CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 General Theory

2.1.1 Data

Data items refer to an elementary description of things, events,

activities, and transactions that are recorded, classified, and stored but not

organized to convey any specific meaning. Data items can be numbers,

letters, figures, sounds, or images (Rainer, Cegielski, Splettstoesser-Hogeterp,

& Sanchez-Rodriguez, 2014, p. 10).

2.1.2 Information

Information refers to data that have been organized so that they have

meaning and value to the recipient (Rainer, Cegielski, Splettstoesser-

Hogeterp, & Sanchez-Rodriguez, 2014, p. 10).

2.1.3 System

A computer system is a collection of hardware and software

components that work together to run computer programs. Specific

implementations of systems change over time, but the underlying concepts do

not. All systems have similar hardware and software components that perform

similar functions (Bryant & O'Hallaron, 2015, p. 1).

2.1.4 Information System

An information system is a set of interrelated computer components

that collects, processes, stores, and provides as output the information needed

to complete business tasks (Satzinger, Jackson, & Burd, 2012, p. 4).

2.1.5 Business Process

A business process consists of a set of activities that are performed in

coordination in an organizational and technical environment. These activities

jointly realize a business goal. Each business process is enacted by a single

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organization, but it may interact with business processes performed by other

organizations (Weske, 2012, p. 5).

2.1.6 Business Process Improvement

Process improvement is defined as the job of examining the

processes used in a company, department, project, etc. to see how they can be

made more effective (Cambridge University Press, 2015). Business Process

Improvement (BPI) is defined as improving quality, productivity,

and response time of a business process, by removing non-value adding

activities and costs through incremental enhancements. Also called functional

process improvement (Jetson & Nelis, 2006).

2.1.7 User Interface

User interfaces are inputs and outputs that more directly involve a

system user. User interfaces can be for internal or external users. Their design

varies widely depending on such factors as interface purpose, user

characteristics, and characteristics of a specific interface device (Satzinger,

Jackson, & Burd, 2012, p. 189).

2.2 Technical Theory

2.2.1 System Analysis and Design

System analysis consists of those activities that enable a person to

understand and specify what the new system should accomplish. System

design consists of those activities that enable a person to define and describe

in detail the system that solves the need (Satzinger, Jackson, & Burd, 2012, p.

5).

2.2.2 Problem Domain

The problem domain is the specific area of the user’s business that is

included within the scope of the new system (Satzinger, Jackson, & Burd,

2012, p. 92).

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2.2.3 System Development Life Cycle

System Development Life Cycle (SDLC) is the entire process

consisting of all the activities required to build, launch, and maintain an

information system. Normally, the SDLC includes all the activities that are

part of systems analysis, systems design, programming, testing, and

maintaining the system as well as other project management processes that

are required to successfully launch and deploy the new information system

(Satzinger, Jackson, & Burd, 2012, p. 6).

Six core processes required in the development of any new application:

1. Identify the problem or need and obtain approval to proceed.

2. Plan and monitor the project-what to do, how to do it, and who does it.

3. Discover and understand the details of the problem or the needs.

4. Design the system components that solve the problem or satisfy the need.

5. Build, test, and integrate system components.

6. Complete system tests and then deploy the solution.

2.2.4 Object-Oriented Approach

Object-oriented approach is a system development based on the view

that a system is a set of interacting objects that work together. Conceptually,

there are no processes or programs; there are no data entities or files. The

system consists of objects. An object is a thing in the computer system that is

capable of responding to messages (Satzinger, Jackson, & Burd, 2012, p.

241).

2.2.4.1 Object-Oriented Analysis

Object-oriented analysis (OOA) is the process of identifying

and defining the use cases and the set of objects (classes) in the new

system (Satzinger, Jackson, & Burd, 2012, p. 241).

2.2.4.2 Object-Oriented Design

Object-oriented design (OOD) is defining all of the types of

objects necessary to communicate with people and devices in the

system, showing how objects interact to complete tasks, and refining

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the definition of each type of object so it can be implemented with a

specific language or environment (Satzinger, Jackson, & Burd, 2012,

p. 241).

2.2.4.3 Object-Oriented Programming

Object-oriented programming (OOP) is programming using

object-oriented languages that support object classes, inheritance,

reuse, and encapsulation. It is the writing of statements in a

programming language to define what each type of object does

(Satzinger, Jackson, & Burd, 2012, p. 241).

2.2.5 Unified Modeling Language

Many graphical models used in system development are drawn

according to the notation specified by the Unified Modeling Language

(UML). UML is a set of model constructs and notations defined by the Object

Management Group, a standards organization for system development. By

using UML, analyst and end users are able to depict and understand a variety

of specific diagrams used in a system development project (Satzinger,

Jackson, & Burd, 2012, p. 46).

2.2.5.1 Activity Diagram

An activity diagram describes the various user (or system)

activities, the person who does each activity, and the sequential flow

of these activities. The oval represent the individual activities in a

workflow. The connecting arrows represent the sequence between the

activities. The black circle denote the beginning and the ending of the

workflow. The diamond is a decision point at which the flow of the

process will either follow one path or another. The heavy solid line is

the synchronization bar, which either splits the path into multiple

concurrent paths or recombines concurrent paths. The swimlane

heading represents an agent who performs the activities. Because it is

common in a workflow to have different agents (i.e., people)

performing different steps of the workflow process, the swimlane

symbol divides the workflow activities into groups showing which

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agent performs which activity (Satzinger, Jackson, & Burd, 2012, p.

57).

2.2.5.2 Use Case Diagram

The use case diagram is the UML model used to graphically

show the use cases and their relationship to users or actors. An actor is

a person who uses the system and an actor is always outside the

automation boundary of the system but may be part of the manual

portions of the system. Sometimes, the actor for a use case is not a

person; instead, it can be another system or device that receives

services from the system. A simple stick figure is used to represent an

actor. The stick figure is given a name that characterizes the role the

actor is playing. The use case itself is represented by an oval with the

name of the use case inside. The connecting line between the actor

and the use case indicates that the actor is involved with that use case.

Finally, the automation boundary which defines the border between

the computerized portion of the application and the people operating

the application, is shown as a rectangle containing the use case. The

actor’s communication with the use case crosses the automation

boundary (Satzinger, Jackson, & Burd, 2012, p. 78).

2.2.5.3 Use Case Description

Use case description is a detailed information of each use case.

A use case description lists and describes the processing details for a

use case. Depending on an analyst’s needs, use case descriptions tend

to be written at two separate levels of details: brief description and

fully developed description. A brief description can be used for very

simple use cases, especially when the system to be developed is a

small, well-understood applications. A simple use case would

normally have a single scenario and very few-if any-exception

conditions.

The fully developed description is the most formal method for

documenting a use case. One of the major difficulties for software

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developers is that they often struggle to obtain a deep understanding

of the user’s needs. But if you create a fully developed use case

description, you increase the probability that you thoroughly

understand the business processes and the ways the system must

support them (Satzinger, Jackson, & Burd, 2012, p. 121).

2.2.5.4 Domain Model Class Diagram

Class diagram is used to show classes of objects for a system.

One type of UML class diagram that shows the things in the users’

problem domain is called domain model class diagram. The Domain

Model Class Diagram shows a set of problem domain classes and

their associations. On a class diagram, rectangles represents classes,

and the lines connecting the rectangles show the associations among

classes. The domain class symbol is a rectangle with two sections.

The top section contains the name of the class, and the bottom section

lists the attributes of the class. Class names and attribute names use

camelback notation, in which the words run together without a space

or underscore. Class names begin with a capital letter; attribute names

begin with a lowercase letter. Class diagrams are drawn by showing

classes and associations among classes (Satzinger, Jackson, & Burd,

2012, p. 101).

2.2.5.5 First-Cut and Updated Design Class Diagram

The design class diagram is developed is two steps: The first-

cut diagram is based on the domain model class diagram, but then it is

expanded as responsibilities are assigned and sequence diagrams are

developed. Design class diagrams include additional notation because

design classes are now software classes, not just work concepts.

Updated Design Class Diagram (DCD) is a summary of the

final design that was developed by using detailed sequence diagrams,

and it is used directly when developing the programming code. At this

level, the key issues are attribute elaboration and adding methods.

Method signatures include visibility, method name, arguments, and

return types. (Satzinger, Jackson, & Burd, 2012, pp. 308-317)

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2.2.5.6 System Sequence Diagram

System sequence diagram (SSD) is used to describe the flow

of information into and out of the automated system. Thus, an SSD

documents the inputs and the outputs and identifies the interaction

between actors and the system. SSD is a type of interaction diagram.

A stick figure represents an actor-a person (or role) that interacts with

the system. An actor interacts with the system by entering input data

and receiving output data.

The box labelled :System is an object that represents the entire

automated system. Underneath the actor and :System are vertical lines

called lifelines. A lifeline, or object lifeline, is simply the extension of

that object-either the messages that are sent by the actor. Each arrow

has an origin and a destination. The origin of the message is the actor

or object that sends it, as indicated by the lifeline at the arrow’s tail.

Similarly, the destination actor or object of a message is indicated by

the lifeline that is touched by the arrowhead. The purpose of lifelines

is to indicate the sequence of the messages sent and received by the

actor and object. A message is an action that is invoked on the

destination object, much like a command. A message is labelled to

describe its purpose and any input data being sent. The message name

should follow the verb-noun syntax to make the purpose clear

(Satzinger, Jackson, & Burd, 2012, pp. 333-334).

2.2.5.7 Multilayer Sequence Diagram

Multilayer sequence diagram shares the same logic as system

sequence diagram while adding the view layer and the data access

layer. Every system will need view layer classes to represent the input

and output screens for the application. Data access layer classes are

not always required. The data access layer is required when the

business logic is fairly complex and should be isolated from the SQL

statements that access the database. The separation of responsibilities

is the motivating factor behind the design of the data access layer. To

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design the data access layer, analyst no longer assume that the objects

are  automatically in memory when we need them; that is, we

disregard the perfect memory assumption. The final step of multilayer

design of particular use case is to add the view layer. Documenting the

user interface design with the view layer on a sequence diagram often

helps to envision the integration of the user interface with other

system object classes. There are two sources of inputs for design of

the view layer. First is the user-interface components that were

designed during user-interface design. The second source is either the

first-cut sequence diagram with the data access classes identified

(Satzinger, Jackson, & Burd, 2012, pp. 345-349).

2.2.5.8 Communication Diagram

Communication diagram is a type of interaction diagram that

emphasizes the objects that send and receive messages for a specific

use case. Communication diagrams are useful for showing a different

view of the use case – one that emphasizes coupling. Communication

diagrams are also easier to use to sketch design ideas in a meeting, as

they are easier to change and rearrange on the fly (Satzinger, Jackson,

& Burd, 2012, pp. 332-349).

2.2.5.9 Package Diagram

Package diagram is a high-level diagram that allows designers

to associate classes of related groups. Package diagram categorizes

view layer, domain layer, and data access layer as a separate group.

The classes are placed inside the appropriate package based on the

layer to which they belong. Classes are associated with different

layers as they are developed in the interaction diagrams.

To develop this package diagram, designer simply extracted

the information from design class diagrams and interaction diagrams

for each use case. The other symbol used on a package diagram is a

dashed arrow, which represent dependency relationship. The arrow’s

tail is connected to the package that is dependent, and the arrowhead

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is connected to the independent package. In summary, package

diagrams show related components and dependencies. Generally,

package diagram is used to generate classes or other system

components such as network nodes (Satzinger, Jackson, & Burd,

2012, pp. 425-426).

2.2.6 Database Concepts

2.2.6.1 Database

A database (DB) is an integrated collection of stored data that

is centrally managed and controlled. A database typically stores

information about dozens or hundreds of classes (Satzinger, Jackson,

& Burd, 2012, p. 373).

2.2.6.2 Database Management System

Database management system (DBMS) is a system software

component that manages and controls one or more databases. The

database consists of two related information stores: the physical data

store and the schema. The physical data store contains the raw data

bits and bytes of data store that are created and used by the

information system. The schema contains descriptive information

about the data stored in the physical data store (Satzinger, Jackson, &

Burd, 2012, p. 373).

2.2.6.3 Relational Database

A relational database management system (RDBMS) is a

DBMS that organizes stored data into structures called tables or

relations. Relational database tables are similar to conventional tables;

that is, they are two-dimensional data structures of columns and rows.

However, relational database terminology is somewhat different from

conventional table and file terminology. A single row of a table is

called a row, tuple, or record, and a column of a table is called an

attribute or field. A single cell in a table is called an attribute value,

field value, or data element.

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Each table in a relational database must have a unique key. A

key is an attribute or set of attributes, the values of which occur only

once in all the rows of the table. If only one attribute (or set of

attributes) is unique, then that key is also called the table’s primary

key. A foreign key is an attribute that duplicates the primary key of a

different (or foreign) table (Satzinger, Jackson, & Burd, 2012, pp.

374-376).

2.2.6.4 Entity-Relationship Diagram

Entity-Relationship Diagram (ERD) is a diagram consisting of

data entities and their relationships. The ERD is not a UML diagram,

but it is very commonly used by traditional analysts and database

analysts. On the ERD, rectangles represent data entities, and the lines

connecting the rectangles show the relationships among data entities

(Satzinger, Jackson, & Burd, 2012, pp. 98-101).

2.2.6.5 Normalization

Normalization is a formal technique used for evaluating and

improving the quality of a relational database schema. It determines

whether a database schema is flexible and whether it contains any of

the “wrong” kinds of redundancy. It also defines specific methods to

eliminate redundancy and improve flexibility (Satzinger, Jackson, &

Burd, 2012, p. 383).

2.2.6.6 Data Types

A data type defines the storage format and allowable content

of a program variable, class attribute, or relational database attribute

or column. Primitive data types are supported directly by computer

hardware and programming languages and include integers, single

characters, and real numbers (floating-point numbers). Complex data

types are combinations of or extensions to primitive data types that

are supported by programming languages, operating systems, and

DBMSs (Satzinger, Jackson, & Burd, 2012, p. 386).

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2.3 Web Development Terminologies

2.3.1 Internet

The word internet originates in the 1970s denoting a computer

network connecting two or more smaller networks. The internet is an

association of computer networks with common standards which enable

messages to be sent from any registered computer (or host) on one network to

any host on any other (Crystal, 2006, p. 3).

2.3.2 HTML

Web pages are created using Hypertext Markup Language (HTML),

which is an authoring language used to create documents on the World Wide

Web. HTML uses a set of special instructions called tags or markup to define

the structure and layout of a Web document and specify how the page is

displayed in a browser (Shelly & Woods, 2009, p. 8).

2.3.3 Cascading Style Sheet

Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) is a language designed for describing

the appearance of documents written in a mark-up language such as HTML.

With CSS, the colour of text, the style of fonts, the spacing between

paragraphs, how the columns are sized and laid out, what background images

or colours are used, and a variety of other visual effects can be controlled.

One of the major benefits is that the same CSS can be used by more than one

page, meaning that the style of an entire website can be adjusted without

having to change each page individually (Pouncey & York, 2011, p. 3).

2.3.4 JavaScript

JavaScript is a dynamical and scripting programming language which

runs on client’s web browser. JavaScript enrich user experience in operating

the website by providing interactive element to the web page. JavaScript

implementation allows the users to communicate asynchronously, alter the

document content, and control the browser. JavaScript also contributed to the

development of web-based game and the creation of desktop and mobile

application (Charles, 2012, pp. 7-8).

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2.3.5 PHP

PHP is a widely-used Open Source, general-purpose, scripting

language that is especially suited for Web development and can be embedded

into HTML. According to the php.net site, the acronym “PHP” is short for

“PHP: Hypertext Preprocessor”. Its syntax draws upon C, Java, and Perl, and

is easy to learn. The main goal of the language is to allow web developers to

write dynamically generated web pages quickly, there are many more things

which can be done with PHP. PHP supports all major operating systems,

including Linux/UNIX, Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X, and others. PHP has

also support most of the web servers including Apache, Microsoft Internet

Information Server, Personal Web Server, Netscape, iPlanet servers, and

many others (Wu, 2014).

2.3.6 Laravel

Laravel is a free, open-source PHP web application framework,

created by Taylor Otwell and intended for the development of web

applications following the model–view–controller (MVC) architectural

pattern. Some of the features of Laravel are a modular packaging with a

dedicated dependency manager, different ways for accessing relational

databases, utilities that aid in application deployment and maintenance, and

its orientation toward syntactic sugar (Otwell, 2015).

2.4 Special Theory

2.4.1 Community

A community is a group of people living in the same place or having a

particular characteristic in common. It can also be defined as a feeling of

fellowship with others, as a result of sharing common attitudes, interests, and

goals (Blewitt, 2008).

2.4.1.1 Community Characteristics

Several characteristics of the community can give clues to the

degree of its social cohesion and anticipate problems that may arise.

These characteristics include the history of the community and its

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relations with others, its present social structure, its cultural values

and the way it governs itself (Food and Agriculture Organization of

the United Nations, 2015).

2.4.1.2 Community Organizing

Organizing can be defined as arranging several elements into a

purposeful sequential or spatial (or both) order or structure, or

assembling required resources to attain organizational objectives. On

the other hand, community organizing allows people who share a

particular geographic space or identify to find shared issues and goals,

as well as the resources they can use collectively to achieve those

goals (Minkler, 2012, p. 288).

2.4.2 Empowerment

Empowerment can be defined as the authority or power given to

someone to do something, or the process of becoming stronger and more

confident, especially in controlling one’s life and claiming one’s rights

(Blewitt, 2008).

2.4.3 Community Empowerment

Community empowerment refers to the process of enabling

communities to increase control over their lives. Community empowerment,

therefore, is more than the involvement, participation or engagement of

communities. It implies community ownership and action that explicitly aims

at social and political change. Community empowerment is a process of re-

negotiating power in order to gain more control. It recognizes that if some

people are going to be empowered, then others will be sharing their existing

power and giving some of it up (World Health Organization, 2015).

Community empowerment can be realized through the active

participation of the community facilitated by the perpetrators of

empowerment. The main objectives of community empowerment are those

who are weak and do not have the power, strength, or the ability to access

productive resources, and also communities marginalized in development.

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The final goal of the community empowerment process is to form

independent citizens in order to improve the lives of families and to optimize

the usages of available resources (Widjajanti, 2011).

2.4.4 Maturity Model

A maturity model is a tool that helps people assess the current

effectiveness of a person or group and supports figuring out what capabilities

they need to acquire next in order to improve their performance. Maturity

models are structured as a series of levels of effectiveness. It's assumed that

anyone in the field will pass through the levels in sequence as they become

more capable (Fowler, 2014).

2.4.5 Community Maturity Model

Community Maturity Model (CoMM) can be developed to assess a

community based on a series of focus group meetings. A CoMM assesses

members’ participation, collaboration and decision-making, and the

knowledge capacity of any community (Boughzala & Bououd, 2013).

2.4.5.1 Aspect

Aspect can be defined as a particular part or feature of

something or a particular way in which something may be considered.

A CoMM withholds several aspects that are used to assess a

community through a particular way that its maturity may be

considered (Boughzala & Bououd, 2013).

2.4.5.2 Level

Level can be defined as a position on a scale of amount,

quantity, extent, or quality. Level can also be defined as

an intellectual, social, or moral standard. A CoMM withholds several

levels that determines the community’s position in terms of maturity

on a certain aspect (Boughzala & Bououd, 2013).

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2.4.6 Quality of Life

Quality of life in social sciences is a concept related to different

dimensions of a society, it is on the one hand related to the goal and value

discussion of societies, and on the other hand to the quality of societies, of its

social conditions and social trends. Quality of life implies a positive view of

the world, but it does not neglect the negative features of society, like

alienation and exclusion, anxieties and fears, as well as worries and

loneliness. The concept of quality of life is aware of the multiplicity and

ambivalence of human life (Glatzer, Below, & Stoffregen, 2012).

2.4.7 Poverty

Poverty is a condition where people’s basic needs for food, clothing,

and shelter are not being met. Poverty is generally of two types. Absolute

poverty is synonymous with destitution and occurs when people cannot

obtain adequate resources (measured in terms of calories or nutrition) to

support a minimum level of physical health. Absolute poverty means about

the same everywhere, and can be eradicated as demonstrated by

some countries. Relative poverty occurs when people do not enjoy a certain

minimum level of living standards as determined by a government (and

enjoyed by the bulk of the population) that vary from country to country,

sometimes within the same country. Relative poverty occurs everywhere, is

said to be increasing, and may never be eradicated (Stewart, Saith, & Harriss-

White, 2007, p. 23).

2.4.8 Gini Index

Gini index measures the extent to which the distribution of income

(or, in some cases, consumption expenditure) among individuals or

households within an economy deviates from a perfectly equal distribution. A

Lorenz curve plots the cumulative percentages of total income received

against the cumulative number of recipients, starting with the poorest

individual or household. The Gini index measures the area between the

Lorenz curve and a hypothetical line of absolute equality, expressed as a

percentage of the maximum area under the line. Thus a Gini index of 0

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represents perfect equality, while an index of 100 implies perfect inequality

(The World Bank, 2013).

2.4.9 Economic Inequality

Economic inequalities are most obviously shown by people’s different

positions within the economic distribution - income, pay, wealth. However,

people’s economic positions are also related to other characteristics, such as

whether or not they have a disability, their ethnic background, or whether

they are a man or a woman (The Equality Trust, 2015). 

2.4.9.1 Income Inequality

Income inequality is the extent to which income is distributed

unevenly in a group of people. Income is not just the money received

through pay, but all the money received from employment (wages,

salaries, bonuses etc.), investments, such as interest on savings

accounts and dividends from shares of stock, savings, state benefits,

pensions (state, personal, company) and rent.

2.4.9.2 Pay Inequality

Pay refers to payment from employment only. This can be on

an hourly, monthly or annual basis, is typically paid weekly or

monthly and may also include bonuses.

 

2.4.9.3 Wealth Inequality

Wealth refers to the total amount of assets of an individual or

household. This may include financial assets, such as bonds and

stocks, property and private pension rights. Wealth inequality

therefore refers to the unequal distribution of assets in a group of

people.