Virtual Distance - PhD Disertation
-
Upload
instruktorstatistika -
Category
Documents
-
view
217 -
download
0
Transcript of Virtual Distance - PhD Disertation
-
8/9/2019 Virtual Distance - PhD Disertation
1/158
Virtual Distance: A Proposed Model for the Study of Virtual Work
By
Karen Sobel Lojeski
A DISSERTATION
Submitted to the Faculty o f the Stevens Institute of Technology in partial fulfillment o fthe requirements for the degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
S /t'ijeski, Candidate
ADVISORY COMMITTEE:
Dr. Richard iteilly, Chairman /Da te
Dr. warren Axelrod
br. Peter Dominick
Dr. Alan
-
8/9/2019 Virtual Distance - PhD Disertation
2/158
UMI Number: 3223521
Copyright 2006 by
Sobel Lojeski, Karen
All rights reserved.
INFORMATION TO USERS
The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy
submitted. Broken or indistinct print, colored or poor quality illustrations and
photographs, print bleed-through, substandard margins, and improper
alignment can adversely affect reproduction.
In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript
and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if unauthorized
copyright material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion.
UMIUMI Microform 3223521
Copyright 2007 by ProQuest Information and Learning Company.
All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against
unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code.
ProQuest Information and Learning Company
300 North Zeeb RoadP.O. Box 1346
Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346
roduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-
8/9/2019 Virtual Distance - PhD Disertation
3/158
ABSTRACT
Virtual Distance: A Proposed Model for the Study of Virtual Work
The extensive use o f virtual teams (VTs) and outsourced resources has become a
ubiquitous norm in many corporations around the globe. However, little is known about
how this increasing trend, being implemented on such a large scale, impacts critical
performance drivers (Powell, Piccoli et al. 2004).
Despite a growing body o f literature on the subject of virtual work, there is still no
unifying framework that helps to predict organizational outcomes. The goal o f this
dissertation is to develop such a framework. The model, coined the Virtual Distance
Model (VDM), will help both researchers and practitioners better understand the complex
set of issues that can cause degradation to performance and productivity on VTs.
Virtual Distance is defined as the perceived distance between two or more individuals,
groups or organizations, brought on by the persistent and pervasive use o f technology-
mediated work and communications. Virtual Distance is a multidimensional perceptual
construct designed using the key elements which promote a sense o f distance in virtual
work environments. Research has shown that the perceived distance between two or
more individuals has negative effects on communication and persuasion and promotes a
tendency to deceive (Bradner and Mark 2002). Virtual work is comprised of team
members that are, by definition, distant from one another, both physically and
produced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-
8/9/2019 Virtual Distance - PhD Disertation
4/158
psychologically. Socio-emotional factors can play a role in perceived distance and these
factors may contribute to decreased success (Barczak and McDonough 2003).
VDM was developed after conducting an extensive literature review and combining
findings from that effort with executive interview information collected over the course
of the first 18 months of this research. The model was tested using a multi-step research
method including surveys and follow-up interviews with key executives from a sample of
corporations leveraging virtual workspaces.
The findings show that Virtual Distance is in fact a new, unique and measurable construct
that has significant and negative relationships to Clarity, Trust and Organizational
Citizenship Behavior. The model also supports the hypothesis that through these
mediating variables Virtual Distance has a negative and significant relationship to Project
Success.
Author: Karen Sobel Lojeski
Advisor: Richard Reilly
Date: May 3, 2006
Department: Technology Management
Degree: Doctor of Philosophy
produced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-
8/9/2019 Virtual Distance - PhD Disertation
5/158
Dedication:
This work is dedicated to my husband Paul and my daughter Cezanne who both selflessly
provided me with constant support and made it possible for me to do what, at times,
seemed like the impossible. I love you both dearly you are the light of my life.
produced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-
8/9/2019 Virtual Distance - PhD Disertation
6/158
Acknowledgements:
I would like to thank my committee for all o f their support and critical input into this
dissertation. Each member added great value to this work. Peter Dominick was always
there to remind me that the process of good theory building is based on the combination
of experiences and academic research and was an on-going source of encouragement for
me. Bob Stinerock consistently provided me with motivation and empathy. Importantly
he underscored that to go through this process took some chutzpa and Bob always
helped me to see the lighter side of things. Alan Maltz kept me on track and provided
much-needed pragmatism and steady direction. Alan gently and routinely reminded me
to stay focused. Warren Axelrod helped me to put Virtual Distance into the context of
the most practical of real-world problems. Warren was a true believer from the
beginning and with each conversation he found new applications around how the work
could be used. And while everyone on the committee was invaluable to this work, most
importantly, I would like to thank Dr. Richard Reilly. Dick inspired me to use my mind
in ways that I could never have dreamed of before meeting him. As a brilliant researcher
and profoundly deep thinker, Dick taught me ways to look at and analyze problems that
have forever changed the way I will think about every-day life and philosophical
conundrums. There are no words that can truly describe my gratitude to him. Dick was
my mentor, my oracle o f all-that-is-the-best-about-research and he was a tireless and
highly enthusiastic contributor to the development of Virtual Distance. But most of all
Dick Reilly became a very dear friend to me - a relationship that I shall treasure for the
rest of my days. I also want to thank all of my friends and especially Dr. Mary Jo Wilson
for her never-ending supply o f support and encouragement.
produced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-
8/9/2019 Virtual Distance - PhD Disertation
7/158
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES...........................................................................................................8
LIST OF TABLES..............................................................................................................9
I. INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................10
LI THE RESEARCH PROBLEM...........................................................................10
I.n THE RESEARCH QUESTION ....................................................................14
Lffl SIGNIFICANCE.............................................................................................15
I.IV IMPLICATIONS AN D CONTRIBUTIONS..............................................16
II. REVIEW OF RELEVANT RESEARCH................... ............................................... .17
II.I REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE......................................................................17
II.E REVIEW OF VIRTUAL TEAM (VT) STUDIES AND DISTANCE FACTORS 28
n.m EXECUTIVE INTERVIEWS........................................................................ 44
n.rv LIMITATIONS OF THE RESEARCH.......................................................47
HI. THE PROPOSED MODEL...............................................................................49
m.I CONSRUCTS AN D OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS................................49
in.I HYPOTHESES.....................................................................................................52
m .n. VIRTUAL DISTANCE, TRUST, CLARITY, OCB AN D PS...................... 53
IV. METHODOLOGY............................................................................................58
IV.I LARGE SURVEY SAMPLE AND DATA COLLECTION...................... 59
IV.II DATA ANALYSIS.............................................................................................61
V. RESULTS...................................................................................................................62
V.I DATA CLEANSING AN D CASE ELIMINATION SUMMARY..................62
produced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-
8/9/2019 Virtual Distance - PhD Disertation
8/158
V.II PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS OF VIRTUAL DISTANCE VARIABLES.... 65
VIE. FINAL ANALYIS OF CONSTRUCTS..........................................................67
V.IV SUMMARY OF HYPOTHESIS TESTS.........................................................71
V.V IN THEIR OW N WORDS................................................................................72
VI. DISCUSSION............................................................................................................74
VLI BACKDROP.......................................................................................................74
VI.II VIRTUAL DISTANCE FACTORS CONSIDERED ..................................... 76
VI.III RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN VIRTUAL DISTANCE AND TRUST,
OCB, CLARITY AND PROJECT SUCCESS..........................................................88
VI.IV. CON TRIBUTION TO RESEARCH............................................................93
VI.V. CONTRIBUTION TO THEORY ......................................... 97
VII. PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS AN D FUTURE RESEARCH........................ 100
Vni. LIMITATIONS.....................................................................................................103
IX. CONCLUSIONS.......................................................................
Appendix 1 - Literature Review Detail.............................................. 106
Appendix 2 - Research Overview Sent to Prospective Participants............................ 121
Appendix 3 - Discussion Guide fo r Executive Interview s...........................................127
Appendix 4 - Glossary of Terms................................................................................... 128
Appendix 5 - Sample Excerpts from Executive Interviews....................................
130
REFERENCES .............................................................................................................. 131
Vita..................................................................................................................................143
produced with permission of the copyright owner. Furthe r reproduction prohibited without permission.
-
8/9/2019 Virtual Distance - PhD Disertation
9/158
Figure 1 - Model of Virtual Distance and Mediating and Dependent Variables..
Figure 2 - SEM Model.....................................................................................
67
Figure 3 - Identity Orientation Processes in Demographically Diverse Organizations*
Figure 4 - Thom psons Classification o f Interdependence....................................
Figure 5 - Literature Review Overview................................................................
produced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-
8/9/2019 Virtual Distance - PhD Disertation
10/158
Table 1 - Summary of V irtual Team Studies (Powell, Picolli & Ives, 2005)..................30
Table 2 *Comparative Table of Research and Distance Factors...................................
38
Table 3 - Construct Summary.........................................................................................50
Table 4 - Summary of Trust, Clarity and OCB Constructs...........................................52
Table 5 - Summary of Case Elimination ..........................................................................63
Table 6 - Preliminary Analysis of Virtual Distance Variables....................................... 66
Table 7 - Means, SD, Reliabilities, Intercorrelations for Model Variables.....................68
Table 8 - Summary of Hypotheses..................................................................................71
Table 9 - Selected Quotes from Comments Section of Survey...................................... 72
Table 10 - Characteristics of Bureaucratic and Post-Bureaucratic Organizations 79
Table 11 - Literature Review Analy..............................................................................I l l
Table 12 - Searchable Fields in Endnotes.................. 113
Table 13 - Table of Literature Databases Created........................................................115
Table 14 - Terminology Analysis..................................................................................117
Table 15- Duplication Analysis..................................................................................... 120
Table 16 - Glossary of Term s.........................................................................................128
eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-
8/9/2019 Virtual Distance - PhD Disertation
11/158
LI THE RESEARCH PROBLEM
Several developments have led to major changes in the way the 21* century economy
operates (Roach, 2005). They include, but are not exclusive of the following:
Rapid acceleration of globalization (Friedman 2005);
new organizational forms including the networked organization (Miles and Snow
1992);
and individuals working together regularly who are separated by time, space and
organizational affiliation.
The above are being strung together by IT-enabled connectivity. At the organizational
level, one o f the most notable changes has been the rapid rise in the use o f global, VTs
(Stough, et al. 2000). However, while the VT body o f research continues to grow, still
relatively little is known about the combined effects of virtual work on performance
outcomes (Powell, Piccoli et al. 2004).
Therefore, while many o f the VT studies provide useful insights and recommendations
for future research, a lack of significant findings on the dependent variable, Success, may
suggest that we still do not fully comprehend the nature o f the seismic shifts occurring in
virtual, increasingly global, networked organizations.
Several issues may be contributing to the need for a more integrative and multi
dimensional approach to the research and ensuing theory development. Three of these
produced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-
8/9/2019 Virtual Distance - PhD Disertation
12/158
11
issues include two distinct streams of literature that do not readily inform one another, a
dichotomous versus continuous distinction between virtual and traditional teams, and a
myopic discussion of distance that is constrained to only physical factors.
Two Distinct Literature Streams
VT research has traditionally been conducted, for the most part, from two distinct points
of view; the management or organizational point of view which focuses mainly on the
social impacts of geographic dispersion and asynchronous communication (Jarvenpaa
and Leidner 1998; Townsend, DeMarie et al. 1998), versus the technological point of
view, which sometimes looks into behavioral issues (Miranda and Bostrom 1994), but
more often, uses the technological system as the basis for research design and hypothesis
construction (Larsen and Mclnemey 2002). However, both technology and social issues
are important to understanding the overall impact of virtual work on performance and
success. For example, interpersonal relationships affect the use of technology in a
positive direction (Kraut, Steinfield et al. 1999). The level of cognitive absorption that an
individual displays may be an antecedent o f perceived technology usefulness and
perceived ease of use which leads to more social interactions (Agarwal and Karahanna
2000). Therefore, if one were to try and construct a unifying model for the study of
virtual work, it is important to recognize that virtual workspaces are an integrative blend
of management, organizational and technological issues (Turoff 1997).
produced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-
8/9/2019 Virtual Distance - PhD Disertation
13/158
12
Virtual verms Traditional Teams
Much o f the literature defines VTs as collections of individuals separated by geography
and time zones, who use high-speed telecommunications and computers to communicate
(Jarvenpaa and Leidner 1998; Townsend, DeMarie et al. 1998; Majchrzak, Rice et al.
2000; Malhotra, Majchrzak et al. 2001). Using this operational definition, researchers
have conducted studies designed to compare traditional teams against virtual teams;
in many instances treating the state of being virtual as a dichotomous variable (Powell,
Piccoli et al. 2004). However, in organizations that rely on information and
communication technology (ICTX most professionals use a variety of different media to
conduct business (Pauleen 2003). At times they may be geographically separated and use
email, instant messaging or other electronic communication tools while at other times
they may meet face to face (FtF) and communicate verbally and non-verbally. In some
cases they may be interacting using both FtF and electronic communications at the same
time (Richtel 2003). In the 21st century and beyond, virtually all global knowledge
workers are likely to be virtual at least part of the time; making it almost impossible for
researchers to stabilize experimental study conditions enough to reflect real-world
interaction dynamics using the current set of constructs as defined. While it is true that
some individuals on teams will never meet, over the course of a project, or long-term
partnership, for example a strategic outsourcing relationship, the state of virtualness
among individuals will likely vary (Pauleen 2003). Therefore, it is proposed that the state
of being virtual be seen as lying more on a continuum or spectrum versus being one or
the other.
produced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-
8/9/2019 Virtual Distance - PhD Disertation
14/158
13
Distance Constructs Constrained to Physical Factors
While the notion o f distance is, by definition, at the heart of VT studies, most of the
literature so far has focused on geographic and temporal factors. Co-located teams are
those defined as having members located in the same place, i.e. there is no physical
distance separating team members. VTs are those defined as having members that are
geographically separate, with vast distances between one another (Alavi 1994;
Townsend, DeMarie et al. 1998; Majchrzak, Malhotra et al. 2004). Therefore, the idea
that physical distance plays a role in VT behavior is well-established. However, research
also shows that other variables can contribute to a sense of socio-emotional or
psychological distance. Interpersonal, social, organizational and technical factors also
play a role ami have important implications for the attitudes and behavior of team
members and their ability to succeed (Bradner and Mark 2002). These factors can
include, but are not limited by, building trust and motivating one another, cultural
diversity and lack o f goal clarity (Barczak and McDonough 2003). Collaboration,
whether it is FtF or computer mediated, occurs within a much broader context than
simply geographic and temporal dispersion. So there is reason to expand the research
beyond physical distance constructs. One of the baric assumptions of this thesis was that
the use o f geographic and temporal distance constructs alone, are not enough to explain
performance differences among teams in the 21st century. Instead, it was posited that the
construct of distance for VTs be expanded to include socio-emotional distance factors as
well.
produced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-
8/9/2019 Virtual Distance - PhD Disertation
15/158
14
As Stephen wrote, it is time to let go of some of our time-honored relationships
(Roach, 2005). While Roach was referring to macro-economic relationships, the
sentiment applies to micro-economic relationships as well - including virtual teams and
globally distanced workforces. A paradigm shift in thinking is required to do so and a
new, unifying and parsimonious framework is needed to open up the black box that sits
between virtual work and performance outcomes; one that reflects the integrative and
multi-dimensional nature of the complex interplay of both real and perceived issues at the
individual and group level. The development of such a model was the purpose of this
thesis and the resulting model has been named, The Virtual Distance Model (VDM).
The model was developed through a review o f the major research streams primarily in
management and technology, combined with some central tenants of the theories of
distance, social science, and psychology. In addition, an initial set of field research was
conducted, in the form o f executive interviews, to ground the theoretical discussion in
real-world terms as perceived by leaders at major, global organizations.
I l l THE RESEARCH QUESTION
The research to date suggests that there may or may not be performance differences
between VTs versus traditional teams (Powell, Piccoli et al. 2004). However, as was
noted earlier, the use of VTs versus traditional teams as the primary grouping mechanism
has not captured significant differences with respect to success. Therefore, this may
imply that the studies to date do not capture important factors that contribute to VT
performance. Therefore, a unifying model for the study of virtual work was developed
produced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-
8/9/2019 Virtual Distance - PhD Disertation
16/158
15
in this thesis in order to extend the research and consider a broader set of distance factors.
By combining what has already been learned about geographic and temporal distance,
and adding those learnings to other, socio-emotional factors that have been shown to
contribute to a sense of distance among team members, the VDM provides evidence that
statistically significant differences on the success measure, is related to both.
So the primary focus of this research was to identify the major factors that contribute to a
perceived sense of distance among team members, brought on by the pervasive use of
computer mediated communication and expanding virtual work environments, and to test
whether and how these factors, when taken together, impact project success.
The research question was therefore stated as follows:
How does virtual work impact project success?
L in SIGNIFICANCE
While a number of theories have been used to support VT studies, including but not
exclusive of network and organization theory (Ahuja and Carley 1999), social presence
and media richness theory (Burke and Chidambaram 1999; Majchrzak, Rice et al. 2000;
Ramesh and Dennis 2002), contingency theory (Galegher and Kraut 1994), and
structuration theory (Krumpel 2000; Qureshi and Vogel 2001), there has yet to emerge a
parsimonious theory for the study of virtual work on which to build a predictive model of
VT performance. It was the intent of this thesis to provide both theoretical supports for
the Virtual Distance construct, and to test the construct through a rigorous research
produced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-
8/9/2019 Virtual Distance - PhD Disertation
17/158
16
design, in order to create a unifying theory of virtual work. The evidence from this
investigation suggests that Virtual Distance Theory (VDT) should be considered as such.
I.IV IMPLICATIONS AND CONTRIBUTIONS
The literature from a multitude o f sources including management, technology,
psychology, economics, networks, culture, distance theories and more, was reviewed as
part of this study. Combined with case study and survey data, an integrative, multi
dimensional view o f the potential causes for problems and performance degradation in
VTs was devised. Some suggest that this triangular and cross-disciplinary approach is
imperative if we are to better understand how virtual work impacts organizations over the
long term (Gopal and Prasad 2000; Orlikowski 2001). This study extends the literature
on virtual work in this manner. Additionally, a robust model for the study of virtual
work, that may provide predictive power for future VT studies, was also developed. This
was done by creating the construct of Virtual Distance. Virtual Distance was measured
using an indexing technique that quantitatively reflects many factors that to date have
been considered intangible or have gone unmeasured.
produced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-
8/9/2019 Virtual Distance - PhD Disertation
18/158
This chapter describes the review of the relevant research. An extensive literature review
on virtual work was conducted along with a review of relevant distance research. In
addition, executive interviews were used as another source of relevant research in the
model development. A detailed description of the review processes and analysis can be
found in Appendix 1.
In addition, this chapter includes a comparative table of some VT studies as described in
Powell, Picolli and Ives literature review (2005). This was done to highlight some
examples of the extent to which the factors that contribute to distance, as described in the
body of this dissertation, have been studied, within the context of previous works on the
subject of VTs.
I l l REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Virtual work environments are defined in a variety of ways. Virtual work can be
described as unique technological systems, in which software and system designers have
a major impact on not only the system design, but also the social systems in which they
are used (Turoff 1997). Virtual work environments are also operationalized as
geographically and temporally displaced groups of workers who use technology to
support work and communications (Jarvenpaa and Leidner 1998; Townsend, DeMarie et
al. 1998; Massey, Montoya-Weiss et al. 2001; Massey, Montoya-Weiss et al. 2003).
Others characterize virtual work groups as global VTs which are internationally
distributed and which work toward an organizational mandate (Manzevski and Chudoba
produced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-
8/9/2019 Virtual Distance - PhD Disertation
19/158
18
2000). Virtual work environments are also cited as new forms of online communities
(Hiltz and Wellman 1997; Dennis, Pootheri et al. 1998) and network communities
(Hattori, Ohguro et al. 1999). Another definition holds that virtual organizations are
networks of independent companies that connect to share skills and cost (Dess, Rasheed
et al. 1995). Others view a virtual organization as one that uses email to communicate
and coordinate work (Ahuja and Carley 1999). Some distinguish virtual work
environments as companies that outsource organizational competencies (Dess et al.,
1995).
An example of two very different points of view on virtualhy is described in the quotes
below.
In his 1997 paper Virtuality, Turoff wrote:
.. .the property of virtuality has to be of explicit concern to the designers of
these systems. Virtuality carries the potential for the conscious design andimplementation of social systems that include organizational and economicsystems at any level of social aggregation... .My definition o f virtuality can besummed up as the potential for a virtual system to become part of the real world.The speed at which these societal transformations are now possible has left behindthe current approaches to dealing with social change (Turof 1997, p.42).
Turoff considers virtuality in the context o f social change and system design. However
highly cited management researchers, Townsend, DeMarie and Hendrickson (1998),
reference virtuality in terms o f teams very differently:
.. .virtual teams are groups of geographically and/or organizationally dispersedcoworkers that are assembled using a combination of telecommunicationsand information technologies to accomplish an organizational task. Virtualteams rarely, if ever, meet in a face-to-face setting. (Townsend, DeMarie et al.1998).
produced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-
8/9/2019 Virtual Distance - PhD Disertation
20/158
-
8/9/2019 Virtual Distance - PhD Disertation
21/158
20
spatially and temporally displaced workers (Chidambaram 1996; Dennis and Kinney
1998; El-Shinnawy and Vinze 1998; Alavi, Marakas et al. 2002; Huang, Wei et al. 2003).
However no particular conclusions can be drawn when some of this work is taken in sum
(Pinsonneault and Heppel 1998).
Therefore, while the virtual work literature covers a wide variety of technologies and
organizational settings, the extensive variations in terminology and interpretation of
virtual work may be masking important findings that would otherwise be seen if a
unifying framework were used to discern virtual work research and bring together the
concepts that are reflected in these diverse lexicons.
Distance-Related Research
When one goes back and examines how distance has historically played a role in major
theory development, one quickly finds that distance has been an important factor in both
management and scientific endeavors. Part of modern-day economics is based on
location theory, which explains where economic activity takes place and why; a theory
grounded in the notion o f distance (Fujita and Krugman 2004). Cultural Distance (CD) is
also dted in economic literature. Understanding CD purports to help with decision
making in Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) by multinational corporations (Lin 1996).
Social Distance (SD), a theory often found in social science studies, describes differences
in economic class and status (Coyte 1991). Other concepts, like power distance (Kersten,
Koeszegi et al. 2003), can also be considered variant forms of SD. Social Network
Theory (SNT) describes how network theory can be used to explain social behaviors
produced with permission of the copyright owner. Furthe r reproduction prohibited without permission.
-
8/9/2019 Virtual Distance - PhD Disertation
22/158
21
(Safferstone 1998; Ahuja 2000). Interaction among VT members may be influenced by
factors such as node centrality, a distance-based phenomenon (Ahuja, Galletta et al.
2003). The small-world phenomenon (the extent to which nodes become effectively less
distant as the number o f nodes increases) and other network-related characteristics have
helped researchers understand the dynamics between information and people (Adamic
and Huberman 2001; Barabasi 2003). The theory o f strong ties versus weak ties also
relies on distance-centered assumptions (Ho, Ang et al. 2003). Although strong ties may
be closer in proximal location, weak ties may be more meaningful to the network node or
individual (Wellman 2001).
Distance therefore can be seen as a fundamental concern in many disciplines. For VT
research, how can these and other distance theories be useful to the study of virtual work?
One clue was uncovered in Bradner and Marks 2002 article, Why Distance Matters:
Effects on Cooperation, Persuasion, and Deception. In this study the authors conducted
an experiment in which one group was told that the confederate, speaking to all the
participants only through virtual communications, was in the same city. The other group
was told that the confederate was across the country. Measurements on cooperation,
persuasion and deception were taken during the course of these virtual interactions. The
study found that perceived distance was a significant contributor to behavior. Those who
thought that they were further away were significantly less likely to cooperate or be
persuaded by the confederate and were significantly more likely to deceive others. (For
more detail see Bradner and Mark, 2002).
produced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-
8/9/2019 Virtual Distance - PhD Disertation
23/158
22
Most global VT research considers Geographic Distance (GD) as a fundamental
characteristic. But distance can also be used to describe the emotional or psychological
gap between team members who work in the same building and regularly meet face to
face (FtF). For a team that is working primarily in virtual space, socio-emotional
distance may be a function o f several other factors in addition to the obvious ones of
geography and computer mediation.
Factors Influencing Distance
Based on a review of management, information systems and psychological literature, a
number of socio-emotional distance factors that influence team members were identified.
These include spatial, temporal, technical, organizational and social factors that shape the
perceptions of individuals engaged in collaborative work. In the present investigation
these factors were reviewed as to how they collectively impacted work related attitudes,
behavior and performance. Eleven factors likely to influence the perceptions of distance
between team members, are discussed in the following sections.
i. Geographic Distance (GD)
Research suggests that physical separation or closeness is of great importance to
interactions and that the closer one is physically to another, the greater the chance to form
social ties (Latane and Herrou 1996). Physical distance also impacts the tendency to
deceive, ability to influence and the likelihood of cooperation (Bradner and Mark 2002),
and has been shown to have some impact on learning behavior (Latane and Bourgeois
produced with permission of the copyright owner. Furthe r reproduction prohibited without permission.
-
8/9/2019 Virtual Distance - PhD Disertation
24/158
1996; Bulte and Moenaert 1998; Arbaugh 2001; Bradner and Mark 2002; Coppola, Hiltz
et al. 2002).
2. Temporal Distance (TD)
Differences in time zones between VT members are often cited as one of the factors that
plays a role in VT interactions (Jarvenpaa and Leidner 1998; Montoya-Weiss, Massey et
al. 2002; Massey, Montoya-Weiss et al. 2003). It has also been suggested that TD be
considered when structuring organizations (Orlikowski and Yates 2002), globalizing an
organization (Boudreau, Loch et al. 1998), assessing team boundary issues (Espinosa,
Cummings et al. 2003) and coordinating VTs (Montoya-Weiss et al., 2002)
3. Relational Distance (RD)
RD refers to the difference between team members organizational affiliations. For
example, an employee of a company is relationally closer to another employee of the
same company versus an employee from a third party service provider. RD has been
shown to play a key role in social cohesion (Moody and White 2003), information
systems networks, as well as leader effectiveness (Klagge 1997).
4. Cultural Distance (CD)
Cultural differences have, to date, been a focus o f some research in virtual work and
innovation, VTs (Jarvenpaa and Leidner 1999; Dube and Pare 2001; Massey, Montoya-
Weiss et al. 2001), new product teams (Barczak and McDonough HI, 2003), risk
mitigation (Grabowski and Roberts 1999), virtual societies (Igbaria 1999), consensus
produced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-
8/9/2019 Virtual Distance - PhD Disertation
25/158
24
building using group support systems (Mejias, Shepherd et al. 1997), majority influence
(Tan, Wei et al. 1998), software development (Tellioglu and Wagner 1999) and more.
CD has also been used to study foreign investment expansion, entry mode choice, and the
performance of foreign invested affiliates, among others (Shenkar 2001). Following the
discussion o f social network theory and distance related phenomenon, CD has also been
used to interpret network ties amongst managers (Stevenson 2001). Additionally CD is
used to explain how international relationships affect responses and behaviors amongst
employees (Thomas and Ravlin 1995).
5. Social Distance (SD)
SD has been studied in a number of contexts including class or status differences
(Akerlof 1997), feelings of social closeness and distance based on social interactions in
social space (Bottero and Prandy 2003), as a factor in direct and networked exchanges
(Buchan, Croson et al. 2002), as a function of management (Fox 1977), a dimension of
the Systematic Multiple Level Observation of Groups (SYMLOG) management behavior
assessment (Jensen 1993), as a perceived measure contributing to the concept o f leader
distance (Antonakis and Atwater 2002), and as a factor in friendship networks
(Krackhardt and Kilduff 1999). Wiesenfeld found that virtual work environments may
weaken ties that bind organizations and their members together (Wiesenfeld, Raghuram
et al. 1999) increasing SD. In another case, centrality, or less distance from the center of
the social network, was found to mediate the relationship between social status and
virtual R&D groups (Ahuja, Galletta et al. 2003). In a virtual organization with no
produced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-
8/9/2019 Virtual Distance - PhD Disertation
26/158
25
formalized hierarchy at the outset, the emergence of a hierarchy and SD was found
(Ahuja and Carley 1999).
6. Relationship History (RH)
One aspect of SD is RH. This includes both the extent to which members have had a
prior relationship or relationships with some of the same people. RH has been shown to
be important in mentoring (Siegel, 2000) and trust building (Rousseau, Sitkin et al.
1998). In his study, "When does the medium matter? Knowledge-building experiences
and opportunities in decision-making teams", Alge showed that FtF teams exhibited
higher levels of openness, trust and information sharing than computer mediated teams
that did not have a RH. However when computer mediated teams had prior relationships,
many of these issues were eliminated. (Alge, Wiethoff et al. 2003).
7.Interdependence
Interdependence is the degree to which one individual or group perceives that their
success is tied to another individual or group member (Thompson, 1967). Thompson
claimed distance was a major factor in his classification scheme on Interdependence
(Thompson 1967). Interdependent tasks require more communication (Bishop and Scott
2000), which should lead to decreased distance between team members. Task
interdependence has also been related to both organizational commitment and team
commitment and OCB (Pearce and Gregersen 1991; Bishop and Scott 2000). In the
virtual realm, goals may become less clear amongst players if they are not directly
attached to some sort of organizational mandate (Manzevski and Chudoba 2000).
produced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-
8/9/2019 Virtual Distance - PhD Disertation
27/158
26
Interdependent goals have also been found to have importance to international teams
(Davison 1994) and embedded, interdependent goal-setting in GSS has been shown to
help team cohesion (Huang, Wei et al. 2003).
8. Face to Face (FtF) Interaction
The notion of social presence has been used in research on virtual work to describe the
extent to which team members feel the presence o f other group members and die feeling
that the group is jointly involved in communicating (Andres and Zmud 2002; Venkatesh
and Johnson 2002). One end of the continuum of social presence is FtF so frequency of
FtF interaction should be related to perceptions of distance. In some cases only email is
used and no FtF or phone communications are considered (Jarvenpaa and Leidner 1999).
In other studies, two or more types of mediated communications are investigated. In
Why Distance Matters, Effects on Cooperation, Persuasion and Deception (Bradner
and Mark 2002), the authors chose Instant Messaging and Video Conferencing in an
attempt to simulate two ends of the communication spectrum. In other studies it has been
found that some FtF meetings blend well with other types of communication mediums.
There is some emerging support for the notion that a mix of communication methods
improves performance (Aiken and Vanjani 1997) mid produces higher levels of
commitment (Alavi 1994; Alavi, Wheeler et al. 1995).
9. Team Size (TmS)
Group or team size has been shown to affect ones sense o f belonging (Williams and
Wilson 1997). A sense of belonging is critical to the development of organizational
produced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-
8/9/2019 Virtual Distance - PhD Disertation
28/158
identity, which has been shown to have a direct influence on OCB (Shamir 1990; Pratt
1998). Group size in VTs has also been shown to affect team decision making (Baltes,
Dickson et al. 2002) and satisfaction (Dennis and Wixom 2002). Group size in virtual
work had impact on group support system processes (Dennis and Wixom 2002).
10. Multi-Tasking (M I)
Multi-tasking is a term used to describe a person working on more than one task at a
time. It can create significant stress on a person if he or she becomes overloaded and it
can lead to less efficiency and productivity (Brillhart 2004). Cognitively distancing
oneself horn the stress created by multi-tasking and information overload is known as
absent presence, the idea that we may be physically on a street comer, but our distracted
minds are not. (Berman 2003). The absent presence is a form of psychological distance.
Some have found that frequent interruptions affect decision making (Speier, Valacich et
al. 1999, Thompson, 2005). During meetings in the new millennium many listen to
presentations while also using hand-held PDAs to communicate with others
simultaneously. Some experts believe that multi-tasking in this way is detrimental to
productivity (Richtel 2003). While it has been shown that telecommuting can improve
satisfaction and work/life balance (Hill, Miller et al. 1998), family and other home-based
considerations may represent a form of multi-tasking that creates stresses that are difficult
to overcome (Richtel, 2003). The extent to which workers multi-task depends, in part, on
the organizations desire to increase productivity (Cascio 1993; Snizek 1995); another
key reason why virtual work is proliferating at hyperspeed.
produced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-
8/9/2019 Virtual Distance - PhD Disertation
29/158
28
11. Technical Skill (TS)
Studies have shown that a members comfort level with technology plays a role in their
interactions with distant team members (Staples, Hulland et al. 1999). Less technically
competent team members may be less inclined or able to communicate and form the
kinds of relationship that would decrease social distance. The theory of cognitive fit
describes the need for matching problem-solving task to problem-solving tools in order to
obtain higher levels of performance (Agarwal, Sinha et al. 1996). Major corporations
have also found that technical and interpersonal skills are important to the selection of
VT members who are most likely to be committed to the project and to each other
(Kirkman, Rosen et al. 2002).
ILII REVIEW OF VIRTUAL TEAM (VT) STUDIES ANDDISTANCE FACTORS
In addition to the extensive literature review as discussed in the previous section and
detailed in Appendix I, a more targeted analysis was conducted to highlight how distance
is addressed in a sample of VT studies that are often cited. The studies chosen for this
analysis were taken from Powell, Picolli, and Ives literature review of 43 VT studies
(Powell, Picolli & Ives, 2005). A summary of these studies is shown in Table 1. In
Table 2 the representative studies are compared against the distance factors discussed
above. The studies highlighted by Powell, Picolli, and Ives (2005) are listed in the first
column. The distance factors are listed in the first row. A Y was marked in a cell if the
study addressed the distance factor and an N was marked if the study did not address
the distance factor.
produced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-
8/9/2019 Virtual Distance - PhD Disertation
30/158
Assumptions for Virtual Team Study Analysis
As was discussed in the previous section, VT research inherently assumes that VTs are
geographically distant (Townsend, 1998). Some meet FtF while others do not.
Therefore, for all studies listed, GD and FtF are assumed to be factors in the study. For
those investigations that included global VTs, it was assumed, although not always
specifically stated, that the study also considered TD and CD. Unless specifically stated,
all team members were assumed to be part of the same oiganization. Therefore RD was
not a factor. In some of the student-based studies (i.e., in the majority of the samples),
team members may have been relationally distant although this was not necessarily
stated, so it was not assumed to be a factor. If the work was described as focused on
Relationship Building, then it was assumed that the participants did not know each other
prior to the study, nor did they know any of the same people prior to the study.
Therefore, RelD was assumed to be present.
produced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-
8/9/2019 Virtual Distance - PhD Disertation
31/158
Table 1 - Summary of Virtual Team Studies (Powell, Picolli & Ives, 2005)
AuthorsYear ofPublication
Issues /VariablesExamined
TheoryTimeFrame
SubjectsTeamSize
Results
Ahuja&Carley
1999
Task, networkstructure,hierarchy,centralization, fit,
performance
Network andOrganization FormTheories
OngoingOrganizationemployees andacademics
66
VTs can be hierarchical and centralized from acommunication standpoint Fit between task andstructure not associated with objective performance
but is associated with satisfaction
Archer 1990
Decision quality,number ofalternatives, timeto reach decision,satisfaction
AST 8 Week Graduate Students 4-5VTs took longer to reach decision, but had equalquality and satisfaction
Berdahl &Craig
1996Participation,influence, gender
Proportional,Social Role,Expectation States
7 WeeksUndergraduateStudents
3-4Participation more centralized in VTs. In VTs, malesin majority-female teams had more influence, males imajority-male teams had less influence than females.
Burke &Aytes
1998
Cohesiveness,equality of
participation,leadership,coordination,
performance
4 WeeksUndergraduateStudents
3-4No difference between VT and TT in cohesiveness,performance, and equality of participation. Leadershbetter in TT. VT better at coordination at first.
Burke &
Chidambaram
1996
Social presence,communication,
effectiveness, ease-of-use,
performance
Social Presence &Media Richness 4 Weeks
UndergraduateStudents 4
TT reported greater social presence, communication
effectiveness, and ease-of-use. No difference inperformance between VT and TT.
Chidambaram
1996Work processes,cohesiveness,satisfaction
SIP, PunctuatedEquilibrium Model
4 WeeksUndergraduateStudents
5Over time, VT members will exchange enoughinformation to develop relational ties. Over time,attitudes improve as does satisfaction with outcomes.
-
8/9/2019 Virtual Distance - PhD Disertation
32/158
AuthorsYear ofPublication
Issues /VariablesExamined
TheoryTimeFrame
SubjectsTeamSize
Results
Chidambaram &Bostrom
1993
Conflictmanagement,cohesiveness,number ofahematies,decision quality
SIO, AST 4 WeeksUndergraduateStudents
5
No difference between teams decision quality. VTmore equal participation, task focus, more alternativegenerated. TT better at first in conflict management,cohesiveness; by midpoint, VT had surpassed TT.
Chidambarametal.
1990-1991Conflict resolution,cohesiveness
AST 4 Week Undergraduatestudents
5Conflict resolution and cohesiveness both initially
better in TT, by time 4. VT better at both VT morelikely to think of idea as ours
Crampton 2001Mutual knowledge,communication
problems
CommunicationTheories
7 Weeks Graduate Students 65 types of communication problems identified fromfailure o f creating mutual knowledge in VT.
Eveland &Bikson
1988
Leadership,sstructure,satisfaction,communication
1 YearOrg. workers &retirees
206-10 insubgroups
TT greater leadenhsip stability. VT leadershipfluctuated more. VT created unique structure. VTsatisfaction continually increased TT satisfactionremained same. VT communicated more.
Galegher&Kraut
1994
Planning, socialconversations,revising/writing,coordinationdifficulty, totalcommunication,communicationquality, perceivedfairness, perceived
project quality,projectperformance
ContingencyTheoryDiscuss severalothers
4 Week Graduate Students 3
TT more effective planning, revising/writing,perceived fairness, communication quality. VThadmore total communication. No difference in projectperformance. VT required more time, spent more tincommunicating. VT had more coordination difficult;fewer social conversations.
-
8/9/2019 Virtual Distance - PhD Disertation
33/158
AuthorsYear ofPublication
Issues /VariablesExamined
TheoryTimeFrame
SubjectsTeamSize
Results
Galvin &Ahuja
2001
Communicaiton,member status,informationexchange,informationcontent
OngoingOrg employees &academics
Notgiven
Newcomers to team engage in greater informationseeking, established members engage in moreinformation providing. Established members engagemore in seeking norms and values information - newmembers more likely to seek out this type ofinformation from private source.
Hollingshead,McGrath &OConnor
1993
Task type, taskperformance,cumulativeexperience,changes
Task-media fit
Task circumplexmodel
9 WeeksUndergraduateStudents
4-5
No difference between VT and TT for generating and
decision making tasks. TT better for negotiation andintellective tasks early on. Relationship between taskand technology performance more dependent onexperience with technology and team membershiprather than task type
Jarvenpaaetal.
1998
Benevolence,integrity, ability,teambuilding,trust, propensity totrust others
Results supporttheory of swifttrust
8 Weeks Graduate Students 4-5
Integrity early on important to development of trust,benevolence over time. Team building increasedknowledge about team members but did not directlyincrease trus t
Jarvenpaa& Leidnerr
1999 Swift Trust Swift trust 6 weeks Graduate Students 4-5
VTs with high trust also had: social communication,enthusiasm, predictable communication, substantialtimely feedback, ability to cope w ith technicaluncertainty, initiative, social to task focus, positiveleadership, phlegmatic response to crises. Swift trustlikely a result of communications
Johanssonetal.
1999Communication,coordination
5 WeeksUndergraduate andGraduate Students
22
Communication and coordination were biggest issuesin VT. Obstacles to coordination; power, doing it owway (power issues), communication predictability,culture
-
8/9/2019 Virtual Distance - PhD Disertation
34/158
Authors
Year ofPublication
Issues /VariablesExamined
TheoryTimeFrame
SubjectsTeamSize
Results
Kaiser etal.
2000 Performance 3 WeeksUndergraduate andGraduate Students
6To improve performance in VT: intermediate goals awell as final goals, similar training for all clearstructure, team maintenance activities, team building.
Kayworth&Leidner
2000
Communication,
culture,technology,leadership,relational links,,satisfaction,success
6 WeeksUndergraduate andGraduate students
5-7
VTs using more communication methods moresatisfied and more successful. Cultural differencesintensify communication and coordination problems.Effective leadership needed. Richer communicationfacilitates socialization
Kayworth& Leidner
2001-2002
Leader role, roleclarity, leadershipeffectiveness,culture,communicationeffectiveness
LeadershipTheories
5 WeeksUndergraduate andGraduate Students
5-7Effective leadership associated with communicationsatisfaction, role clarity, better relational skills, abilityto foster relational aspects structure
Krumpel 2000
Group knowledge,production,communication,content
StructurationTheory
OngoingWorking Group ofsubcommittees forIEEE
51Group knowledge production possible in VT. Group:engaged in knowledge production would do betterwith a leader
Lind 1999
Gender, cohesion,conflict, quality ofwork,inclusiveness
6-6 Weeks Students 4Women more satisfied. Felt more included and greatteam cohesiveness with the VT experience than men.
NO difference in quality of work between VT and Tl
-
8/9/2019 Virtual Distance - PhD Disertation
35/158
Authors
Year ofPublication
Issues /Variables
Examined
TheoryTimeFrame
SubjectsTeamSize
Results
Lurey &Raisinghani
2001
Job characteristicsselection
procedures, teamrelations, team
processes,leadership,effectiveness,education,
rewards, executiveleadership, toolsand technologies,communication
Lengthvaried
Organizationemployees
Varied(3-15 in12separate
teams)
Team processes and ember relations had strongestrelationship to performance and satisfaction.Selection procedures and executive leadership stylemoderately related to performance and satisfaction.
Majchrzaketal.
2000a
Technology use,success, task type,conflict, sharedlanguage/knowled
ge
Media Richness,Social Presence,ask Circumplex
10 monthOrganizationemployees
8
FtF or phone used for abigous tasks, managingconflicts, brainstorming, clarifying goals, etc. VTused for routine tasks of analysis, project status. FtFmeetings early on created a shared language betweenmembers -= this enabled ambiguous tasks to becompleted later by VT
Majchrzaketal.
2000b AST 10 monthOrganizationemployees
8
Using collaborate technology creates severalmisalignments with pre-existing structure andenvironment VTs need to adapt all 3 structures -technology, o. environment, and work group structure
Malhotraetal
2000Sharedunderstanding,knowledge sharing
10 month Organizationemployees
8
3 mgt practices contribute to success of VT: strategy
setting, technology use should facilitate sharedknowledge and collaborative use, restructuring workwithout changing core needs
Mark 2001
Socialization,technology
participation, teamculture, integratingteam members
Over 6months
Organizationemployees
8-15Key challenges of VT of participation, team culture,and integrating remote work discussed
-
8/9/2019 Virtual Distance - PhD Disertation
36/158
Authors
Year ofPublication
Issues /VariablesExamined
TheoryTimeFrame
SubjectsTeamSize
Results
Maznevski& Chudoba
2001
Processes,performance,communication,cohesion, culture,technology use,decision quality,commitment
AST Long-termOrganizationemployees
8,9, & 12
Effective VTs have high commitment, highcohesiveness, effective processes, satisfaction withdecisions, continuous communication, task-technologfit. Cultural difference affected coordination. RegulfFtF meetings provided necessary coordination.
McDonoughetal.
2001
Behavioralchallenges, projectmanagementchallenges,
performance
OngoingOrganizationemployees
Did notreport
Behavioral challenges greatest in GVT, then VT, ther
TT. Project management challenges least in TT.Performance greatest in TT then VT, then GVT.Greater project management challenges are associate*with lower performance for all 3 types of teams.Project management challenges more a function ofdistance between members than cultural differences.
Monyoya-Weiss et al.
2001Process structure,conflict
performanceConflict theories 3 weeks
Undergraduatestudents
5
Avoidance, compromise conflict has negativerelationship with performance. Process structureweakens negative effect on performance foravoidance, compromise conflict. Competition,collaboration conflict has positive relationship with
performance.
Qureshi &Vogel
2001
Adaptation(technology, work,socialX structure,specialization,coordination, task,learning
Provide framework of adaptation and organizationchallenges in VTs. Review of current research onadaptation.
Ramesh&Dennis
2002Coordination,work processes
Media Richness,MediaSynchranicity
3 month 11month2 Years
Organizationemployees
3610-56
VTs may operate better as object-oriented teams -decoupling team members through use o f well define
processes, inputs, and /or outputs rather than trying tctightly couple members may improve coordination inVTs.
-
8/9/2019 Virtual Distance - PhD Disertation
37/158
Authors
Year ofPublication
Issues /VariablesExamined
TheoryTimeFrame
SubjectsTeamSize
Results
Robey etal.
2000
Learning,management,performance,communication,technology use,FtF meetings
Learning Theories 3+yearsOrganizationemployees
Communication improves cultural understandingswhich improve coordination. FtF meetings needed tcgain respect, trust, and interpersonal relations. Choicof technology based on many factors. Learning can teffectively accomplished; in VT
Sarker&Sahay
2002
Time, space,
culture, technicalexpertise,communication,coordination,socialization
14 Week Students 8-10Strategies for dealing with challenges involved withVTs
Sarkeretal.
2001
Technology,norms, social
practices, teamdevelopmentsages, frames ofreference,collaboration
Adapted GroundedTheory
CommunicationTheories
Structuration
14 Weeks Students 8-10 Communication, collaboration, social norms all adapland change in different stages of team development
Savicki etaL
1996Gender, task,communication,team development
4 WeeksUndergraduatestudents
4-6Female-only VTs are more satisfied, send more wordhave better team development, and self-disclose morethan male-only or mixed-gender VTs
Shardaetal.
1988
Effectiveness,decision time,confidence,number ofalternatives
8 WeeksUndergraduatestudents
3VT greater effectiveness and took longer to makedecision. No difference between VTs and TT onconfidence, number of alternatives generated.
-
8/9/2019 Virtual Distance - PhD Disertation
38/158
AuthorsYear ofPublication
Issues /VariablesExamined
TheoryTimeFrame
SubjectsTeamSize
Results
Suchan&Hayzak
2001Communication,attitudes,,technology use
Communication most important factor for success,seen as strategic activity to be considered daily.Mentoring program enabled socialization of member:Leaders used FtF meetings to help develop trustCulture and reward system supported informationsharing.
Tan et al. 2000
Cohesiveness,
collaboration,perceived decisionquality, perceiveddecisionsatisfaction
Dialogue Theory 4 weeksUndergraduateStudents
5
VTs receiving dialogue training had highercohesiveness, collaboration, perceived decisionquality, perceived decision satisfaction Differencesremained over time.
VanRysson&Godar
2000
Culture,technology,communicationeffectiveness
3 MonthsUndergraduateStudents
4
Cultural differences created problems for UG studentin areas of socialization, communication, coordinatio:Training needed both in how to communicate and ho1to use technology
Walther 1995Relationalcommunication
SIP 5 WeeksUndergraduatestudents
3
VTs became less task-oriented and less formal overtime. VTs perceived greater immediacy / affection /inclusion, communication of attitude likeness than di(0
Ioo
a
sEcw
'c o
.CO
cusCS
oo
produced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Correlation
issignificantatthe
0.05
level(1-tailed).
-
8/9/2019 Virtual Distance - PhD Disertation
68/158
-
8/9/2019 Virtual Distance - PhD Disertation
69/158
68
Table 7 - Means, SD, Reliabilities) Intercorrelations for Model Variables
Mean StandardDeviation
VDI Trust OCB Clarity ProjectSuccess
(PS)
VDI -9.8543E-03.5147 (90)
Trust 2.0193 .7780 -.554(**) (.71)
OCB 3.6132 .5299 -,406(**) .451(**) (.82)
Clarity 3.6304 .7151 -,373(**) ,475(**) ,433(**) (.66)
Project
Success (PS)
3.4563 .8633-.239(**) ,317(**) ,418(**) ,398(**) (.84)
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (1-tailed).
Cronbachs alpha shown for all variables except VDI. VDIreliability was estimated as 1 - VEi/Vt; where VE is theerror variance for each of the eight components and V is thevariance for VDIReliabilities for all variables are shown in die diagonal
V.III.1 STRUCTURED EQUATION MODELING (SEM) RESULTS
Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was used to test the overall model shown in Figure
1. The hypothesized model was tested with LISREL8. Figure 2 shows the results of the
SEM analysis for the hypothesized model with standardized path coefficients.
produced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-
8/9/2019 Virtual Distance - PhD Disertation
70/158
Figure 2 - SEM Model
.423
PSVirtual
Distance
Trust OCB-.640 .205 .479
-.338
The most common measure of absolute fit is the chi-square (x2)test, which is used to
determine whether there is a difference between observed and predicted covariance, with
a lower chi-square indicating a better fit. Another absolute fit test is the Root Mean
Squared Error of Association (RMSEA). This test is based on an analysis of the
covariance residuals, which are the differences between the predicted and observed
covariance. A value below 0.10 indicates a good fit (Steiger, 1990). An additional
absolute fit test is the Goodness o f Fit index (GFI) that measures how much better the
model fits relative to no model at all. Values are between 0 and 1, with scores greater
than 0.90 generally indicating a good fit (Kelloway, 1998, p. 27]. Because sample size
plays a major rol in absolute measures of fit *hree measures of comparath *fit were
used. The Comparative Fit Index (CFI) and Normed Fit Index (NFI) and Non-normed Fit
*
Index (NNFI) measu.c how much better the model fits compared to a model in which all
observed variables are uncorrelated. A value of 0.90 or greater generally indicates a good
fit (Kelloway, 1998, p. 31).
roduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-
8/9/2019 Virtual Distance - PhD Disertation
71/158
70
All path coefficients were significant (p
-
8/9/2019 Virtual Distance - PhD Disertation
72/158
71
V.JV SUMMARY OF HYPOTHESIS TESTS
The results of the hypotheses described in Chapter in are summarized in Table 9below.
Table 8 - Summary of Hypotheses
Hypothesis Supported (Yes/No)
H I: The factors of VDM will have thefollowing relationships to overall
perceived distance:
H la : CD will be significantly and
positively related to perceiveddistance
Supported
H lb: SD will be significantly and Partially supportedpositively related to perceived Supported on Contribution Statusdistance Not Supported on Formal Status
H lc: RelD will be significantly and
positively related to perceiveddistance
Supported
H id : ID will be significantly andpositively related to perceiveddistance
Supported
Hie: FtF interactions will be significantlyand negatively related to perceived
distance
Supported
H lf: TmS will be significantly andpositively related to perceiveddistance
Supported
H lg : MT will be significantly andpositively related to perceiveddistance
Supported
H lh : TS will be significantly andnegatively related to perceiveddistance
Not supported
H2: VDI will have a significant and
negative relationship to Clarity
Supported
H3: VDI will have a significant andnegative relationship to Trust
Supported
H4: Trust will have a significant andpositive relationship to OCB
Supported
H5: Clarity and OCB will have a direct,significant and positive relationship to
Supported
eproduce d with permission of the copyright owner. Furthe r reproduction prohibited without permission.
-
8/9/2019 Virtual Distance - PhD Disertation
73/158
72
Hypothesis Supported (Yes/No)
Success
V. V IN THEIR OWN WORDS
In addition to the survey items, participants were offered the chance to express any
comments they felt were important to the discussion. Table 10 is a partial list of these
comments. The first column, labeled Had Impact reflects a sampling of comments
from those that felt that working FtF versus virtually was generally better. This group
also widely believed that distanced team members created challenges for them. The
second column, labeled Had No Impact reflects a sample of comments from those that
felt working virtually was a positive or neutral experience. This group predominantly
thought that working virtually did not make a major difference for them. While not all
participants provided comments, the majority of comments reflected a preference for
working FtF.
Table 9 - Selected Quotes from Comments Section of Survey
It is easier to plan the work when in the same location. It had no effect, because the vendor is in Canada, in theVirtual sessions take more time and planning. same time zone and not on the other side of die world.
For the distant people, the key to relationship building iscommunication to build up trust between the parties. . . . .. ,Another key ingredient is listening we must be hble to E v f ^ w o r io n g ta the same location, not alllisten to other parties andunderstand their business sent representation to the weekly meetmgs.
issues, etc to work effectively together.
eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Furthe r reproduction proh ibited witho ut permission.
-
8/9/2019 Virtual Distance - PhD Disertation
74/158
Because some team members were located in India, timewas wasted waiting for resolutions to issues. When
programs were tested by local team members and issueswere found, it required an extra day for each occurrenceto be resolved because of die time zone difference.
Distance is not a problem. I am on die best team, havethe kindest, most considerate co-workers imaginable -and a great leader who is always positive andsupportive. We are all very lucky.
It is more productive working in the same location
Virtual is better, faster and more productive - It savestransportation costs, saves transportation time, increasesthe available time for die employee to work, and isgenerally less stressful.
It became apparent during die project that the teammembers working in distant locations were notcompetent. This significant lack of programming skills,combined with long turnaround times for codecorrections, time-zone differences, and lack of regularefficient communication between on-shore and off-shoredevelopment resulted in extreme difficulties that
jeopardized the project As a result, the onshore teamhad to put in extended hours and essentially had torewrite most of die code that was done by the offshoreteam
When most of a team is in (me location and there is onemember who is in another state, that person may comeup with good ideas and input but does not do any of thelegwork. They are also not juggling the things that comeup in the main office and the interruptions.
People are closer (emotionally) with team members theysee and work with closely in the same location. Teammembers are warm toward others that we work withemotely but not to the same extent
roduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-
8/9/2019 Virtual Distance - PhD Disertation
75/158
74
As discussed in Chapters II and m , much of the research on VTs has characterized
distance as a function of two physical components; GD and TD. However, the research
results presented suggest that a unifying framework for the study of virtual work, that
considers both GD as well as Socio-Emotional Distance, in a multi-dimensional
construct, would be highly valuable in explaining the behavior of virtual workers. It was
argued that the Virtual Distance construct would provide meaningful insights into the
behavior of VTs and individuals working virtually. The VDM and its relationship to
Trust, Clarity, OCB and PS provided a framework for helping to understand virtual
behavior and how it influences PS. The findings suggest that Virtual Distance can be
identified and captured as a unique and blended mix of physical, social and psychological
factors that when taken together, significantly impact important performance outcomes.
VII BACKDROP
As globalization and technology continue to evolve, it is inevitable that virtual work will
increase. Organizational, cultural, as well as spatial and temporal differences in work
teams are likely to become the norm rather than the exception. Understanding how
Virtual Distance influences behavior is one of the keys to developing theories and
practices that can help select, organize and manage VTs effectively.
Virtual Distance is a multidimensional construct that incorporates a number of distinct
factors that create a socio-emotional state or distance between two individuals, between
an individual and a team or between two teams. The notion of distance described in this
roduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-
8/9/2019 Virtual Distance - PhD Disertation
76/158
75
work differs from other notions of distance (e.g., psychological, cultural, social) in that it
includes spatial distance and temporal factors that make it difficult for individuals to
develop social ties, as co-located workers have done for centuries.
As discussed earlier, distance has played a major role in many theories in both social
science and physical science. Many examples of distance-based or distance-influenced
theories and concepts exist. Location theory is a good example of how distance has been
used to predict the behavior of consumers and other economic players. Physical distance
between nodes on a network can influence transmission times along network paths in
information technology networks. Small-world phenomena grow out of network theory
and demonstrates how even vast numbers of nodes on multiple network paths can lead to
closer relations between individual nodes.
As work environments become more geographically dispersed, physical distance
becomes a more important feature. However, factors that can cause psychological or
emotional distance have to date been elusive and difficult to define or measure. In the
context of VTs, such factors have been relatively unexplored. The results of this study
show that non-physical, or virtual, distance factors may be just as important to the study
of VTs as the real distances between geographically dispersed work forces. The
construct of Virtual Distance provides a way to capture these socio-emotional factors
quantitatively and study their influence on behavioral and other work-related outcomes.
roduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-
8/9/2019 Virtual Distance - PhD Disertation
77/158
76
VLII VIRTUAL DISTANCE FACTORS CONSIDERED
VI.II.1 CULTURAL DISTANCE (CD)
CD is a predictor variable for Virtual Distance. In this study, two facets of CD were
measured: CV and CDiv. CV reflects cultural differences that may in part stem from
national characteristics but more importantly reflect organizational and work-related
differences in values.
Prior research has shown that cultural values are important to social identity, whereby
people who identify with one another tend to have the same or similar sets of values.
(Larkey, 1996). However in social identity theory, the notion of contact or physical
proximity is an inherent assumption that lies underneath the theory. Therefore, to
understand social identity theory in the context of virtual or non-proximal group
members, more analysis needs to be done. The contact hypothesis suggests that with
physical proximity, like integrated schools, cultural value differences may be minimized
or better understood and tolerated (Allport, 19S4). So if there is little to no physical
proximity in VTs, then cultural value differences may become even more accentuated.
roduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-
8/9/2019 Virtual Distance - PhD Disertation
78/158
Figure3-Identity
Orien
tation
Processesin
1u
* &3
roduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-
8/9/2019 Virtual Distance - PhD Disertation
79/158
78
Brickson proposed that demographically diverse organizations, where team members are
physically distant and contain culturally diverse individuals, will produce varying identity
orientations depending on organizational, task, and reward structures (Brickson, 2000).
As can be seen in Figure 3, Bricksons model, the best global organizational outcomes
were argued to be those derived from corporate structures that include dense and
integrated relationship networks combined with dyad-based task and reward structures.
Identity orientation in high performing, culturally diverse work environments, were
posited to stem from relational identity orientation. Value orientation is aligned among
majority and minority team members within the context of social groups. In addition
Brickson posited that behaviors in high-performing global organizations include high
frequency and quality interactions with co-workers. Therefore the finding in this thesis,
that Virtual Distance is more prevalent when team members are culturally and
demographically distant, as well as distant on value dimensions, is consistent with these
assertions.
Volumes have been written on cultural differences (e.g. Chen, Chen, Meindl, 1998;
Corbitt, Peszynski, Hill, 2004; Davison, 1994; Shenkar, 2001). Much of this work is
centered on demographic differentiators. This has helped many organizations with
issues such as leader development, multi-culturalism and expatriate strategies, just to
name a few. However, the concept of culture creating socio-emotional distance across
organizational networks, found in many 21st century global companies, has not been as
widely investigated. Virtual Distance may help to provide a theoretical platform on
which to study the concept of distance-based, cultural phenomenon.
roduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-
8/9/2019 Virtual Distance - PhD Disertation
80/158
79
VI.II.2 SOCIAL DISTANCE (SD)
As discussed in Chapter V, SD was measured on two dimensions; formal social status
(SS) and contribution status (CS). SS related to differences in hierarchical, legitimate
positions, while CS related to differences in informal levels of status built on ones
contributions to the team. It was hypothesized that SD as a combination of these factors
would be a predictor variable of Virtual Distance. However, upon preliminary analysis,
CS was seen as a significant predictor of Virtual Distance and SS was not found to be
significant.
This finding suggests that social status in VTs is a function of informal rather than
formal, organizational hierarchies - the kind most often seen on a typical organizational
chart. This finding is consistent with Hodgsons research on project work and
bureaucratic control in a post-bureaucratic organization (Hodgson, 2004) summarized in
Table 11 below.
Table 10 - Characteristics of Bureaucratic and Post-Bureaucratic Organizations
Bureaucracy Post-Bureaucracy
Consensus through Acquiescence toAuthority
Consensus through InstitutionalizedDialogue
Influence based on Formal Position Influence through Persuasion/PersonalQualities
Internal Trust Immaterial High Need for Internal Trust
Emphasis on Rules and Regulations Emphasis on Organizational Mission
Information monopolized at Top ofHierarchy
Strategic Information shared in Organization
Focus on Rules for Conduct Focus on Principles Guiding Action
Fixed (and Clear) Decision Making
ProcessesFluid/Flexible Decision Making Processes
roduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-
8/9/2019 Virtual Distance - PhD Disertation
81/158
80
Communal Spirit/Friendship Groupings Network of Specialized FunctionalRelationships
Hierarchical Appraisal Open and Visible Peer Review Process
Definite and Impermeable Boundaries Open and Permeable Boundaries
Objective Rules to ensure Equity ofTreatment
Broad Public Standards of Performance
Expectation of Constancy Expectation o f Change
Source: Heckscher (1994)
As shown in Table 11 above, according to Heckscher, in a post-bureaucracy organization,
like that o f Miles and Snows networked organization (Miles and Snow, 1992), influence
is based less on formal position and more on persuasion and personal qualities. There is
a need for high internal trust developed through a network of specialized functional
relationships (Heckscher, 1994). Boundaries are more open and permeable, offering
team members the ability to establish status through less formal and contribution related
performance.
The finding that Virtual Distance can be predicted more on the basis of CS versus SS
makes intuitive sense. Given the changing nature of organizational structures toward a
post-bureaucratic structure, we should expect to see a stronger influence o f informal
hierarchies and status on Virtual Distance and performance outcomes. Partnerships and
other types of organizational relations are becoming ever more prevalent. These kinds of
relationships are not readily visible in a bureaucratic organization chart. A recent article
in BusinessWeek underscored this point. Despite the predominance of traditional, formal
structures, many of todays organizations actually behave as networks, designed for the
digital age (Business Week, 2005). These networks are composed of individuals trying
roduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-
8/9/2019 Virtual Distance - PhD Disertation
82/158
81
to find their way through a maze o f institutional layers that often detract from achieving
goals and objectives.
Creating the conditions under which team members develop social status through
informal ties based on the extent to which they contribute to the team, may become
increasingly important in networked, technologically-mediated work environments. If
team members believe that their contributions to the team earn them a higher status, then
Virtual Distance becomes less of an issue. The finding that Virtual Distance is more
likely to be found where informal status is less of a factor, suggests that future research
should incorporate measures of CS along with assessments of SS.
VI.II.3 RELATIONSHIP DISTANCE (RD)
RD was found to significantly and negatively relate to Virtual Distance. Those that either
knew each other prior to the start of the project or knew some of the same people as
others on the team, were less likely to perceive themselves to be distant from one another.
As Watts, the author o f Six Degrees (Watts, 2003), reminds us, the fictional Solarians of
Asimovs classic Foundation Trilogy (Asimov 1950-1992), lived in isolation from one
another but were connected by vast computer networks that enabled them to reach out to
very distant, and similarly isolated people. In contrast, Asimovs future Earth people,
described in his novel The Caves of Steel (Asimov, 1954), were cave dwellers who
lived in groups and knew each other very well but were relatively unaware of what lay
beyond their metal dwellings; virtually cut off from the rest o f the world. (Watts, 2003).
roduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-
8/9/2019 Virtual Distance - PhD Disertation
83/158
82
While this scenario makes for intriguing science fiction novels, such extremes are rarely
the case in the real world.
Sometimes, however, researchers fall prey to these kinds of black and white distinctions
in study designs. RH is often silently assumed according to whether the team member is
geographically close or distant; i.e., the Steel Cave or Solarian design. As shown in
Table 1 in Chapter n,previous samples were in large part comprised of student groups
teams. RH was assumed to be strong when the teams were collocated. RH was
predominantly assumed to be weak when teams were dispersed (e.g. Chidambaram,
1996, Galegher & Kraut, 1994).
However, in todays organizational networks, team members are more likely to work
with each other repeatedly (if the relationship between respective organizations remains
in place), even when team members are geographically dispersed. This trend has
spawned a growing body of research in the area o f social networking (Watts, 2003;
Barbasi, 2003; Labianca, 2003; Ioannides, 2006 ). Another indicator that RH is a source
of value to organizations using extensive virtual workforces, is the Rowing amount of
venture capital finding its way to start-up companies that focus on social networking
software (Rivlin, 2005). However, as a group, VT studies have tended to bucket RH
into a dichotomous state based on geography.
In his study on relationships and inteigroup conflict, Labianca (Labianca, Brass, et.al.,
1998) found that when team members knew some of the same people in the social
network, the influence o f relationships was stronger on perceived conflict. Evidence that
roduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-
8/9/2019 Virtual Distance - PhD Disertation
84/158
83
third-party relationships can have a significant impact on team dynamics supports the