample size, b) gender and age representation, c) randomization, and d) translation. The questionnaires were only sent out in an electronic form through social networking programs, which might have been a drawback in the sampling procedure because it did not reach enough members of the population. The percentage of female participants was (%66.3). Females were more accessible and therefore, they formed most the participants. Thus, the lack of accessibility resulted in having lesser male respondents. The study also had unequal representation from different age groups. The majority being individuals between the ages (18-35). According to a study done by Simsim in (2011) on “Internet Usage and User Preferences in Saudi Arabia”, “%92.5 of people with ages between 19 and 25 years old are using the Internet, whereas only %69.8 of people older than 45 years are using the Internet” [35]. This could also be expanded to include social networking websites. Thus, this explains the lack of older participants in the study. Printing out the surveys and physically distributing them in public places would have been harder to administer, but that might have made the sample

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more representative of the population in terms of adding more variety to the respondents’ age and gender. The lack of randomization in the sample is another limitation for the study. Convenience sampling is not enough to produce generalizable results. Questionnaires were only distributed through social media websites which host similar users in terms of socioeconomic background and educational level. Regarding translation, the scales were originally in English and were translated for the convenience of the Saudi population whose native language is Arabic. It is assumed that the translation might have negatively affected the reliability of the scale due to the confusion it may have caused and therefore, harmed the overall results of the study. In future research, variables such the socio-economic status of the participants, and their level of education could be considered as well, to develop a better understanding of the topic from all angles. The reliance on survey data could be reduced, and other qualitative methods like structured, unstructured, or semi-structured interviews could be added to the instruments. In addition, a representative sample size

of the male gender would be better to compare between the genders more thoroughly. Moreover, the responses collected from the interviews can help in developing new questionnaires that are suitable for the Saudi society. To avoid misunderstanding due to translation, more extensive translation procedures should have been conducted on the scales, and parallel-forms reliability should have been repeatedly performed to ensure the consistency of results between the two versions. To explain the reasons why female have always scored higher in dream-related attributes, more research can be done that is specific to female participants and provides an in-depth insight on their dream attitudes. Researchers can also expand the topic of interest to include culture-specific variables such as religious beliefs, spirituality, social norms, and customs; and study their relationship with dreams to develop a comprehensive understanding of dreams in the Islamic, Arab, and Middle Eastern society. More age-specific studies can also be conducted to examine the differences among children, teenagers, adults, and elderlies separately in relation to their dream beliefs and attitudes.

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REFERENCES

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Short Introduction, New York: Oxford University Press, 2002.[12]. U. Wagner, S. Gais, H. Haider, R. Verleger, & J. Born, “Sleep inspires insight”, Nature, vol. 427, pp. 352-355, Jan. 2004. [13]. B. Szmigielska, & M. Holda, “Students' Views on the Role of Dreams in Human Life” Dreaming, vol. 17, no. 3, pp. 152-158, [14]. C. K. Morewedge & M. I. Norton. “When dreaming is believing: The (motivated) interpretation of dreams”, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, vol. 96, no. 2, pp. 249 –264.[15]. A. Medo, Dreams Are the Royal Road to the Unconscious | Dream Interpretation | Dream. Scribd, Available: https://www.scribd.com/document/35147401/Dreams-Are-the-R o y a l - R o a d - t o - t h e - U n c o n s c i o u s[16]. APA, “Attitude”, Glossary of Psychological Terms, 2016, Available: http://www.apa.org/research/action/glossary.aspx?tab=1[17]. A. H. Eagly & S. Chaiken, The Psychology of Attitudes, Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1993.[18]. Z. Z. Cernovsky, “Dream recall and attitude towards dreams”, Perceptual and Motor Skills, vol. 58, Issue 3, pp. 911-914, [19]. S. Meyer, & C. Shore, “Children’s understanding of dreams as mental states” Dreaming, vol. 11, Issue 4, pp. 179-194,[20]. D. King, “The Relationship among Dream Content, Dream Attitudes, and Waking Life Characteristics” Honours B.Sc. Thesis, Psych Dept., Trent University, Ontarion, Canada, 2006,

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Available: http://www.davidbking.net/researcher/bsc-thesis.pdf.[21]. M. Schredl, P. Kleinferchner & T. Gell, “Dreaming and personality: Thick vs. thin boundaries”, Dreaming, vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 219-223, [22]. M. Kothe, & R. Pietrowsky, “Behavioral effects of nightmares and their correlations to personality patterns”, Dreaming, vol. 11, Issue 1, pp. 43-52. [23]. D. F. Selterman, “Attitudes toward dreaming predict subjective well-being outcomes mediated through emotional positivity bias”, International Journal of Dream Research, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 34-39, , Available: https://journals.ub.uniheidelberg.de/index.php/IJoDR/article/view/21879/pdf.[24]. M. Watkins, Invisible guests: The development of children’s imaginal dialogues. New Jersey: Analytic Press, 1986. [25]. M. Schredl, “Sharing Dreams: Sex and other sociodemographic variables”, Perceptual and Motor Skills, 109, pp. 235-238, [26]. M. Schredl, S. Berres, A. Klingauf, S. Schellhaas, & A. S. Göritz, “The Mannheim Dream questionnaire (MADRE): Retest reliability, age and gender effects”, International Journal of Dream Research, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 141-154, [27]. M. Schredl, & E. Piel, “Interest in Dream Interpretation: A Gender Difference”, Dreaming, vol. 18, no. 1, pp. 11-15,[28]. M. O. Salem, M. A. Ragab & S. Y. Abdel Razik, “Significance of dreams among United Arab Emirates university students”, International Journal of Dream Research, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 29–33 Available: https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/IJoDR/article/view/150/Salem.

[29]. myIslamicDream, “Islamic Dream Meanings & Interpretations for Muslim”, myIslamicDream.com, 2017, Available: http://www.myislamicdream.com/[30]. L. Kinberg, “Literal dreams and prophetic ‘hadîts’ in classical Islam - a comparison of two ways of legitimation”, Der Islam; Zeitschrift für Geschichte und Kultur des Islamischen Orients, vol. 70, pp. 279, Available: https://search.proquest.com/docview/1308651771?accountid=130572[31]. N. Green, “The religious and cultural roles of dreams and visions in Islam”, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 287-313, Nov. 2003, Available: https://search.proquest.com/docview/218978971?accountid=130572.[32]. V. J. Hoffman, “The Role of Visions in Contemporary Egyptian Religious Life”, Religion, vol. 27, issue 1, pp. 45 63,[33]. P. Chard, “Dreams can help solve problems” Journal Sentinel, 2014 , Available: http://archive.jsonline.com/features/advice/dreams-can-help-solve-problems-b99303757z-1265991311.html[34]. W. Smith, Does Gender Influence Online Survey Participation? A Record-linkage Analysis of University Faculty Online Survey Response Behavior, San Jose State University, 2008, Available: http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/E D 5 0 1 7 1 7 . p d f [35]. M. Simsim, “Internet usage and user preferences in Saudi Arabia”, Journal of King Saud University – Engineering Sciences, vol. 23, Issue 2, pp. 101-107, June 2011, Available: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1018363911000304

1996.

, Mar. 2001.

2016

Aug. 2009.

Oct. 2014.

Mar. 2008.

, 2009,

Jan 1993,

1997.-

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Appendix AParticipant Consent Form in Arabic

استامرة موافقة املشاركة

هذا االختبار جزء من مرشوع تخرج طالبة من قسم علم

النفس يف جامعة عفت.

هذه الدراسة مكونة من استبيانني: مقياس وظيفة األحالم

ومصدرها ومقياس السلوك تجاه األحالم.

مقياس وظيفة األحالم ومصدرها يقيس اعتقادات الناس

حول وظيفة األحالم يف حياتهم ومصدرها. مقياس السلوك

تجاه األحالم يحدد أهمية األحالم عند الناس واعتقاداتهم عن

محتويات أحالمهم.

موافقة املشاركة يف االختبار تنص عىل أنني:

أتفهم أن أجوبتي يف هذا االختبار سوف تستخدم يف تحليل

وكتابة تقرير نهايئ )مثال يف نتائج دراسة منشورة(.

أتفهم أن أي معلومات شخصية يل سوف يتم التعامل معها

برسية تامة.

أتفهم أنني لن اتعرض ألي عواقب سلبية خالل مشاركتي يف

هذه الدراسة.

أتفهم أن يل حرية االنسحاب من هذه الدراسة يف أي وقت.

أتفهم بأنه يف حال وجود أي تساؤالت حول هذه الدراسة

فإنه بإمكاين التواصل مع رئيس مجلس مراجعة األخالقيات

بجامعة عفت.

Appendix BBeliefs about the Function of Dreams in

Arabic

مقياس وظيفة األحالم ومصدرها

لكل مام ييل، يرجى تقييم إىل أي مدى تتوافق/تتوافقني مع

كل عبارة، وذلك باستخدام املقياس املوضح أدناه:

Appendix CDream Attitudes Scale in Arabic (Revised)

مقياس السلوك تجاه )معدل(

الرجاء اإلجابة عىل األسئلة التالية حسب اعتقاداتك الخاصة

عن األحالم:

١- أعتقد أن األحالم تتضمن معلومات مهمة/ذات صلة )اخرت

واحد(

صح

خطأ

غري متأكد/ة

9494

٢- أعتقد أن األحالم تتضمن معلومات عن )أخرت جميع

الخيارات املالمئة لك(:

شخصيتي

مزاجي

اعتقادايت الروحانية

صحتي الجسدية الحالية

مايض

قرارايت التي اتخذها حاليا

عالقايت

أحداث مستقبلية

غري ذلك، الرجاء التحديد ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ

ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ

ـــــــــــــــــــــــ

٣- إذا اخرتت أكرث من خيار أعاله، رجاء أشري/أشريي للخيار

األكرث أهمية بالنسبة لك وذلك بوضع دائرة عىل ذلك الخيار.

Appendix D

Participant Consent Form

The following scales are a part of my final research project in the department of Psychology at Effat University. The research aims to measure dream attitudes and beliefs about the function of dreams for individuals from different age groups and both genders in the community of Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. It includes two standardized scales taken from prior studies: the revised Dream Attitudes Scale (DAS-R) and a scale measuring beliefs about the function of dreams.

Participation Consent:

I understand that some of what I say during this study may be used in the analysis and writing of the final report

(i.e. published research results). I understand my anonymity and confidentiality will be preserved always, and that the comments and responses to questions that I give will be reported in general (i.e. without reference to me). I will not suffer any negative consequences because of my participation in this research project. I understand that I am free to withdraw and discontinue participation at any time.

I understand if I have any concerns about this research I can contact the chair of the Research Ethics Institutional Review Committee (REIRC) at Effat University.

Appendix E

Dream Attitudes Scale (Revised)

Please answer the following questions in relation to your own beliefs about dreams.

1. I believe dreams contain important/relevant information (check one). ______ True ______ False ______ Not Sure

2. I believe dreams contain information about (check all options that pertain to you): ______ My personality ______ My moods ______ My spiritual beliefs ______ My current physical health ______ My past ______ Decisions I am currently making ______ My relationships ______ Future events ______ Other, please identify: _________________________________________

3. If you have checked more than one

95959595

option above, please indicate which one is most important/significant to you by

circling that choice.

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Volume 1 Issue Spring 2017

The Effect of Service Quality and

Switching Barrier on Customer

Loyalty: A Study of Saudi Mobile

Telecommunication Services

9797

The Effect of Service Quality and Switching Barrier on Customer Loyalty: A Study of Saudi Mobile

Telecommunication Services

Yomen BamatrafUnder the supervision of Dr. Tabassum Rashid

College of Science & HumanitiesPsychology Department

Effat University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia

Abstract: The Saudi mobile telecommunication services industry is currently facing lots of complaints, criticism and dissatisfaction from their customers regarding the quality of services, and customer loyalty may be in question. The industry is reportedly shifting its strategic focus away from attracting new customers towards keeping existing customers. The present study examined the relationship between service quality and customer loyalty, as well as between switching barriers and customer loyalty among a sample of 271 users of telecommunication services from Jeddah. A survey consisting of the Customer Loyalty Scale, the Service Quality Scale, and the Switching Barriers Scale, and some demographic related questions was used to collect the data. The results showed that there is a relationship between service quality and customer loyalty, however, no significant relationship was found between switching barriers and customer loyalty. The results are discussed in the light of current literature of customer loyalty and quality of services.

Keyword: service quality, switching barriers, customer loyalty, service provider, Saudi Arabia.

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I. DEDICATIONThis research paper is dedicated to my parents, without whose care and support it would not have been possible. For my friend and sister, Khlood: thank you for always being there for me. It is also dedicated to people who are suffering from telecommunication service provider in Jeddah, specifically internet service.

II. ACKNOWLEDGMENTSpecial thanks are to the distinguished faculty members of the College of Science and Humanities at Effat University. I thank Dr. Sanna Dhahir, Dean of the College, Dr. Wejdan Felmban, The Chair of the Psychology department, and many thanks and appreciation are to Dr. Tabassum Rashid, the supervisor of this research. Thank you for your persevering with me as my advisor throughout the time it took me to complete this research. Thank you for your advices, guidance and support. I would also like to show my gratitude to my friend Hibatuallah Bensaid for helping me. I must acknowledge as well Dr. Yousaf Jamal for teaching me SPSS, and assisting me in analyzing my data. Thanks are to my classmates, friends, and family for their support. Lastly, this research was supported by Effat University. Thus, I would like to express my gratitude to all the staff in the Effat Research and Consultancy Institute.

III. INTRODUCTION In today's modern society, telecommunication tools such as mobiles and internet are considered indispensable in day-to-day life. Saudi Arabia alone had 16.4 million internet users in 2012 and the largest number of mobile phone users worldwide in (2012) . Despite these

large figures, in 2012 the Internet search giant Google released a survey which showed that the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and Saudi Arabia have one of the world’s slowest mobile download speeds with a mere 21.2 megabytes per second [2].

In October 2016, mobile and internet users in Saudi Arabia began a campaign against the Saudi Mobile Service Provider (MSP), and complained about the slow expensive internet service. According to Saudi Arabia Internet usage and telecommunications report, MSP charges an average of 0.6 SR per minute in ground line phone calls whereas individual companies charge a far more inexpensive 0.35 SR per minute. On a global level, these prices are still ludicrous, and an excellent example of this is how an individual in India can pay 0.02 SR for a fixed cellular phone call that would cost a Saudi Arabian citizen or resident user 0.50 SR (2013).

Telecommunications include fixed and cellular phones, internet and other forms of communication. There are three well known telecommunications companies in Saudi Arabia: Saudi Telecom Company (STC), the first Saudi telecom company with 19.914 million subscribers (2011), Mobily, a UAE telecommunication company with 15.06 million subscribers (2010), and Zain, a Kuwaiti company which opened its service in Saudi Arabia and currently has 11.04 million users (2015).

As mentioned above, there is significant competition between Mobile Service Provider companies in Saudi Arabia. In fact, there are numerous new telecommunications companies such as Virgin Mobile KSA, Bravo and Lebara KSA who are now providing telecommunication services. Nowadays,

[1]

9999

customers have become smarter and consider many factors before choosing an MSP, and are particularly concerned with the price and the quality of services. Therefore, it is significant and beneficial for the marketers of MSPs to comprehend and investigate the preferences of customers to retain hard-earned customer.

1.1 The aim of this research is• To examine the relationship between

service quality and customer loyalty,• To examine the relationship between

switching barriers and customer loyalty.

1.2 This research attempts to answer the following questions:• Is there any relationship between

service quality and customer loyalty? • Is there any relationship between

switching barriers and customer loyalty?

1.3 Hypotheses and Structural Model

Service Quality

Customer Loyalty

H1: Service quality has a positive relation with customer loyalty.H2: Switching barriers has a positive relation with customer loyalty.

Switching Barriers

IV. LITERATURE REVIEW

1.1 Factors Affecting Customer LoyaltyAccording to Grönroos (1994), customer loyalty is the center of Customer Relationship Management. It is both an attitudinal and behavioral tendency to favor one brand or company over all others, whether due to satisfaction with the product or service, its convenience or performance, or simply, familiarity and comfort with the brand [3].

There are several factors that affect customer loyalty. Customers may be loyal due to a high cost of switching barriers or lack of alternatives. Also, they might be loyal because they are satisfied with the services and want to continue the relationship [4].

In the telecommunication industry, the effects of customer loyalty can be assessed in these aspects: service quality, switching barriers, and brand image [5]. 1.2 Service Quality and Customer LoyaltyPrevious literature has suggested that service quality is the difference between customers’ expectations regarding the service to be received, and the perceptions of the way this service has been performed [5]. According to Sargeant and West (2001), the perceptions of service quality and commitment are related to loyalty, but each one has a different effect on customer loyalty in a particular market [6].

Researchers have highlighted that service quality determines customer satisfaction [7] and by it, service quality has an impact on the loyalty of the customers through satisfaction [8]. There are two main reasons that can determine the loss of relationship between the customer and the service provider: a) Natural causes: customers want to cancel their

100

relationship. b) Artificial causes: poor product conditions, insufficient quality of service level[7]. Thus, in order to maintain or increase customer loyalty, the service provider must avoid these causes.

Customer evaluations of service quality do not completely depend on service qualities; instead, they also looks at other features such as the feelings or memory of the customer [9]. Therefore, the customers’ evaluation of the service quality is also driven by the satisfaction with a particular service[10].

It is commonly approved that a high level of retail service quality leads to loyalty. There are research schools that support the direct effect of service quality towards behavior intentions [11]; loyalty is perceived as a result of retail service quality concept [12].

Additionally, other authors state that there are significant differences in relationships between retail service quality and customer loyalty on the dimensional level [13]. However, just as there are studies to support the evidence, some studies have not found a direct relationship between service quality and loyalty [14].

1.3 Switching Barriers and Customer LoyaltySwitching Barriers (switching costs) is a concept used in marketing that describes the costumers’ dissatisfaction with the company’s services which leads them to switching behaviors. According to Jones, Mothersbaugh and Beatty (2000), switching costs is any factor that makes it difficult or costly for customers to change their provider [15]. In their study, they divided switching barriers into: Strong interpersonal relationships; i.e., the psychological and social relationship that manifests itself as care, trust, intimacy and communication [16]. The interpersonal relationship built through

recurrent interactions between a carrier and a customer can strengthen the bond between them and finally lead to a long-term relationship. There is also the high switching costs: time, money and effort associated with changing service provider. And finally, there is the attractiveness of alternatives; and this refers to whether or not feasible alternatives exist in the market.

Other researchers have added another factor known as “customer inertia”, which is considered as fake loyalty [17]. The concept of “customer inertia” means that customers may stay with the same company even though they might have many reasons to be dissatisfied [18].

Panther and Farquhar (2004) conducted a study to examine dissatisfying experiences and consumer decisions to switch or stay with current providers [19]. They found that customers may not choose to switch companies because of the cost involved in switching, lack of time and resources to assess other service providers, a misperception that all service providers are the same, and finally traditional commitment to a certain service provider. In addition to these factors, other researchers have proven that dissatisfied customers do not switch because of laziness or inactive passivity [20].

V. METHODOLOGY

This section consists of the description of the research design, the targeted population, the sample size and method, the measurements used, and the data analysis methods.

The research focused on customer loyalty, and two factors: service quality, and switching barriers. The research provides two hypotheses to determine

101101

the relationship between service quality, and switching barriers on customer loyalty. Customer loyalty is the dependent variable while the other factors are the independent variables.

1.1 Population The population in this study comprises of residents of Jeddah who are subscribed to telecommunication service provider, specifically the internet service.

1.2 SampleThe sample size of the research comprised of 271 users of telecommunication services. The demographic characteristics of the respondents to this survey are summarized as follows. Gender composition was mainly female with (%69.7) and (%30.3) of male. People aged less than 18 were (%3), and above , , and finally the age group from 18-26 %47.2) constituted the majority of this sample.

The sample characteristics in usage of mobile telecommunication services are summarized as follows. STC comprised (%63.5), Mobily (%34.7), Zain (%11.4), and other companies cover (%2.2).

1.3 Research DesignThis research used a correlation research design with a survey method. A quantitative method was also used in this study.

1.4 Tools UsedThere were two main sections in the questionnaires. The first section consisted of demographic characteristics of the respondents. The second section of the questionnaire pertained to the dependent variable of customer loyalty, the independent variables of service quality, and switching barriers. There

were twenty seven questions in this section, eight questions for customer loyalty, eleven questions for service quality, and eight questions for switching barriers.1.4.1 Demographic InformationThe demographic questions were prepared by the author. These characteristics were: age group, gender, education, marital status, career and the mobile telecommunication services company used.1.4.2 Customer Loyalty Scale The scale used in this study was developed by Achour et al. (2011) ]. It contained eight items and measured customer loyalty using a five-point Likert type scale (1= strongly disagree, 2= disagree, 3= neutral, 4= agree, 5= strongly agree). Examples of statements in the scale are: “I use products/services from the company because it is the best choice for me” and “I have recommended this company to my relatives, family and\or friends”.

The scale is scored by summing all the items. The range of possible scores for this scale is 8 to 40. Eight indicates a low customer loyalty and 40 indicates a high customer loyalty. 1.4.3 Service Quality ScaleService quality scale has eleven items using 5 - point scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Examples of statements in the scale are: “When I need to make purchases for mobile service, this company is my first choice.” and “I am often influenced by advertisement of new services of mobile phone companies”.

The scale is scored by the summing all the items. The possible scores for this scale range from 11 to 55. The higher score indicates high service quality and the lower score indicates low service quality. The scale was developed by

46 (%15.1),26- 35 ,36- 45(%16.6) (%18.1)

(

[21

102

Achour et al. [21].1.4.4 Switching Barriers ScaleSwitching barriers was measured by a scale consisting of eight items, and was developed by the same author. The scale uses a five-point Likert type scale (1= strongly disagree, 2= disagree, 3= neutral, 4= agree, 5= strongly agree). Examples of statements from the scale are: “The cost of switching mobile company is quite important to me” and “I will search for an attractive alternative”. The scores of the scale were measured by summing all the items. The range of possible scores are 8 to 40.

1.5 Methods of Data CollectionThis research collected primary data using surveys distributed online to the current users of Saudi Mobile Telecommunication Services in Jeddah. The demographic questions, and the three questionnaires that measured customer loyalty, service quality and switching barriers were obtained from the author.

Permission was received from the author of the scales through email (please see appendix). Furthermore, the research had the approval of the Research

Ethics Committee of Effat University. After that, the survey was distributed electronically via twitter and WhatsApp. There were a total 271 respondents to the questionnaire; they accepted to be a part of the research knowing that their identity would be kept anonymous.

1.6 Statistical MethodThe computer software Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) was used to analyze the data collected from the sample and to examine the hypothesis. The following statistical tools were used: the descriptive analysis (frequency and percent) for demographics characteristics, the reliability test (Cronbach’s alpha), descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation) and Pearson’s correlation to evaluate the relationship between service quality, and switching barriers on customer loyalty.

VI. RESULTS\ DISUCUSSION

This section consists of the demographics description of the participants, and the correlation between service quality, and switching barriers on customer loyalty.

103103

Table I above analyzed the demographics characteristics of 271 participants. The demographics characteristics section of the survey consisted of six items about: the age group, gender, educational level, marital status, career and mobile telecommunication services company.

The majority of the respondents were female (%69.7) and male (%30.3). Their ages ranged from under 18 (%3), 18 -25 years (%47.2), years (%16.6 36-45 years (%18.1), and 46 and above (%15.1). Their marital status was single

(%49.1), married (%48) and other (%3).The education level of the respondents was as follows the majority earned a degree (%64.6), high school certificate (%28) and other (%7.4). The sample consisted of students (%43.9), employees (%33.6) and other (%22.5). Saudi Telecommunication Company STC had the highest number of subscribers with (%63.5), Mobily (%34.7), Zain (%11.4) and other companies had only (%2.2).

Table II was conducted using the Coefficient Cronbach’s Alpha which is a measure of reliability. A reliability coefficient of .70 or higher is considered “acceptable» in most social science research situations [22].

In this research the Cronbach’s Alpha showed the reliability for each variable as follows: customer loyalty 0.83, service quality 0.707, and switching barriers 0.705. Therefore, the research results can be accepted.

Table III displays the correlation coefficients between all variables. This study has come out with significant positive findings of a relationship between service quality and customer

loyalty (r=.357, p=0.000<0.01). The correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2 -tailed).

The Pearson coefficient for the positive relationship between customer loyalty

26-35 (,

104

and service quality is .357. This means that as service quality increases, customer loyalty also increases.

There was no significant relationship between switching barriers and customer loyalty. However, the analysis showed a significant moderate positive correlation between service quality and switching barriers (r=.341, p=0.000<0.01).

In this research, a model that investigates the effects of service quality and switching barriers on customer loyalty is tested in the context of mobile telecommunication services.

The first research hypothesis states that “Service quality has a positive relation with customer loyalty”, and the null hypothesis is “Service quality does not have a positive relation with customer loyalty”. Based on the results, the researcher rejected the null hypothesis, therefore there is a significant positive relationship between service quality and customer loyalty. The literature discussing the relationship between service quality and customer loyalty either showed that there is a direct relationship between service quality and customer loyalty [23], or there is no direct relationship between service quality and loyalty [24]. The research findings support the hypotheses which is service quality has a positive relation with customer loyalty.

The second research hypothesis states that “Switching barriers has a positive relation with customer loyalty”, and the null hypothesis is “Switching barriers does not have a positive relation with customer loyalty”. Based on these results, the researcher accepted the null hypothesis, thus switching barriers has no relationship with customer loyalty. The literature discussing switching barriers and customer loyalty indicates

that there are many factors that make it difficult for customers to change their provider [25]. Also, some researchers have added another factor known as “customer inertia”, which is considered as fake loyalty [27] & [26]. This supports the null hypothesis that there is no relationship between switching barriers and customer loyalty.

VII. CONCLUSION, LIMITATION AND FUTURE RESEARCH

This study has some limitations that should be addressed for future research. Firstly, the paper was targeting the telecommunication industry in Jeddah only, and used a convenience sample which limits the generalibilty of the results. It would be more useful to include all the cities in the Saudi Kingdom. Also, replicating the study in other service industries such as schools might lead to a more fruitful conclusion. For instance,

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there is, the effect of quality of teaching and switching barriers on students' loyalty to school. Secondly, even though this research explored the effect of service quality and switching barrier on customer loyalty, a main limitation is that it did not test which dimensions of service quality have effects on specific dimensions of customer loyalty. As for the switching barriers, the results indicated that there is no relationship between them.Thirdly, timing was a major issue. There was not enough time to gather more respondents. Finally, more studies can conduct an in-depth research about the profitability of loyal customers in comparison to the costs of retaining them.To conclude, this study investigated the factors affecting customer loyalty in mobile telecommunication services. The aim of the research was to examine the relationship between service quality and switching barriers on customer loyalty. Convenience sampling was used to obtain a logical and representative result. The data was analyzed by correlation coefficients.The results showed that there is a significant relationship between service quality and customer loyalty. There was also a moderate positive significant correlation between service quality and switching barriers. The results indicate that switching barriers has no effect on customer loyalty.

These findings show that service quality is a key factor for customer loyalty rather than switching barriers. In the end, although switching barriers has no relationship with customer loyalty, it still is an important factor and it should be taken into consideration in formulating strategies for developing customer loyalty.

REFERENCES

[1]. UNCTAD, “Trade and Development Report”, United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, 2012.[2]. M. Khawaja, “UAE, Saudi Arabia slowest on Google’s mobile internet speed test list”, 2012, Available: www.arabiangazette.com/uae-saudi-slowest-mobile-internet/. [3]. C. Grönroos, “From marketing mix to relationship marketing: towards a paradigm shift in marketing”, Management Decisions, vol. 32, issue 2, pp. 4-20, .[4]. H. Zhijian, X. Xu, & H. Li,. “Services systems and services management”, Proceedings of ICSSSM ‘05. International Conference, vol. 5, no. 2 2015.[5]. R. L. Hess, S. Ganesan, & M. L. Klein, “Service failure and recovery: the impact of relationship factors on customer satisfaction”, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, vol. 31, issue 2, pp. 127-145 .[6]. A. Sargeant, & D. C. West, “Customer retention - building customer loyalty”, Direct & Interactive Marketing, pp.177 -214, .[7]. R. L. Oliver, “Whence consumer loyalty”, Journal of Marketing, vol. 63, no. 4, pp. 33–44 .[8]. H. Taghizadeh, & M. J. Taghipourian, “The effect of customer satisfaction on word of mouth communication”, Research Journal of Applied Sciences, Engineering and Technology, vol. 5, no. 8, pp. 2569-2575 .[9]. C. B. Wong, “The influence of customer satisfaction and switching cost on customer retention: A survey of retail Internet banking users in Hong Kong”, University of South Australia, 2005.[10]. F. Malik, S. Yaqoob, & A. S. Aslam,

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“The impact of price perception, service quality, and brand image on customer sense of fulfillment (Study of Hospitality Industry in Pakistan)”, Interdisciplinary Journal of Contemporary Research in Business, vol. 4, pp. 487-505 .[11]. V. A. Zeithaml, L. Berry and A. Parasuraman, “The behavioral consequences of service quality”, Journal of Marketing, vol. 60, no. 2, pp. 31-46 .[12]. E. F. T. Yuen, & S. S. L. Chan, “The effect of retail service quality and product quality on customer loyalty”, Database Marketing & Customer Strategy Management, vol. 17, no. 4-3, pp. 222-240 .[13]. J. Bloemer, K. de Ruyter & M. Wetzels, “Linking perceived service quality with service: A multi-dimensional perspective”, European Journal of Marketing, vol. 33, issue 11/12, pp. 1082-1106 . [14]. J. J. Cronin, S. A. Taylor, “Measuring service quality: a reexamination and extension”, Journal of Marketing, vol. 56, no. 3 , pp. 55-68 .[15]. M. Jones, D. Mothersbaugh & S. Beatty, “Switching barriers and repurchase intentions in services” Journal of Retailing, vol. 76, no. 2, pp. 259-274 .[16]. D. D. Gremler “The effect of satisfaction, switching costs, and interpersonal bonds on service loyalty”, (Unpublished doctoral dissertation), Arizona State University [17]. C. Bozzo, “Understanding inertia in an industrial context”, Journal of Customer Behavior Communication and Information Technology Commission, vol. 1, no. 3, pp. 335-355 .[18]. L. White, & V. K. Yanamandram, “Why customers stay: reasons and consequences of inertia in financial

services”, Managing Service Quality, vol. 4, no. 2 , pp. 183-194 .[19]. T. Panther, & J. D. Farquhar, “Consumer responses to dissatisfaction with financial service providers: An exploration of why some stay while others switch”, Journal of Financial Services Marketing, vol. 8, no. 4, pp. 343-353 .[20]. M. Colgate & B. Lang, “Switching barriers in consumer markets: An investigation of the financial services industry”, The Journal of Consumer Marketing, vol. 18, issue 4, pp. 332-347 [21]. M. Achour, N. P. M. Said, & A. Boerhannoeddin, “Customer loyalty: The case of mobile phone users in Universiti Utara Malaysia” International Journal of Management Studies (IJMS), vol. 18, no. 2, pp. 43-66 .[22]. J. Bruin, “newtest: command to compute new test”, UCLA: Statistical Consulting Group, 2006, Available: http://www.ats.ucla.edu/stat/stata/ado/analysis/[23]. A. Iddris, “Service quality and customer Loyalty: The case of the mobile telecommunication industry in Ghana”, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, 2011.[24]. J. Cronin Jr., M. K. Brady, G. T. M. Hult, “Assessing the effects of quality, value, and customer satisfaction on consumer behavioral intentions in service environments”, Journal of Retailing, vol. 76, no. 2, pp. 193–218 .[25]. M. A. Jones, D. Mothersbaugh, & S. Beatty, ”Why customers stay: Measuring the underlying dimensions of services switching costs and managing their differential service outcomes”, Journal of Business Research, vol. 55, no. 6, pp. 441-50 .

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[26]. V. Yanamandram, & L. White, “Switching barriers in business-to-business services: A qualitative study”, International Journal of Service Industry Management, vol. 17, no. 3/2, pp. 158-192 .[27]. C. Ranaweera, & A. Neely, “Some moderating effects on the service quality

customer retention link”, International Journal of Operations and Production Management, vol. 23, no. 2, pp. 230-248 .

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Volume 1 Issue Spring 2017

How Syria’s Urbanism and

Architecture Paved the Way for

Brutal War

109

How Syria’s Urbanism and Architecture Paved the Way for

Brutal War

Bashayer BamohsenUnder the supervision of Dr. Samah Elkateeb

Department of Architecture, College of Architecture and DesignEffat University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia

Bkbamohsen@effat.edu.sa

Abstract: Syria is an Islamic country with ancient history, and now has been greatly destroyed because of war. Among the many reasons that have led to this brutal war, urbanism plays somehow a vital role in what we have today. During the colonial period where foreign urban planners thought they knew better by moving monuments and changing the old Islamic urban fabric, the intertwining sense of Syria’s urbanization changed directly into separation and differentiation by losing the strong sense of identity and belonging and this turned the urban fabric into a divisive one. This paper intends to give an overview of how factors of urbanism changed the country’s future; it will investigate some of these factors such as urban fabric planning, architectural features, and society's behavior, reaction, and economies. For instance, this paper will predict if the introduction of alienated modernity elements into the built environment affected the lifestyle of its inhabitants. The objective of this study is to examine three main questions: First, what is the value of the old urban fabric of Syria and how was it formed? Second, how were modern elements introduced to the urban fabric? Moreover, third, how does urbanization and urbanism pave the path for the current war? The methodological framework is following an inductive process in a correlational qualitative method. Related correlational tactics such as comparative mapping and relationship studies will be used to correlate between modern urbanism, society’s reaction, and the current war.

Keywords: urbanism, divisive fabric, urban fabric, society’s reaction, and urbanization.

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I. INTRODUCTIONThe urban fabric and the type of architecture of any city offer a mirror to its community. The community and the social lives are highly affected by the type of the surrounding architecture and the arrangement of the urban social fabric. These two major factors can make a community introverted or extroverted and can create a healthy society if they were woven and implemented in a suitable way. Signs of good urban fabric can be presented in the habit of mixing, mixed use, mixed origins, mixed religions and mixed social classes. Restoration, preservation, and expansion of the old historic cities is a process that needs to be done in harmony while considering the community and its characteristics to avoid the contradicting contrast between the historical heritage and the modern world. The current brutal war in Syria is a result of many factors; the non-considerable urban fabric, and the alienated architecture played a key role. Throughout this article, a correlation between the development of the urban fabric and architecture of Syria, and the brutal war will be constructed through supporting arguments.

II. LITERATURE REVIEWThe structure of the literature review is arranged to first state the value of the old urban fabric and how it was formed throughout the history. Whereas, the second part analyzes and discusses the introduction of modern elements in urbanization and urbanism during the French colonial period, the value of monuments, axis and street network, squares, recreational areas, and building typologies. The third part will correlate between these alienated foreign contributions, thier reflection on society and the connection to the current state of

war.

Syria’s land experienced the emergence of urban culture during the first half of the third millennium. This emerging urbanization culture prevailed in the wake of the blossoming city culture in the Mesopotamian era (Lemche, 1995 1]. It has been holding the title of oldest continuously inhabited city in the world. Its land has played a major role in the ancient world civilization events. Before 636AD evidence of urbanization of the city started to appear by Romans and Greeks such as walls around the city and agoras. From 636AD till 1916AD, Syria was occupied by Islamic empires except for 100 years, which was under the Christian kingdom of Jerusalem (Stockhammer & Wild, 2009) . In 636AD the Muslim Arabs conquered Syria, and Damascus was the capital city of the Umayyad dynastic empire. Damascus, Aleppo, and Homs are three major cities in Syria. These three cities are representative of the typical Islamic style of urbanization and its characteristics have survived up until the recent civil war in 2011. When cities, such as Damascus, were conquered by the Islamic rule, evidence of Islamic urbanization started to appear, such as the narrow winding lanes between the residential clusters, the total abstraction of agoras, the concept of bathhouses and roofed souks. The Islamic urbanism growth kept expanding in an organic pattern (Lababedi, 2009) . In the early 19th century, the Ottoman Empire begun to reform changes toward more

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European-like model cities. During the last segment of the Ottoman rule which was known as the Tanzimat Period, the Grand Vizier Mustafa Rachid Pasha set a new reorganization plan for developing the urbanism of the city, and he started with widening the streets and lanes, which are considered a significant feature of Islamic urbanization. He also gave the new urbanism plan to Western foreign planners and sent students abroad to learn Western methods (Lababedi, 2009).

According to Stockhammer and Wild (2009), the French mandate took control of Damascus in 1920 after the Syrian government was forced to disarm the Arab army. As a result, the city growth rate was accelerating to accommodate the colonizers and the locals. The new modern-based settlements reflected the French urban design principle which is entirely in contrast with the existing urban fabric.There were wide straight streets instead of narrow winding streets, tree-lined avenues, and residential blocks up to five floors with balconies, which did not match the cohesive urban fabric of the old existing cities. Syria gained full independence after World War II in 1946. The population growth rates were striking, and the need for a new master plan was building up. This unplanned population growth and the independence after the French colonial period had already left their fingerprint in part of the new urban extension; these factors were endangering the original historical layout of the cities. The French strategies to remodel the cities of Syria were explicitly and remarkably based on forms of racial and social segregation. They followed an urbanization strategy called the Versailles model, which requires forming an extension outside the medieval structures planning to develop the environs (Stockhammer & Wild, 2009).During the years of the Islamic rule; the

urbanization plan of Syria helped create a cohesive society. Churches and mosques were built back to back providing a healthy environment for the coexistence of different religions with an environment that allowed the inhabitants to hear the bells of the Christian churches and the Muslim calls for prayers at the same time and place. The urban social fabric of the cities was woven following the different uses, origins, and religions of the society representing the unity, identity, and cohesiveness of that community (Al-Sabouni & Scruton, 2016) . The introduction of modern elements in the traditional urban fabric created a clash between the traditional and the modern. That clash reflected back to community behavior and sense of belonging and identity (Stockhammer & Wild, 2009).As Al-Sabouni & Scruton (2016) mentioned that the gap between the ancient city center of Syria’s cities and the new unplanned alienated extension created a clash between the architectural elements, urban fabric, and urban design. That conflicted expansion created a divisive urban fabric where the wealthy foreign colonizers created segments of the cities that matched their social and economic levels, such as high-rise buildings, concrete blocks and the use of modern materials disregarding the ancient city style. As a result of abandoning the ancient urban fabric plan and an eagerness to follow modern trends, evidence of disappearance of the urban and architectural planning started to show. The unplanned expansion and growth of the cities led the residential clusters to pop up in isolated locations outside the planned boundaries with no identity or reference to the city. The isolated free-standing, raw concrete blocks created an awkward configuration and meaningless internal arrangement. These residential blocks act as a reflection of inhumanity and discarding of the human in its design, shape, size and plan (Al- Sabouni & Scruton, 2016).

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Al-Sabouni & Scruton (2016) also showed correlations, and strong evidences of how the unplanned introduction of modernity in the urban fabric created a divisive and alienated environment and that was the foundation for the identity crisis and the introduction of a civil war. The point is not that Western architecture is threatening the old Islamic formation of the urban fabric, but the fact that the conflict between the two styles is unplanned. The writer also stated that unplanned urban expansion, brutal concrete blocks, inhuman scale, and the divisive fabric, where inhabitants lost the sense of neighborhood, confused the locals and removed that sense of identity and belonging that used to be there. Therefore, the evidence of conflict, segregation, and differentiation started to appear and paved the way for people to be violent and aggressive.

III. METHODOLOGY

This paper follows a correlational research type with quasi-experimental and induction method. Its disciplinary base is correlated between social science, human psychology, and architecture. The aim of this paper is to test a theory that there is a link and correlation between the divisive urban fabric, alienated architecture, and community reaction which developed into a brutal civil war.

The data collection tools consist of comparative methods and a survey. Due to the current situation in Syria, a survey was done in historic Jeddah; since Jeddah has similar characteristics and attributes to Syria. Both the survey and the comparative mapping are supporting the purpose of the study which is to provide substantiation of correlation between the cohesive urban fabric,

human responsive architecture, sense of safety, and belonging, and cohesiveness between the community individuals.

The first data collection tool is the survey. The participants were residents of the historical buffer zone of Jeddah. The survey covered over 100 participants with different age groups. The aim of this survey is to test the theory of the research in similar cases to support or refute the correlation between the variables. Whereas, the second data collection tool is the comparative mapping. A number of urban maps from the past up until recent years were provided to compare the urban expansion between these maps. Street networks, open spaces, and the scale of the buildings will be discussed throughout this tool.

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IV. DATA ANALYSIS /SURVEY

Historic Jeddah is one of the world’s most important heritages. Its history, historical events, characteristics and the way it developed are very similar to Aleppo in Syria. The fact that historic Jeddah is a

Figure(1)

Figure (1), shows that the percentage of the conservative religious individuals in the community is high yet the statistics show that the level of discrimination crimes and acts is low in comparison to the newly surrounding urban fabric. While, in Figure (2) the chart shows a

The high sense of belonging that is shown in Figure (3) of the community individuals will result in their responsibility towards the safety of the community’s individuals. Therefore, the chart in Figure (4) indicates

home for cultural and national diversity makes it a challenge to create a cohesive society within. The type of architecture and urban fabric force the community to be cohesive, related, and bring them together.

high level of national diversity within the historic zone yet they all live peacefully together having their homes built back to back with each other. Many reasons stand behind this diversified community and its cohesiveness, yet, the type of architecture and the urban fabric plan play a key role.

Figure(2)

Figure (3) Figure (4)

that the level of safety between the individuals and within the community itself is high regardless of the fact that i t is a mult i-cultural

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and multi-national community. This strong sense of belonging and responsibility towards the place is a result of the good

Figure (5) shows that the wide variety of age ranges is an indication of a high number of families. Planning an urban fabric that serves the needs of each age category in the family is required to satisfy the community. All these factors will result in strong social ties between the

V. DATA ANALYSIS / COMPARATIVE MAPPING

Figure (7): Street plan (Stockhammer & Wild, 2009)

architecture and urban design which gave a sense for the place and made it feel like home for the residents.

Figure (5) Figure (6)

individuals in the community. As shown in Figure (6) the community of historic Jeddah zone has strong social ties and relationships even though the previous charts show a high level of national and cultural diversity.

Figure (7): Street plan (Stockhammer & Wild, 2009)

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Figure (7) shows the different layers of street network planning in Damascus. The old city street map structure is significantly narrow and windy, while the new street map structure is broad and straight forward. The clarity and straightness of the new network structure that was planned by the French planners create a number of zones which act as a residential, mixed used, or commercial clusters to form the neighborhood. In contrast, the old network structure is creating smaller clusters bringing the community within a single neighborhood together due to the pedestrian-friendly and considerate planning. The expansion of the new street network is obviously not cohesive and not integrated well. The French planners did not consider the old historic street network therefore they treated the new network expansion as an alienated separate city. As a result, the historic street network seemed neglected, unintegrated, and separated from the new expansions.

Figure (8): Damascus at the end of the Ottoman Empire 1920 (Stockhammer & Wild, 2009)

Figure (9): Damascus: Current situation

(Stockhammer & Wild, 2009)

The city has lost its sense of recognition, according to Juvara and Buchanan (2012), the most treasured part of the city is lost in the expansion process of those crowded overpopulated informal settlements. These unplanned alienated settlements that caused a divisive urban fabric and sense of discrimination and segregation in the society happened due to many reasons such as internal conflict induced displacements, drought-induced displacement and refugees of both Palestinian and Iraqi origin. Figure (8), shows the old compact urban fabric with narrow streets and the Islamic principles of planning the streets network such as Al-Qasaba concept. Also, the compact organic urban fabric compliments the social principles of neighborhood and city development by considering the social ties and the needs of the community. Whereas, in Figure (9) the current situation of the urban fabric after the evacuation

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of the French mandate is an indication of a fragmenting discriminating society.

Figure (10): Sign of decay in the city center of the old

city (Juvara & Buchanan, 2012) [

Figure (10) shows the positive aspects of the old urban fabric planning such as scale, mixed use services, and prehistorical-friendly environment. The human scale is a major factor in creating a place that holds a sense of place for the community; we can notice that the scale of the building height and the size of the fenestration are comparable to the regular human scale. Also, the needed services such as mosques and shops are available on the road allowing for more active pedestrian movement rather than cars and advanced transportation systems. The fact that shops surround the streets within the residential clusters makes the neighborhood more active and increases the social interaction between the individuals and the neighbors.

Figure(11):Lifeless middle-class residential cluster (Juvara & Buchanan, 2012)

Figure (12): Informal brutal new settlements (Juvara

& Buchanan, 2012)

As a result of the French mandate, population growth, and other factors, the typology of the architecture that used to exist changed, the sense of scale is gone, and expansion started vertically more than horizontally. Figure (11), shows the brutal modern concrete blocks that give a lifeless sense to the neighborhood and block the social interactivity between community members. Also, the design emphasis on the street network instead of the pedestrian-friendly network added to the sense of lifelessness. While figure (12) shows that informal settlement that appeared as a result of the unplanned expansion, these brutal lifeless blocks give a sense of aggressiveness and

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discrimination, where the occupants feel like they are lacking the basic needs of life. Moreover, the city’s infrastructure in many cases dose not reach these unplanned settlements, or it reaches them poorly. Naturally, the occupants will feel the inequality and unfairness. Also, the security level in these zones is low. Therefore, the freedom of each to act on his/her own is high. As a psychological reaction to all of these factors, community members will start getting more violent and vindictive.In short, the results from the comparative mapping and the survey positively and strongly supported the theory. The survey showed a high level of security and sense of belonging even though there is a high level of ethnicity, religious and cultural diversity. While the comparative mapping showed the development of the unplanned expansion of the urban fabric with the development of signs of a violent society.

VI. OUTCOME

To sum up, throughout the research paper, evidence of how architecture and urban planning and design have the power to turn the community into a violent one that can lead to a brutal war is shown. Factors such as the French mandate, unplanned population growth, abundance of the old cohesive urban fabric, and alienated modern elements helped a segment of the community of Syria to go into brutal war for nearly six years. For instance, the psychological conditions of the community's individuals are resembling a core factor for the starting of this war. To begin with, the value of the old urban fabric in creating a cohesive society is shown through the survey that was done in historic Jeddah

which has the same circumstances and characteristics as Aleppo in Syria. As a result, the survey strongly supported the correlation between the type of architecture, urban fabric, and the level of social cohesiveness in that zone. Briefly, that was the answer to the first research question. The refugees and the strong evident power of French colonialism forced modern elements to be introduced in every aspect of the architecture, urban planning, and design. Throughout an illustration of the timeline of these foreign controlling forces, there comes the answers for the second research question. Finally, the comparative mapping related between urbanism, urbanization, and architecture with the creation of a violent society, which led the country into a brutally violent war for six years.

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VII. APPENDIX: SAMPLE QUESTIONNAIRE

Hello, My name is Bashayer Bamohsen. I am an architecture student at Effat University. I am conducting a correlational research which will investigate the

relationship between the residents of historic Jeddah and their relationship to the place. Therefore, I would be grateful if you could answer these few basic questions.

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VIII. REFERENCES

N. P. Lemche, The history of ancient Syria and Palestine: An overview. Civilizations of the Ancient Near East II,1995. D. Stockhammer, & N. Wild, The French Mandate City a foot- print in Damascus. Damascus, 2009.

Z. Lababedi, «The Urban Development of Damascus: A Study of Its Past, Present, and Future,» MSc Dissertation, University College London, 2009.

M. Al-Sabouni, & R. Scruton, The Battle for Home: The Vision of a Young Architect in Syria, NY, NY: Thames & Hudson, 2016.

M. Juvara, & C. Buchanan, Urban Design-based Zoning to Guide Fast Growth, 48th ISOCARP Congress, 2012.

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Volume 1 Issue Spring 2017

Traditional Domestic

Architecture in Al-Baha

Region

121

Traditional Domestic Architecture in Al-Baha Region

Renad M. BaabdullahUnder the supervision of Ms. Hidaya Abbas

College of Architecture and Design

Effat University, Jeddah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Abstract: Al-Baha region embraces a rich area of inherited Saudi traditional architecture that is highly threatened of perishing, and is poorly documented, including a UNESCO world heritage site at Zee Ain Village. In this research paper, different urban fabric patterns of Al-Baha's villages, and building techniques of stone houses are explained and analyzed in relation to the thoroughly discussed contextual conditions. The research clarifies how the environmental and sociocultural context shapes traditional domestic units and arrangement of villages. In addition, full translated description and analysis of exterior and interior stone house architectural elements is made available for the first time in this article. Throughout the study, preliminary plans and digital models have been developed for case studies that required more precise interpretation; fulfilling the documentary goal, and the interpretive approach of the research.

Keywords: traditional Saudi architecture, Al-Baha, traditional domestic architecture, stone houses, Al-Baha villages.

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I. INTRODUCTION

After the recently submitted UNESCO world heritage site “Zee Ain village” in 2015, a research interest grew in the field of studying inherited Saudi traditional architecture. Yet the field is still lacking information, in Al-Baha region especially, and it requires pressing studies. Al-Baha's case is significantly critical due to the variety of existing conditions; as a result of its geography. This research focuses on domestic architecture due to its being the main inhabitance unit. It is where guests are received, and cattle (the breeding of which is a main profession in villages) are lodged. Al-Baha's domestic architecture is known to be significantly shaped by the existing topographic dissimilarities, however it also reflects other environmental aspects. Moreover, Al-Baha faced severe warfare aggression that has largely contributed to shaping houses and villages.

The research aims to explain the reasons behind adopting specific themes in traditional domestic units of Al-Baha, and understanding variation of Al-Baha's contextual architecture elements through investigating the exterior and interior elements. Furthermore, the research includes an explanatory approach to how different urban fabrics are found in Al-Baha region, in respect to its regional, environmental, socio-economic, and historical conditions.

A comprehensive governmental study on Saudi traditional village architecture, provided with statistical substantiation, and general description of the regions' conditions affecting mainstream traditional architectural units and building techniques, have paved the way for starting this research study[1].

Currently, there is insufficiency in

elaborate academic studies conducted about traditional domestic architecture of Al-Baha region. However, an architectural study in Baida valley, Al-Baha, has been conducted in Arabic, discussing the inherited arts and architecture found in villages in Baida Valley, and how they were affected by Baida's history and social values. Baida Valley Architectural Archaeological Study defines main interior and exterior architectural elements, and showcases examples of domestic units of different natures. It however lacked architectural plans for most examples, which was an area of further research and analysis[2].

II. APPROACH

Traditional Domestic Architecture in Al-Baha Region is a descriptive research based on a qualitative approach. The researcher collected and translated data from multiple fields of science in order to analyze and reinterpret data in respect to the context of interest; aiming to answer the research questions and identify and understand the factors which have shaped the traditional domestic architecture and urban structure of Al-Baha region. The study cases have been selected to demonstrate the different themes that appeared in Al-Baha according to different contextual factors.

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Basic Information of Al-Baha Region

a) Regional Conditions

Al-Baha is the smallest of the 13 regions of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia; occupying %0.59 of the country's area with 13341 acres. It is located in the southwest of the Arabian Peninsula. The region shares its northern and eastern boarders with Makkah Al-Mukarramah region, southern and western boarders with Aseer region[3]. Al-Baha region is divided into 5 municipalities: Al-Baha, Belgarshi, Al-Aqeeq, Al-Mendaq, and Qalwa. 931 villages are distributed among each of the municipalities[3]. The number of villages vary from 54 villages in Al-Baha municipality to 9 villages in Al-Aqeeq municipality[1].

b) Environmental Conditions

Southern Saudi Arabia is generally distinguished for its natural diversity between high and lowlands. The region is considered the highest above sea level among the kingdom's regions, with Al-Sarawat Mountains being the core of the south's topography, alongside several plateaus. Over %70 of Al-Baha region is occupied by Al-Sarawat Mountains and adjacent plateaus. On the other hand, Al-Sarawat Mountains strongly slope down to meet Tihama Plains; the slopes towards Tihama Plains are called «Al-Asdar». Tihama Plains roughly occupy the remaining topographical area of Al-Baha region[1].

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia generally falls under an arid and hot climate. Yet, due to the topography of Al-Baha, its climate is moderate during summer months, and relatively cold during winter months, with

an average high of °28 and a low of °6 in Al-Baha municipality[3]. Precipitation is high and ranges from 350 ml to 90 ml yearly. Accordingly, humidity as well is high in the region[1]. Moreover, houses and farms were affected or damaged by the heavy floods that were common in Al-Baha region until a number of dams were built[2].

Being a major water resource in the region with 14 dams, valley streams sprung from Al-Sarawat Mountains. Yet, rainwater is considered a main source of water, even though it is characterized with irregular precipitation; whereas Al-Baha region scored a yearly average precipitation of over 200 ml[1].

c) Socio-economic ConditionsAl-Baha region scored 377,900 census in , while the conducted census in 1992 was ; displaying a general stable level of habitation. The community of Al-Baha region is a conservative tribal community mainly of Ghamid and Zahran tribes. Also, Al-Baha had a farming community which relied on agricultural products such as figs and tamarisk as a primary source of income. A secondary inherited profession was cattle herding, where the herdsmen maintain the cattle's offspring and milk production, and women of the villages usually take care of the wool work[2].

The richness of Al-Baha's natural resources and uniqueness of its traditional heritage in arts, crafts, and architecture, made it a tourism attraction in the kingdom of Saudi Arabia; an ideal situation displaying all aspects of Al-Baha's beauty exists in Zee Ain village in Al-Makhwat (Fig. 1). Zee Ain village has a unique environmental configuration with a marvelous view of the framing urban fabric and farms; in a matter of fact, Zee

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Ain village was recognized a UNESCO world heritage cultural site in April 2015 . In addition, the mountains' rock formation of Al-Baha not only protects the villagers but also offer sports experiences including walking, hiking, and mountain climbing. Shada Mountain particularly offers ideal camping conditions in some

of its locations[6]. As declared by Saudi Commission for Tourism & National Heritage (SCTH) on the 30th of April 2015, «the company will undertake implementation of projects aimed at increasing tourist flows, and create jobs for citizens and promote and support tourism investment across the region»[7].

Fig. (1) Zee Ain Village; Source: [8]

d) Historical Background

Tracing back the history of the land of Ghamid and Zahran tribes will display clear dominance of a Zahran branch tribe called Daws and not much mention about the mother tribes (Ghamid and Zahran). Perhaps Daws's ascendancy goes back to their extensions to vast lands in eastern and northern directions, as they have created pre-Islamic emirates in Oman and Persia. The remaining of Daws tribe settled in Al-Baha region and the caravan route leading to Yemen.

Tribes of Al-Baha were akin to Arab tribes in adopting Idolatry during the pre-Islamic age. Also, the pre-Islamic age of Al-Baha

habitants witnessed numerous tribal warfare events, which were fortunately elapsed when Islam took over[2]. Actually, Al-Baha's region tribes gained major pride and respect for being among the first to support and adopt Islam as their religion[2].

Islam's capital of caliphate was relocated several times throughout Islamic history causing parts of the Arabian Peninsula to lose its political importance, and as a result, there has been a gap which lacks documentation of all forms in Al-Baha's timeline[2]. However, in the late 1700s to early 1900s, Al-Baha region was ruled by many local despotic rulers of the south. Yet, an age of political and social security

[5]

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and stability started when the third Saudi State unified modern day Saudi Arabian regions[2].

e) Architectural Structure

The previously-discussed conditions directly affect the variety of architectural styles in Al-Baha region, whether on an urban scale, or individual unit scale. For instance, huts built out of local materials are seen in a scattered pattern in Tihama Plains, while the dominating architectural style in the highlands is the high elevated stone buildings; either in scattered or adjacent patterns. Adopting the scattered pattern is usually associated with wind or building above agricultural terraces; the more frequent urban fabric in the highlands' villages though is the adjacent pattern; arguably to satisfy the habitants’ need for security over their territory. Another security measure seen in Al-Baha region is the defensive tower houses, which are usually located by the families' farms[1].

Common Traditional Features of Buildings in the Highlands of Al-Baha Region

a) Stone Buildings

Stone structures are frequently seen in Al-Baha and are usually built on agricultural terraces where materials are made available. Stone buildings are highly sophisticated structures as specific knowledge of stone types is required. Therefore, they are not easily built by any habitant; instead, stone buildings are usually built by three (or more) specialized

individuals.

The building process starts by preparing land and material, and determining whether the house is going to take a quadric or cylindrical shape. The perimeter is then divided to spaces by digging a depth of 1.5m (or less in solid lands). For the foundation, largest stones are used. Consequently, stonewalls are built with a decreasing thickness as the building rises; commonly from 100cm to 60cm at the summit. The spaces between the wall stones are filled with mortar with embedded stone flakes, while tall polygonal stones support the corners of the structure. Then, wooden squares called «Al-Asla» are used as a ceiling, topped by a mud roof and lime for rainwater protection. Openings on the wall are typically small for defensive reasons and they are sometime framed by «Marow,» which is local white stone. In addition, doors and windows are of two wooden shutters, and it is noted that doors are decorative and vivid. The overall exterior appearance of a house is a simple stone inclined walls, and corner heads are sometimes covered with lime (Fig. 2). In the interior of a stone house, the housewife and her neighbours usually plaster the walls with mud for an even surface, and further decorate it using clover and plaster[1].

Fig. (2) Stone House in Al-Baha Region; Source: [1]

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b) Villages’ Urban Structure Examples

1. Aal-Ghathian Village

Aal-Ghathian village is located to the south of Tendaha valley in Al-Baha region. It is surrounded by agricultural fields, which provide an occupation for over 800 people distributed to 180 residential units of two to four floors. The village grew in an organic manner causing its alleys to be irregularly-formed and narrow (Fig. 3). Due to the village’s context, houses are built out of mud blocks varying from 35 to 300 years old. Most of the older buildings are partially demolished, yet many are still in good condition. Moreover, there are recently-erected buildings, which unfortunately look very odd to the village; however, these buildings provide beneficial facilities. The village has no rainwater disposal system, and water is provided to houses through a simple surface pipe network, originating from 3 different wells[1].

Fig. (3) Aal Ghathian Village Urban Fabric; Source:

[1]

2. Zee Ain Village

The UNESCO world heritage site, Zee Ain Village, is located 20km away from the region capital of Al-Baha city[5]. The topography of the village shaped its structure as the houses were built on

the levels of a mountain top. The village overlooks vast orchards of high palm trees watered by a constantly pouring spring called “Zee Ain”. Typically, the material used was stone supported by wood. The security measure is shown in the forms of Zee Ain houses, as they look similar to defensive citadels. Moreover, military citadels are located on the highest levels of the mountain’s contour. Of course, these measures were taken to protect the village against the tribal warfare that was dominant at a particular time[1].

Examples on Domestic Architecture of Al-Baha Region (Al-Jadlan Village and Al-Ghutamiya Village)

a) Traditional Features of Domestic Buildings in Al-Jadlan Village and Al-Ghutamiya Village

The commonly seen domestic traditional features in Al-Baha region reflect two main conditions: traditions and environmental conditions. The case does not differ in Al-Jadlan and Al-Ghutamiya villages, located to the north east of Al-Baha region on Baida valley. Baida valley is among the most important valleys in the Arabian Peninsula of 150km, with a rich historical background. This section defines the local exterior and interior elements of a typical stone house in Baida valley as well as examines two house units in Al-Jadlan, and Al-Ghutamiya villages[2].

1.Traditional Exterior Elements

Several entrances are one of the most noticeable elements on a house’s exterior, and their dimensions differ according to the size of the house. Bent entrances are present in many houses to provide privacy for the family. Regarding the door

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itself, it is usually made of wood from local trees. Doors consist of many components including: Al-Misra which is the door shutter. Commonly a door shutter has four to six wooden boards tied by a central horizontal piece of wood from the interior. Most doors consist of one shutter, except for the case of significantly large houses. The outer door lock is called Al-Dhabbah, with an associated key of a wooden bow and iron lever cuts in the tip.

The doorframe is locally called Al-Ubur. A typical doorframe width in the area would range from 20cm to 35cm of wood or selected stone. It is not only for support purposes but this width allows for aesthetic ornamentation[2]. Directly above the entrance, Al-Jabbaha is placed. It is a wooden rectangular board protruded from the door's surface. This protrusion protects the interior from rainwater and allows for natural light. Also, above the openings, Al-Ghimama is placed. It is a polished stone placed above the entrance to support the upper stones of the wall. It is usually cut into either a rectangle or a bow, and it differs in color, making a distinct decorative element of the exterior (Fig. 4).

Windows are distributed on the façade in varied sizes according to function, rather than following a modular distribution. It is noted that the lower a window opening is, the smaller it would be (windows are usually absent in ground floors); because lower floors are used for storage while upper floors are in favor of ventilation, light, and defensive observation. Windows vary in size from 50cm x 50cm up to 100cm x 100cm, containing a wooden central divider, wooden or stone ʿUbur, Jabbaha, and Ghimama. Significance level of local carpentry is visible in the carving on wooden elements of the windows.

Stairs are an exterior element in Al-Baha stone houses. They are supported by either columns and wooden beams or stacked stones. Treads are made of large stones with a width of 1m to 1.5m, and their surfaces are evened with smaller stones and sand mortar.

Other local exterior elements include Al-Ra'ash, Al-Jun, and Al-Sarab. Al-Ra'ash is an assembly of large wooden pieces (2m to 3m long) projecting from walls of upper levels above openings, roofed by palm leaves. Al-Ra'ash works as a shading device in addition to protecting openings from rainwater. Moreover, they are considered a defensive element in the case of warfare[2]. Al-Jun is another multi-purpose element. It is a 1m to 1.5m stone extension crowning summits of the house walls, built on the roof vertically, covered with a band alternating masonry stone and Marow (local white stone). Al-Jun corners are typically higher than the façade level creating pyramidal-like shapes. The purpose of that is both environmental and social protection, and it provides a strategic place to safely look after the household farms. In addition, it is among the most aesthetically appealing elements

Fig. (4) Al-Ghimama; Source: [2]

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of simple stone houses[2]. Embedded in Al-Jun, a 1m wooden channel called Al-Sarab is found for the purpose of discharging rainwater. It is essential that the roof level slightly inclines towards every Sarab in order for it to work as a simple water drainage system[2].

2.Traditional Interior Elements

Houses in the area are usually two to three storeys high. The ground floor is used for cattle lodging, first floor for receiving guests, and second floor is the private family floor. Two-storey houses, on the other hand, divide the first floor to receiving guests and family rooms[2].

Ground Floor Interior Elements

The ground floor is a square or rectangular area divided into two unequal parts, entered through one entrance placed in the center of the façade. Al-Sifl is the larger section of the ground floor which is used as a cattle lodging, while Al-'Uyun is a smaller section and is used for storing cattle hay and agricultural crops. Al-Raddah, on the other hand, is a stone wall which separates Al-Sifl and Al-'Uyun. It is a 1m thick load-bearing wall, and it is a base for Al-Zufr (columns) in the upper floor.

Windows do not exist in ground floors. However, the following elements like Al-Mithwad, Al-Raqah, and Al-Khawah are typically seen in the ground floor. Al-Mithwad is a rectangular void in the wall through which hay is provided for cattle. It is 80cm above ground level; which is the height suitable for cattle to reach the hay. Another element used by animals is Al-Raqah, which are wooden shelves fixed horizontally and vertically in the wall and specified for birds; therefore, it is usually located near the ceiling. The ceiling is

typically featured by a square opening called Al-Khawah, which is used to look after cattle, or as a secret passageway in the case of an attack. In order to use this vertical connection, projected wooden or stone pieces embedded in the interior wall work as stair treads. When needed, Al-Khawah is covered with a wooden board[2].

Upper Floor Interior Elements

Division of the upper floor varies from two to five rooms including Al-'Uliyya (the owner's room). The number of rooms differs according to whether the house is a two or three storey house. Generally upper floors are for family and receiving guests; therefore, they contain varied interior elements. Basic elements of the upper floors consist of Al-Sarrahah, Al-Russan, and Al-Zufur. The term «Al-Sarrahah» means «the ground», and it indicates the house's floor, which is covered with a mat of palm leaves. Al-Russan is the partitions dividing the rooms of the floor; and which are made of the locally-available tree branches (such as Jujube tree). The tree branches are tied with its bark and, in some cases, covered with decorative carved wooden boards. A basic structural element is the previously mentioned, Al-Zufur. «Zufur» is the plural term for Zafer, which is a column made of the wood of trees with large-radius trunks, such as Taramix tree.

A typical upper floor encloses Al-Mallah (fireplace) in the main sitting area, and an associate Gutrah. Al-Gutrah is an opening in the ceiling position right above Al-Mallah; allowing smoke to escape, and enhancing air circulation. In addition, Al-Mallah's side edges are called Al-Haran, and they protect the house or the room from scattered fire sparks and ashes.A traditional feature commonly seen in rooms specified for women is Al-Halana;

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a small square or rectangular void in the wall, used to store items like keys, and other personal belongings.

There are interiorly visible components of the structure that support Al-Zufur (Fig. 5), and some work as ornamenting elements. Al-Zufur are protected from humidity by flat, circular-like stones placed under each Zafer, called Sufun. However, above a Zafer, a Wesad is fixed; it is a flat wooden capital that carries Al-Wusuh. A basic structural unit is the wooden beams stabilizing Al-Zufur, and the roof; locally called Al-Wusuh. Consecutively, Al-Bitana layer reinforces Al-Wusuh with thick wooden beams fixed perpendicularly above it. The final phase of the interior roofing process is of thin wooden boards layer called Al Jard, and it is covered by tree bark called Al-Ghelaq; ensuring that mudding slits are blocked. Finally, an iron hook is fixed in Al-Jard and is called Al-Me'laq. This is used to hang clothes, weaponry, or meat[2].

Fig. (5) Main Structural Components; Source: [2]

b) Example 1: Al-Jadlan Village House

Al-Jadlan village is a 150m x 100m village on an elevated downhill contour of Baida valley. It overlooks agricultural lands from the north and east, as well as caravanserais passing by the valley. The houses in Al-Jadlan village are of a similar planning, and they are entangled; causing alleys to narrow. However, there are several entrances and connections within adjacent houses (Fig. 6); reinforcing the social bonds[2].

Fig. (6) Al-Jadlan House several entrances and connection with adjacent houses (developed by the researcher)

1. Al-Jadlan House Exterior

The house examined in Al-Jadlan village (Fig. 7), is a two-storey rectangular stone house. Its exterior is characterized by the presence of many architectural elements; defensive elements for the most part. The main ground floor entrance is centered in the southern façade; it is a wooden door that is decorative, while entrances of other floors are neglected in terms of aesthetics. Also, another entrance seen on the southern façade is the entrance to the

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first floor, with its exterior stone stairway, supported by wood. Another aesthetic measure is the contrast of Al-Ghimama's color which is placed above the entrance, as well as several other openings of the house. Windows are absent in the ground level (due to its function), and they are square and small in the first floor; which is an aspect reflecting the defensive nature of the area. Moreover, window openings

enclose iron grills, protecting the house from robbery; given that the stone racks of the wall make theft easily accessible. Al-Ra'ash of this house is extended around 3m outwards. This is to be used for observation in case of warfare. Uppermost exterior element in the house is Al-Sarab which exists in the northern and eastern facades in this example[2].

2. Al-Jadlan House Interior

The house stretches 10m from north to south with a width of 8m from east to west. The ground floor is 2.7m high, divided to two sections; Al-Sifl in the southern section (Fig. 8, room A), and Al-'Uyun in the north (Fig. 8, room B). Al-Sifl is entered through the main entrance in the southern façade, and it is used for cattle lodging. Al-Sifl and Al-'Uyun are separated by a thick wall which carries most of Al-Zufr of the upper floor. This wall also contains a 30cm deep Methwad to provide cattle hay. Al-'Uyun is slightly smaller in terms of area, and it is used to store the agricultural crops, wood, and other family subsistence supplies. The central load-bearing wall has embedded

flat stone slabs to enable interior vertical circulation through Al-Khawah, which connects Al-'Uyun to the upper floor.

Fig. (7) Al Jadlan House Exterior; Source: [2]

Fig. (8) Al-Jadlan House Ground Floor Preliminary Plan (developed by the researcher)

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The first floor is 4m high; which is noticeably higher than the ground floor. It is entered through a western entrance leading to the northern section, which is the male section. The northern section consists of a large sitting room used to receive guests (Fig. 9, room A), and a room found in the north-east corner (Fig. 9, room B), used as a male room or sometimes used to store hosting equipment like coffee ware. The southern section is entered through a door in the sitting room, leading to the family’s living room (Fig. 9, room C). Nearby one of Al-Zufr of the living room, Al-Mallah is fixed with its opposing Gutrah in the ceiling; to discharge smoke out of the house[2]. To the east, two more rooms are located, women room (Fig. 9, room D), and Al-'Ulliyya (Fig. 9, room E). In the western Russan of the women room, Al-Halana is found, and it is used to store small housekeeping tools[2].

Fig. (9) Al-Jadlan House First Floor Preliminary Plan (developed by the researcher)

c) Example 2: Al-Ghutamiya Village House

Al-Ghutamiya is a 110m x 70m low-laying plane village by Baida valley. Just like most of Al-Baha region villages, Al-Ghutamiya has an entangled pattern of stone houses (Fig. 10); strengthening the security level of the village[2].

Fig. (10) Al-Ghutamiya Entangled Stone Houses;

Source: [2]

1. Al-Ghutamiya House ExteriorThe house to be discussed in Al-Ghutamiya village is a three-storey house that is attached to a cluster of two other units separated by an interior stairway and a fort from the south (Fig. 11). The exterior of the house depicts an elaborately defensive appearance; due to the topography of the village which makes it prone to invasions.

The entrances are on the south, east, and north which are the directions leading to the main road. These entrances are elaborately decorative with vegetal designs; reflecting the agricultural nature of the area. An unusual observation of the exterior is the absence of Al-Ghimama above openings, which was replaced by wooden pieces.

Al-Ra'ash surrounds the roof from the

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extroverted facades and they are reached through simple stairways. Al-Ra'ash enables easy transition between the cluster units through the roof, in addition to being conducive to observing the scenery[2].

Fig. (11) Al-Ghutamiya House (developed by the researcher)

2. Al-Ghutamiya House Interior

The southernmost unit of the cluster is a 7m x 8m three storey house. The ground floor is entered through the eastern façade. In front of this entrance, there is a fenced area specified for animals during summertime. During wintertime, though, animals lodge in the eastern section of the ground floor (Fig. 12, room A). The eastern section also contains a small annex to store relevant tools (Fig. 12, room B). It is noted that such function usually exists in the other section of the ground floor (the westerns section in this case). However, the western section of the house (Fig. 12, room C) is a property of a different owner and entered through a separate entrance.

The first floor is 3.5m high and divided into 4 rooms; entered mainly from the south. The largest room occupies the south-east corner (Fig. 13, room A). It is a room for men, it is also used to receive women guests sometimes. To the west, a smaller room is specified for sleeping (Fig. 13, room B). Above the previous room, a relatively large multifunctional room takes place (Fig. 13, room C). The last room is Al-'Uliyya (Fig. 13, room D).

Fig. (12) Al-Ghutamiya House Grould Floor Preliminary Plan (developed by the researcher)

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Fig. (13) Al-Ghutamiya House First Floor Preliminary

Plan (developed by the researcher)

The uppermost floor is planned differently. It is reached through the stairway between the first and second units of the cluster, whereas the stairway tilts to the south to meet the northern façade. The second floor consists of a small room in the south-west corner (Fig. 14, room A). This room opens to the attached fort as well as to the largest room in the floor; which is a sitting area (Fig. 14, room B). Consecutively, the sitting room leads to the remaining spaces in the east (Fig. 14, room C). The Zufur carrying the roof are ornamented with vegetal designs that are not significantly different from the ornaments of the area[2].

The unique architectural heritage of Al-Baha region depicts its rich timeline of political and social history as well as the direct effect of the regional environmental circumstances. These conditions shaped both the socio-economic lives of the villagers, and the architecture of Al-Baha region, whereas the urban fabric of most villages is intricate; fulfilling the need for defense, and respecting the existing topography. In addition, traditional building techniques and materials differ according to the environmental context. Yet, a certain set of traditions, values, and architectural elements is maintained almost everywhere in Al-Baha.

The domestic architecture in Al-Baha region is perhaps the most important type of architecture, because it is not only the main inhabitance unit but also it is where guests are received, and cattle

III. COMPARATIVE CONCLUSION

Fig. (14) Al-Ghutamiya House Second Floor Preliminary Plan (developed by the researcher)

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are lodged. Moreover, houses reflect important standards that they were built to meet, including providing the suitable place for an Arabian lifestyle, natural lifestyle, and religious standards. These standards formed the base and common ground of all domestic architecture in the region.Stone houses are the dominating type of houses in Al-Baha region. They are sophisticated structures that prioritize security over any other principle. Stone houses promote privacy and cultural conservativeness as the male and female rooms were typically segregated. They also shed light on the importance of the Arabic principle of generous hosting, as the largest spaces of houses were occupied to receive guests. The social bonds were generally strengthened by the entangled pattern of house distribution, and the interior entrances from other adjacent units.However, there are minor differences which are probably due to the land contour of each village; hence the level of warfare aggression. For example, houses of Al-Ghutamiya were built on a low-laying land; forcing it to be more defensive than elevated villages, as more fortresses were found in Al-Ghutamiya. Also, in Al-Ghutamiya village, the interior entrances between units are more frequent; whereas they were used as secret passageways creating another security measure. Its plane topography also enabled the houses to grow vertically, as they were generally higher than those seen in Al-Jadlan village. On the other hand, houses of Al-Jadlan village were built on a downhill. The houses used the slope (ground floor) for storing; also, the hill stones supported the structure of the upper floor.

Ornament reflected the villages' agricultural nature, but it was minimal on the exterior, and more elaborate interiorly. Al-Jadlan village had relatively more

ornament, such as frequent presence of Al-Ghimama above entrances. Al-Ghutamiya on the other hand had more focus on defensive elements rather than accessories.A city exists beyond its inhabitants because of its architecture. Actually, architecture creates an irreplaceable physical link to our past; thus, conserving it is among the most essential actions that we are responsible of towards history. The importance of conserving heritage sites lies not only in the physical aspects, but also in the layers of information found about our ancestors' lives. In addition, historically inherited buildings largely contribute to culture and economic well-being. Saudi Arabia is a country which has developed greatly over the past few decades due to the oil boom, as a result, many of its rich historical sites have been urbanized and lost. The Saudi Commission for Tourism & National Heritage (SCTH) has set a conservation program for many architectural sites that unfortunately does not include Al-Baha, even though Al-Baha has been internationally recognized as a world heritage site. Al-Baha sites are highly threatened of perishing because that is actually the case now; urbanization is consuming its lands day by day; making it a crucial case. In my opinion, Al-Baha reflects southern Saudi's history best. The variety found in its architectural styles, and the elaborate details found in the domestic units, are not to be found elsewhere. They reveal inhabitants' lifestyle and the culture that was shared with the rest of Saudi lands. Al-Baha's thoroughly discussed building techniques and domestic units' elements also reflect the essence of vernacularism. Losing these sites would mean losing a part of the Saudi culture and history.

Therefore, more documentary studies are recommended while the architecture still stands. Also, conservation measures must be promoted for SCTH and among

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Saudi community. In order for such measures to be feasible, a collaboration of professional architectural restoration studies, and professional economical and tourism studies should be conducted.

REFERENCES

[1]. Ministry of Municipal and Rural Affairs, Deputy Ministry of Town Planning, Architectural Heritage of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Between Authenticity and Contemporality, 2010.[2]. A. A. Al Zahrani, Baida Valley Architectural Archaeological Study, 2007.[3]. Ministry of Municipal and Rural Affairs, Deputy Ministry of Town Planning, Executive Atlas Maps of the Urban Boundary Until the Year 1450 for Cities and Villages of Saudi, 1988.[4]. General Authority for Statistics of

Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, «Al-Baha Region Census», Available:https://www.stats.gov.sa/en/59.[5]. Zee Ain Heritage Village in Al-Baha Region. UNESCO World Heritage Convention, 8 April 2015, Available: http://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6031/.[6]. «Al-Baha City», Sauditourism, Ava i lab le :http://www.sauditourism.sa/en/aboutKSA/Cities/Bahah/Pages/default.aspx.[7]. Saudi Commission for Tourism & National Heritage, «General News», Available: https://scth.gov.sa/en/mediaCenter/News/GeneralNews/Pages/z - g 1 5 -4 -3 0 -1 -. a s p x . [8]. «Saudi Tourism», Available: http://sauditourism.sa/en/ExploreKSA/AttractionSites/DheeAyn/Pages/default.aspx.

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Volume 1 Issue Spring 2017

Red to Yellow Semiconductor Emitters Based on Novel

Strain-induced Inter-diffused InGaP/InAlGaP Structure

Grown on GaAs

137

Red to Yellow Semiconductor Emitters Based on Novel

Strain-induced Inter-diffused InGaP/InAlGaP Structure Grown

on GaAs Bayan.A. Alnahhas et al

Under the supervision of Dr. Mohamed Shehata

Mohammed A. Majid(a,b), Ahmad A. Al-Jabr(b), Bayan A. Alnahhas(a), Dalaver H. Anjum(c), Mohamed Shehataa and Boon S. Ooi(b)

a) Electrical and Computer Engineering department, Effat University, Jeddah (KSA)

b) Photonics Laboratory, King Abdullah University of Science & Technology (KAUST)

c) Advanced Nanofabrication, Imaging and Characterization Core Facilities, (KAUST)

Abstract: In this paper, a novel strain-induced quantum well intermixing (QWI) technique is employed on an InGaP/InAlGaP material system to promote interdiffusion via application of a thick-dielectric encapsulant layer, in conjunction with cycle annealing at elevated temperature. With this technique, we demonstrate the first yellow superluminescent (SLD) at a wavelength of 583nm with a total two-facet output power of ~4.5mW—as the highest optical power ever reported at this wavelength in this material system. The demonstration of the yellow SLD without complicated multiquantum barriers to suppress the carrier overflow will have a great impact in realizing the yellow laser diode that cannot be grown with conventional methods.

Keywords: InGaP/InAlGaP, orange & yellow emitters, lasers, strain, quantum-well intermixing, cycle annealing

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I. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support from KAUST baseline funding, the Competitive Research Grant (CRG), and the KACST Technology Innovation Center for Solid State Lighting at KAUST.

II. INTRODUCTION

Short wavelength high brightness visible semiconductor lasers have become increasingly important in numerous applications such as outdoor displays, solid state lighting, medicine, horticulture, and optical communication using plastic fibers[1]. These visible semiconductor lasers cover a wide spectrum of wavelengths. For example, the InGaN/GaN based commercial VSLs cover the violet to green spectrum (~405-530nm), and InGaP/InAlGaP visible semiconductor lasers are available in the wavelength range of 690-635nm. The wavelength from ~530-635nm (see Fig. 1) is not covered by any commercial visible semiconductor lasers yet, due to high leakage current in the InGaP/InAlGaP; and large strain and indium segregation prevent high quality emitters in the InGaN/GaN material system. The only access to the orange-yellow-green range has been achieved by application of high external pressures and low-temperature[2], frequency doubling of infrared lasers[3], or by frequency doubling of diode pumped solid state lasers[4]. In this paper, we demonstrate the first room-temperature (RT) high power (~4.5mW) yellow emitter from the interdiffused InGaP/InAlGaP structure grown on GaAs. The band gap of the short wavelength red laser’s (~640nm) InGaP/InAlGaP structure is very difficult to blue-shift using the quantum well intermixing

(QWI) technique[5]. Here, a novel strain-induced QWI technique was employed to promote interdiffusion via application of a thick dielectric encapsulant layer, with cycles annealing at elevated temperature. With this QWI technique, the bandgap of the InGaP/InAlGaP structure was successfully tuned from 640nm to 565nm (~250meV), and the first room-temperature orange laser was shown to have a decent output power of ~ 46mW at 608nm[1].

400 500 600 700450 550 650

range not covered by LDs532-632nm

Orange 590 620

Red 620 700

Yellow 570-590

Blue440-490

Violet400- 440

Green 490-570

III. EXPERIMENT

The single quantum well (SQW) InGaP/InAlGaP laser structure was grown on 10˚ offcut GaAs substrate using metal-organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) as shown in Fig. 2. The structure is described in detail elsewhere[1].The emission of the laser was designed to be at 638±2nm (see Fig. 3 (a) as-grown). For the novel QWI process, we studied the effect of the thickness (200nm-4000nm) of dielectric encapsulant (external strain), annealing temperature (1000-700oC), annealing duration (5- 240s), and number of cycles of annealing (up to 23 cycles) to identify the optimal process conditions for preserving the surface morphology, photoluminescence (PL) characteristics, and electrical properties. For the purpose of this work a 1µm thick SiO2 cap, 950˚C annealing temperature, and cycles annealing of 30s duration were applied to achieve the desired emission wavelength and optimal process conditions. The bandgap shifts induced by the above procedure were measured at room-temperature (RT)

Fig.1 Range not covered by laser diodes

139

using photoluminescence spectroscopy. Wafers were then processed using conventional processing, and 1mm long, 75µm wide ridge devices were used for opto-electronic characterization. All the devices were mounted on ceramic tiles and probed directly. The measurements were carried out at a tile temperature of 295K, while pulsed operation (0.5µs pulsed duration, %0.1 duty cycle) was used to minimize self-heating effects.

Fig. 2 Dark field (002) cross-section TEM image of the InGaP/InAlGaP laser structure with an InGaP

SQW

IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Fig. 2 (a) shows normalized RT PL spectra of as-grown and novel QWI InGaP/InAlGaP samples after annealing at 950˚C for 5 and 9 cycles of 30s durations. A bandgap blue-shift of 39nm (~125meV) and 65nm (~220meV) was observed for 5 and 9 cycles of 30s. A similar bandgap blue-shift is also observed for samples which have undergone annealing for multiple cycles of 60,90,120,180 and 240, but these were not considered in this study due to drastic reduction in PL intensity. The sample annealed for 5

cycles of 30s (601nm) maintained high PL intensity with a factor of ~1.5 reduction in PL intensity with a negligible increase in full-width at half maximum (FWHM). We demonstrated the first orange laser with a total power of ~46mW from this process.

(c)

(a)

80 nm In0.5Al0.3Ga0.2P

80 nm In0.5Al0.3Ga0.2P 6 nm In0.47Ga0.53P QW

80 nm In0.5Al0.3Ga0.2P

1000 nm N-In0.5Al0.5P 1x1018

1000 nm P-In0.5Al0.5P 1x1018

(b)

Fig. 3 (a) Room temperature PL spectra of as-grown and novel QWI InGaP/InAlGaP sample after annealed at 950˚C for 9 and 5 cycles of 30s duration, (b) Dark field (002) cross-section TEM image of the novel QWI sample for 9 cycles of annealing at 950˚C. (c) Power-current characteristics as a function of current density from 1mm long and 75µm wide broad area laser fabricated from InGaP/InAlGaP as grown. Inset: Red lasing spot emitting at a current

injection of 1.2Jth.

The 9th cycle annealed sample (575nm) shows a negligible reduction in peak PL intensity, coupled with improved FWHM as compared to the as-grown sample (640nm), which is important for subsequent fabrication of laser devices. Fig 2 (a) shows the representative TEM micrograph for the samples annealed at 950C for 9 cycles of 30s. As can be seen from the figure, the composition at the interface of the quantum well (6nm-InGaP) and the barrier (80nm-InAlGaP) was abrupt like in the case of epitaxial

Fig.1 Range not covered by laser diodes

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growth samples. In fact, the HRTEM shows that the quantum well interface was sharper than noted in the as-grown sample, which explains the improved FWHM of this sample. The results clearly suggest that our novel strain-induced QWI technique is highly efficient for interdiffusion of composite atoms (Al/Ga) between a barrier and QW. By applying our novel QWI technique, we obtained a bandgap shift of ~75nm (250meV) after 15 cycles of annealing for 30s with ~6 times reduction in PL intensity as compared to as-grown. This is the maximum bandgap shift in this material system at this short wavelength of ~640nm. The reduction in peak PL intensity is not only due to degradation of the material quality, but

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Fig. 4 (a) Power-current characteristics as a function of current density from 1.5mm long and 75µm wide broad area laser fabricated from InGaP/InAlGaP

also due to the reduced conduction band offset and high carrier leakage. We would like to point out that TEM images of the highly intermixed samples (PL @ 565nm) show good QW and barrier interface with negligible increase in quantum well width. This achievement may enable the prospect of a powerful and simplified fabrication route for optoelectronic device integration and low optical loss photonic integrated circuits based on the InGaP/InAlGaP material system. Furthermore, to compare the laser diode fabricated from the QWI technique, we have also shown the optical power-current characteristics of a 1mm long laser device, fabricated from an as-grown red laser, with electroluminescence at 1.2Jth (Fig. 3 (c)).

inter-diffused sample. Inset: yellow amplified spontaneous emission spot at 583nm, (b) amplified spontaneous emission spectra at 583nm.

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Fig. 4 (a) shows typical optical power-current characteristics of a 1.5mm long and 75µm wide laser device at RT fabricated from 9 cycles of a novel QWI sample. The inset shows the yellow amplified spontaneous spot. Fig 3 (b) shows the 583nm amplified spontaneous emission spectra at a current density of 1500 A/cm2. The laser devices exhibit a super-linear increase in optical power with increasing current density. We noted a 4.5mW total output power at a current density of 1750A/cm2. This is the highest reported power at this wavelength on this material system at RT. The second best reported power was 0.36µW (two facets) on the strained–InGaP quantum well heterostructure grown on a transparent, compositionally graded AlInGaP buffer [6]. As a comparison, the orange laser lased around 3.4kAcm2- at a total output power of ~46mW as shown in Fig. 5. Even through the yellow emitting device was %50 longer than the orange emitter, the power decreased by a factor of ~10 for only a 100 meV conduction band offset between both of the devices. The increased current density and decreased output power is attributed to the increased optical losses due to the diffusion of aluminium in the QW which was confirmed by a series of Electron Energy Loss Spectroscopy (EELS) combined with HRTEM (not shown), strong and deleterious temperature effects due to the indirect minimum population, and electron leakage due the smaller conduction band offset between AlInGaP and AlInP (in our case ~100meV). The results are very encouraging given that the cladding has no complicated multiquantum barrier (MQB) to suppress the carrier overflow. Probably the MQB will allow lower threshold and higher output power.

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Fig. 5 Power-current characteristics as a function of current density from a 1mm long and 75µm wide broad area laser fabricated from an InGaP/InAlGaP inter-diffused sample. Inset: Orange lasing spot emitting at 608nm and RT lasing spectra obtained at a current injection of 1.2Jth.

Fig. 6 Plot of the turn-on voltages of the intermixed laser structures compared to those of the as-grown structures

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Fig. 6 shows the turn-on voltages of the intermixed emitter. The yellow emitter has a turn-on voltage of 2.1 V, which is approximately the bandgap of the device emitting at the operating wavelength of 585 nm. The emitter also has a low series resistance (<5 Ω). These good electrical characteristics for the yellow emitter with the highest degree of intermixing are evidence of the superiority of our intermixing process. In addition, the results confirm that the dopant concentration in the top contact and the cladding layers remained at a similar level and did not diffuse into the active region of the laser structure, even after the successive annealing at elevated temperatures.

We presented the visible semiconductor emitters using the novel strain-induced quantum-well intermixing technique on an InGaP/InAlGaP red laser structure. A maximum bandgap shift of ~250meV with an original wavelength of 645nm is observed in this material system. An orange laser and a yellow emitter with a peak wavelength at 608nm and 583nm with relatively good performance have been demonstrated at room temperature. The novel technique presented in this article may represent a solution for producing high-efficiency AlGaInP devices at the shorter wavelengths of yellow and orange colors, and it has potential application for producing passive sections, e.g., the non-absorbing window, in the InGaP/InAlGaP material system.

V. CONCLUSION

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REFERENCES

[1]. M. A. Majid, A. A. Al-Jabr, H. M. Oubei, M. S. Alias, D. H. Anjum, T. K. Ng, B. S. Ooi, “First demonstration of InGaP/InAlGaP based orange laser emitting at 608 nm”, Electronics Letters, vol. 51, issue 14, pp. 1102-1104, July 2015.[2]. R. Bohdan, A. Bercha, W. Trzeciakowski, F. Dybała, B. Piechal, M. B. Sanayeh, M. Reufer, P. Brick, “Yellow AlGaInP/InGaP laser diodes achieved by pressure and temperature tuning”, Journal of Applied Physics, vol.104, no. 6, pp. 063105 , July 2008.[3]. J. H. Lee, S. M. Lee, T. Kim, and Y. J. Park, “7 W high-efficiency continuous-wave green light generation by intracavity frequency doubling of an end-pumped vertical external-cavity surface emitting semiconductor laser”, Applied Phyics Letters, vol. 89, no. 24,

pp.241107- 3, Dec. 2006.[4]. G. D. Miller, R. G. Batchko, W. M. Tulloch, D. R. Weise, M. M. Fejer and R. L. Byer, “-%42efficient single-pass cw second-harmonic generation in periodically poled lithium niobate”, Optics Letters, vol. 22, no. 24, pp.1834–1836, [5]. B. S. Ooi, K. McIvlaney, M. W. Street, A. Saher Helmy, S. G. Ayling, A. C. Bryce and J. H. Marsh, «Selective quantum well intermixing in GaAs/AlGaAs structures using impurity free vacancy diffusion», IEEE Journal of Quantum Electron, vol. 33, Issue 10, pp.1784-1793, Oct. 1997.[6]. L.M McGill, J. Wu and E. A. Fitzgerald, “Yellow-Green emission for ETS-LEDs and lasers based on a strained InGaP quantum well heterostructure grown on a transparent, compositionally graded AlInGaP buffer”, Mat. Res. Soc. Symp. Proc., 744 ,2003.

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Volume 1 Issue Spring 2017

Smart Sprinkler System for

Water Conservation

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Smart Sprinkler System for Water Conservation

Rana JoharUnder the supervision of Dr. Mohammed Abdulmajid

Electrical & Computer Engineering DepartmentCollege of Engineering, Effat University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia

Abstract: One of the main problems facing modern cities is water scarcity. The increasing level of water wastage in the irrigation system is an alarming problem. According to the 2030 vision, a reduction in water wastage is sought. This represents a strong motivation to create a simple device to achieve water efficiency. Home sprinkler water flow systems do not take into consideration the current state of the surroundings, which lead to high wastage of water.

In this research paper, a conceptual smart travelling sprinkler composed of a water pump and a motion motor is proposed. The suggested circuit design includes sensors that are capable of detecting soil conditions, such as moisture level and object proximity. The device power is provided by a solar panel that is connected to the water tank, which incorporates a level indicator. A series of pushbuttons and LCDs can be integrated for control purpose. The desired objective is the reduction of water consumption, and this brings us one-step closer to achieving the 2030 vision.

Keywords: 2030 vision, electricity saving, solar energy, sprinkler system, water efficiency.

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I. ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I would begin first and for all by thanking Allah for giving me the chance to learn by trying and succeed after failing. I would like to extend my gratitude to my advisor Prof. Ahmed Bensenouci for his constant support, guidance and useful critique of this research.

II. INTRODUCTION

Water is a vital element, which covers 70% of our planet. It is essential for all living organisms to survive. It is needed in industrial units, production units and the agricultural sector. There is only 3% of fresh water for drinking, irrigation etc. The two-thirds of that is in the frozen glaciers, which make it unavailable for use. This results in approximately 1.1 billion people worldwide with no access to water, whilst 2.4 billion suffer a water sanitization problem. This exposes them to different diseases such as typhoid fever and cholera [1]. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has a total population of nearly 30 million and an area of 2.25 million square kilometers. Through the

past three decades, the Kingdom has witnessed an increasing growth rate in the population. This placed a stress on water consumption in all sectors, the most affected of which were the agricultural, municipal and industrial sectors. Saudi Arabia is geographically positioned in an arid area with paucity of rain and limited groundwater reservoirs, which are rapidly depleting. Considering these conditions, water saving techniques and devices are a necessity [2], [3].

Agriculture is a major consumer of water and wastes much of it through inefficient techniques. At this current consumption rate, water sources will be reduced greatly. By 2025, almost two-thirds of the population of the world and the ecosystem may face water scarcity [1]. Developing methods for conserving water is a rising demand that the Saudi government is aspiring to achieve [4]. 1. According to the Ministry of Water, the average water consumption per capita is 300 litres per day. This high level of consumption exceeds the global proportions.2. Confirming that the agricultural sector consumes about 88 percent of the total water consumption in the Kingdom, Mansour Al-Kredes, a member of the Water, Agriculture and Environment Committee in the Shoura Council, put it thus;

Fig. 1 Water sustainability

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By preserving our environment and natural resources, we fulfill our Islamic, human and moral duties. Preservation is also our responsibility to future generations and essential to the quality of our daily lives. We will also promote the optimal use of our water resources by reducing consumption and utilizing treated and renewable water. (Saudi Vision

III. CURRENT IRRIGATION SYSTEMS

There are different types of irrigation systems to choose from depending on several factors. The natural conditions such as soil type, climate, water quality and availability have an impact on the choice of an irrigation method. The sprinklers are manmade imitation of rainfall. The basic concept for the sprinkler irrigation system is to spray water over the crops in the field. The pipeline technique has two types known as the main and lateral. The main pipe will carry the water from the fixed source then deliver it to the lateral pipeline. The lateral pipeline will spray the water received through the nozzles. Residential sprinklers vary in size depending on the lawn, cost and size of the garden. They are usually attached to a water faucet placed outdoors. An underground sprinkler depends on the hydraulic or electronic technology; it is a heavy-duty system which requires a higher amount of pressurized water [6]. Sprinklers are usually found in residential areas, resorts and golf courses [7]. The retail prices of the fixed sprinkler price range from 24 to 50 riyals. Although it is cheap, it needs a handy man to install it, since it is difficult for the consumer to assemble it. The rotating sprinkler’s price is approximately 100 riyals. It is used for fields that need constant irrigation.

The rotating head needs constant maintenance to clean the clogged nozzle. In some systems, the rotating head cannot withstand the water pressure and spins around uncontrollably. With the development of technology, a self-propelled water sprinkler was invented; its price approximately ranged between 257 and 266 riyals. This offers more flexibility than the other methods.

Water sprinklers witnessed an evolution through the years as they developed from stationary to rotating and to portable water sprinkling systems. They started back in 1977 with George Garcia’s [8] study leading to an invention. This was a portable irrigation device. The system was composed of a pump, which can fill up the tank with a two-horse power gasoline engine. This was to raise the water from the reservoir to the tank. The delivery pump for the irrigation was a three-horse power gasoline engine with a low delivery rate to achieve low pressure. From the delivery pump to valve for pressure regulator, a suction hose was connected. To put this device to test, fifty minutes were taken to water a 220 square meter field. The water consumption was 500 gallons. Although this method was considered efficient at that time, it had a large size and the huge water consumption made it unsustainable.

Sinden et al. made a traveling sprinkler with automatic water supply valve. The power supplied was by a twelve-volt battery positioned on the cart. In order to control the sprinkling system’s cart, a programmable logic controller was used. The latter was responsible for the movement, speed and the sprinkler’s operation. The cart had large rear drive wheels and two pairs of small front wheels. These wheels roll over the pipe placed on the field that provides a path for the cart. Fig. 1 Water sustainability

2030)

(2007)

[5].

[9]

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Mehta et al. constructed a prototype of mobile irrigation system by Arduino controlled algorithm to serve the agricultural sector. The vehicle was made to be controlled by an infrared remote control. It had a minimum range of 5 meters. Moreover, it utilized the ultrasonic sensors to avoid obstacles; this system was mostly manually controlled and had an automatic spray technique. It had an option for manual adjustment of the water spray intensity. The device movement was controlled via a microcontroller and DC motor.

Jianjun et al. [11] made a vehicle with a navigation control system that operates automatically. By using WLAN remote monitoring system, numerous tractors could be controlled. The monitoring system was connected to a GIS map, through it received information on every tractor’s location. This vehicle was made to allow remote monitoring and automatic navigation control to provide control over several vehicles.

III.1 The sprinkler system’s drawbacks:

Climatic conditions such as wind speed and increase in temperature can result in altering the distribution pattern and increase in water evaporation rate respectively. Expensive labor force will be required to move and install the pipes for permanent sprinklers.The amount of water being used in a traditional sprinkler system is more than required due to: 1. Overlapping range (Fig.2)2. Location of nozzle 3. Uneven distribution of water

Fig.2 Demonstrating the overlapping range

IV. ENHANCED SPRINKLERSYSTEM

From the various inventions shown, the proposed irrigation system will utilize similar components and additional ones to improve the overall usage. For example, there is the utilization of the solar panels that can charge the battery, which will help in reducing electricity usage. An ultrasonic sensor will be used to avoid obstacles. Moreover, the technique of having a temporary water tank without the constant intervention of the user was not commercially popular. All of these factors can further enhance the water sprinkling system, which is capable of reducing the water consumption. The commercially available sprinklers’ sizes are not efficient and awareness of using such a water-saving device is absent. This project aims to highlight the rising rates of water consumption and proposes a conceptually environment-friendly device which seeks to save water.

(2016) [10]

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IV.1 PROJECT DESCRIPTION

The proposed sprinkler device will combine the moving platforms feature with a portable water source. This system can be implemented in residential homes with a small to medium backyard. The proposed project description can be demonstrated as follows:

The ground moisture level can be detected by a moisture sensor, which will be positioned at the bottom of the device. The moisture sensor will be inserted into the ground temporarily then it will trigger the control circuit to activate the nozzles to spray water. A 12V DC rechargeable battery will be used for the motion of the motor and a sprayer pump with a driver (L298 Dual H-Bridge Motor Driver) should provide enough current for the pump. A servo and rotating platform will be used to spin the water flow as it leaves the nozzle. In order to transfer the water pipe to the desired area, the control will be made by Crowduino with ATMega and an Expansion Board to ease the connection. For the control of the spray distance, two servo motors will be used [12].

Fig. 3 Flowchart of the proposed system

A. Components description

A.1 Crowduino with ATMega 328

The Crowduino is a microcontroller board, which is based on the ATmega328. It has 14 digital input/output pins; 6 can be used as PWM outputs and 6 as analog inputs, and a USB connection and a power jack. It can be connected by a USB cable to the computer or with a battery. It has an Input voltage of 6-20V and a DC Current per I/O pin of 40 mA with a clock speed of 16 MHz.

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A.2 Solar panel The device that converts the light rays (photons) into electricity is the solar panel that consists of solar cells that are spread over a large area. It reaches full potential at places where the sun is strong because the more light rays that enter the cell, the more the production of electricity.A.3 MotionThe DC motor (1to 2 HP) will be used to provide the device with enough power to travel through the lawn. Wheels containing studs will be installed to ease the traveling on a muddy surface.A.4 SensorTwo types of sensors are proposed to be used. The first sensor is capable of detecting soil conditions such as the level of moisture on the field. This will help to prevent the moist area from being watered twice. It can be programed using an Arduino code. The code will include defined sensor pins, a variable to store the reading from the sensor to the Crowduino. After storing 5 readings, an average value can be taken and converted to a percentage. If the average value is lower than 28%, then the sprinkler will spray the water [13]. The ultrasonic sensor detects an object within a specified 3-meter diameter range, which is equivalent to the irrigation range. It is composed of an ultrasonic speaker, an optical reflective pair, and a microphone pair [14]. The sensor measures the round-trip time for a pulse to travel to an object and return back to the sensor. It utilizes the travel of acoustic waves and the calculation for the speed of sound to estimate the distance of an object. This helps to detect any potential obstacles such as a fence and thus reducing the sprinkler’s flow rate to avoid objects based on these input ranges [15].

Fig.4 The proposed Arduino code of moisture sensor

B. Proposed specifications

B.1 Watering calculationIn order to estimate the water amount required to water 100 square meter backyard, according to Jeddah municipality code the irrigation rate is 0.8 to 2.0 gallon/m2. This rate varies according to the weather conditions, type of soil and type of plant. The proposed pump has 1.05 HP thus a 30 psi would be sufficient as a good starting point for sprinklers [16].The Formulas used:• Water Specifications:Area x Irrigation rate = 100 x0.8 = 80gallon of water per day.

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C. The proposed control circuitThe water input pipe will be plugged into the water tank and the other end to the pump’s inlet. The water output pipe will be connected to the pump outlet; the other end will be fixed to the network of spraying nozzles. The pump will be connected to the outlet of the driver board.

The proposed connection of the Crowduino with the power supply and input ports of the driver are Driver to the CrowduinoINC to the D6IND to the D7VCC to the VINGND to the GND

The Crowduino will be powered when connected to a 12V battery. The solar panel is connected to the battery and off-grid setup will be used to charge the battery. This requires a charge controller to be connected to the solar panel and battery. The solar panel will store the

electricity into the battery then motion motor will function accordingly [17]. The expansion board will be plugged into Crowduino, the moisture sensor will be connected to the Crowduino via the expansion board. The sensors will be connected to the analog ports (A-0A2). For the location of the target area for spraying, an adjustment of zero position is needed. Once the prototype is developed this code can be tested.

Fig.5 The proposed control circuit for the servo motor

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A. Conceptual design

(a) Traditional

Fig.6 Traditional vs. Enhanced sprinklers Fig.8 Illustration of the product design

Fig. 7 Example of traveling sprinkler route

(b) Enhanced

For optimal usage, the dimension of the required area to be watered will be entered in the software program using the push buttons on the top of the device. The algorithm will determine the range of the water spread. The range of water can be manipulated to eliminate missed spots, depending on the size of the land. Once put on the site, the object sensor will sense the location of the sidewalk or fence to prevent any spillage outside the grass area. It will move and irrigate the area according to the calculated distance. The software program will act as an interface between the device and the Arduino code. The Arduino code will entail initialization and defining of the moisture pin and the servo position (to determine the position of the fence); and specifying the watering time by a constant value and specifying water pump control pins etc. Using the IF function, a decision will be made that if moisture value is lower than 28%, it will trigger the circuit and water the targeted area.

Fig.3 9D visualization of the product

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V. CONCLUSION

This project is still under development. With further progression and code testing, we can get more concrete results and values. The enhanced water sprinkling system is able to save approximately 16 gallons of water, which is 15% more than the traditional sprinklers. Using a solar panel on the top of the device can increase the surface area to receive the sunlight. This makes it efficient to be used in a sunny and dry area. The expected obstacles can be: choosing a suitable nozzle to handle the water pressure and building a suitable software program. Although it is expensive to buy, it will have a long run benefit saving in water usage as well as reducing the drainage required. This is highly beneficial, since the water wasted in large amount makes the grass susceptible to diseases and insects. Since the smart sprinkler device is capable of providing sufficient amount of water required by the grass, it prevents the need for a drainage pipe to get rid of the excess water. This makes us one-step closer to reaching the 2030 vision.In order to improve this device, some improvements have to be looked upon:• The range of the distance sensor can be further increased to cover wide areas like farms.• The buttons can be replaced with a touch screen to make it more user-friendly.

REFERENCES

[1]. imos, “Importance of water in our life”, 12 Oct. 2016, Available: http://importanceofstuff.com/water[2]. W. A. Abderrahman “Groundwater resources management in Saudi Arabia”, Special Presentation and Water Conservation Workshop, Dec. 2006, Available: http://sawea.org/pdf/FutureOfSaudiArabianWaterAquifers.pdf.[3]. O. K. Ouda, “Towards assessment of Saudi Arabia public awareness of water shortage problem”, Resources and Environment, vol. 3, issue 1, pp. ,10-13 2013, Available: http://www.pmu.edu.sa/kcfinder/upload/files/Towards_Assessment_of_Saudi_Arabia_Public_Awareness_of_Water_Shortage_Problem.pdf.[4]. S. AL-SUGHAIR, “KSA’s water consumption surpasses global average”, Arab News, 13 Feb. 2016, Available: http://www.arabnews.com/saudi-arabia/news/879801[5]. Saudi Vision 2030, Saudi Arabia’s Vision 2030, Achieving Environmental Sustainability, 16 April 2016, Available: http://vision2030.gov.sa/en/node/10[6]. P. Claude, Sprinkler Irrigation [Brochure], 1970, Available: https://eprints.nwisrl.ars.usda.g o v / 2 0 5 /1 /1 1 3 4 . p d f[7]. Jain Irrigation system Ltd. Products ,“Sprinkler Irrigation Systems”, 2014, Available: http://www.jains.com/irrigation/popups20%and20%sprinklers/s p r i n k l e r s y s t e m s . h t m[8]. G. Garcia , A Portable Irrigation System for Remote Sites,1979, Available: https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=cm2aCaoT56oC&printsec=frontcover&output=reader&hl=en&pg=GBS.PP1&pg=GBS.PP1[9]. J. Sinden, R. Ness, C. Leinweber, R.

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Berrier, C. Nelson & B. Nelson, Traveling Sprinkler Incorporating Automatic Water Supply Valve Docking Station, 2007, Available: https://www.google.com/patents/US7300004[10]. U. Mehta, P. Chand, K. A. Mamun, S. Kumar, V. Chand, N. Chand and H. Komaitai, “Designing of a mobile irrigation system”, 23 May 2016, Available: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/7476237/[11]. Z. Jianjun, C. Min'gang, Z. Man and L. Su, «Remote monitoring and automatic navigation system for agricultural vehicles based on WLAN», 4th International Conference on Wireless Communications, Networking and Mobile Computing, Dalian, 2008.[12]. Elecrow, “Arduino automatic watering system for plants sprinkler”, 26 March 2017, Available: http://www.instructables.com/id/Arduino-Automatic-Watering-System-For-Plants/[13]. Dynamax, Inc. “TH2O soil moisture meter”. Available: ftp://ftp.dynamax.com/Turf_Irrigation/th2o.pdf[14]. MODMYPI LTD. “HC-SR04 ultrasonic

range sensor on the raspberry Pi”, 11 Sep. 2015, Available: https://www.modmypi.com/blog/hc-sr-04ultrasonic-range-sensor-on-the-raspberry-pi[15]. J. Frank, B. Tai, & Y. Shnirman, “Final project report”, Polytechnic Institute of NYU, 1 May 2009, Available:http://engineering.nyu.edu/mechatronics/projects/ME3484/Spring202009%/Autonomous20%Sprinkler20%System20%with20%Object20%Avoidance/Mechatronics_R e p o r t _ F I N A L . p d f[16]. SODCO, “Reasons why you shouldn't overwater your lawn or turf - lawn care tips from Sodco”, Available:http://www.sodco.net/tips-and-re s o u rc e s / o v e r w a t e r i n g[17]. Power, Qualitative Reasoning Group,

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