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Viking Heritage Magazine 2/02

EditorialWithout their superior and well-built ships the Scandinavians of theViking Age would never have made such a significant mark in history. Theseas, lakes and rivers were their travelling routes and the ships weretheir most important means of transportation, carrying the Vikings acrossthe waters in all directions, whether their journey had to do with trading,plundering, emigration, adventure or for whatever reason that took themaway from home.

This time we will take you on a historical sail and focus on the Vikingimpact on some interesting places around the Baltic Sea, from the islandof Saaremaa (Ösel) to some trading centres, forts and towns of Germany,Poland, Denmark and Sweden.

We will also take a closer look at two important parts of the shipequipment. How did the Vikings navigate? And how were the sails of theViking ships made? The recent discovery of a wooden disc, found inarchaeological excavations in Wolin, puts the discussion of the use ofsun-compasses on the agenda once again. Read also about theinteresting research on the production and use of woollen sailsconducted by the Viking Ship Museum in Roskilde, Denmark.

Summertime is here and lots of activities connected to the Viking Ageare happening in many places. Viking Heritage Magazine keeps youupdated about the what is happening in the Viking world, both 1000years ago and today! And why not visit some of the events and take partwhen the Viking Age comes to life again!

The editorial staff wishes you all a good summer and pleasant reading!

Marita E EkmanEditor

E-mail: mmaarriittaa..ee..eekkmmaann@@hhggoo..ssee

“Never laugh at the old when they offercounsel,Often their words are wise:From shrivelled skin, from scraggy thingsThat hand among the hidesAnd move amid the guts,Clear words often come”

From Hávámal(Words of “The High One”)

AAbboouutt tthhee ffrroonntt ppaaggee Golden brooch from Schleswig from ca 1030. The precious ornament most probably originates from a workshopwhich also worked for the German Imperial House. It must have belonged to a woman of highest rank and may have reached the Northas a state gift. Copyright: Archäologisches Landesmuseum in der Stiftung Schleswig-Holsteinische Landesmuseen Schloss Gottorf. M

iljöm

ärkt

med

Sva

nen.

Lic

nr

341

487

Drawing by Lou Harrison, Thunderheart Studio.

IN THIS ISSUE“The district of islands” at thecrossroads of the Vikings CCCCCC--PPaappeerr 33––55

Schleswig between Haithabu and Lübeck(ca. 1000–1150 AD)

CCCCCC--PPaappeerr 66––77

Hedeby – A Viking-age Trade Centre 88––99

The wooden disc from Wolin – as thenext sun-compass? 1100––1111

In the NeighbourhoodThe neighbourhood of Trelleborg – One of the circular Viking-agefortresses in Denmark and Scania 1122––1144

Herring-bone pattern 1155

ObituaryThor Heyerdahl: Personal reflections on his last year 1166––1177

The woollen sail – Research in long lengths 1188––2200

The Kensington RunestoneForumat California LutheranUniversity, February 24, 2002 2211––2233

New rune stone found north ofStockholm 2233

Under the Hammer Part 2 2244––2266

Some of the Viking Events in thesummer of 2002 2277

Viking Movies 2288––2299

New book 3300––3311

Heritage News 3311––3344

Back issues 3355

Heritage News

3 http://viking.hgo.se


By Marika Mägi

At the crossroads of theeastern routes of the Vikings,the biggest Estonian islands –Saaremaa and Hiiumaa – aresituated. The latter wassparsely populated until themodern times. Saaremaa, onthe other hand, isarchaeologically one of therichest regions in Estonia.

Saaremaa – known as Ösel in Swedish andGerman – actually consists of several islandsthat were referred to by same name until theMiddle Ages. As the result of land masselevation, many small islands and islets oncesurrounding “the big island” have nowbecome part of it. Both the Estonian nameSaaremaa and Eysysla mentioned in earlyScandinavian sources stand for ”the districtof islands”, or archipelago. The total area ofpresent Saaremaa, together with the island ofMuhu and other smaller islands is about thesame as that of Gotland.

In early medieval written sources,Saaremaa has been mentioned several times,usually in connection with piracy. In the 10th

century, Olaf Trygvasson, who later became

the king of Norway, was taken prisoner andsold into slavery by Osilian pirates. Anotherlater king of Norway, Olaf the Holy, tried toconquer the islands in the beginning of the11th century. Already at this time butespecially during the 12th and 13th centuries,the Osilians often initiated military actionson mainland Estonia and Latvia when theimportant trade routes into the East werethreatened by foreign forces. They mostprobably participated in theravaging and burning ofSigtuna, the

capital ofMiddle Sweden, in the

12th century. In 13th centurydescriptions a kind of peace treaty betweenthe Osilians and the Gotlanders has beenmentioned, as the latter refused to attackOsilian ships sailing back after ravagingDenmark in 1203. At the same time, theDanish king Valdemar II organised two raidsto Saaremaa but did not succeed inconquering it.

United troops of the Order of theBrethren of the Sword, the Bishop of Rigaand the town of Riga were more successful.Their attack against Saaremaa in 1227 endedwith the surrender of the islands, acceptanceof Christianity and a peace treaty. Still,

Saaremaa managed to retain most of itspolitical independence during the followingdecades.

The pirate islands How to describe the society on the islandsinhabited by the aggressive warriors andpirates mentioned in written sources? Didthey live in villages or single farmsteads?What did they produce for a living? Whatwere the roles of men and women in theirsociety, or the relationships between differentsocial strata? These and many other questionscan be answered only with the help ofarchaeology.

About dozen settlement districts ofdifferent size can be distinguished on LateIron-age Saaremaa, separated from each otherby the sea, wetlands or sandy infertile areas.The districts in a central position, with thebest arable lands and most suitable harbourplaces were marked by strongholds.Archaeological excavations at some of thestrongholds proved that they had beenpermanently inhabited. The chiefs of thedistricts, together with their retainers,probably resided in the strongholds at leastsome period of the year. Central power neverdid develop on pre-Christian Saaremaa, andthe islands remained divided betweendifferent overlords – the Bishop of Ösel-Wiekand the Teutonic Order – during the MiddleAges.

Though the islands of Saaremaa

The first two articles in this issueare a continuation of the series ofarticles from the CCC-project

(Culture Clash or Compromise? Theimportance of regional strategiesduring the Europeanization of the Baltic Rim from 1100 to 1400) presented in VHM 1/02.

Map of Saaremaaand its neighbours

“The district of islands” atthe crossroads of the Vikings

CCC-Paper



archaeologically form one of the richestregions in Estonia, only a few Late Iron-agemonuments have been excavated here up tonow. Most of finds come from cemeteriesdemolished before the 20th century.Modern-standard archaeological excavationshave been carried out at some strongholds,cemeteries and a harbour site.

Grave forms characteristic to Viking-ageSaaremaa were stone circle graves,surrounded by a circular kerb of stones orlow stone-wall. Inside the kerb, usually onecremation burial can be found. Similarly tothe mainland of Estonia, graves dated to pre-Viking Period or the first half of the VikingEra are almost absent on Saaremaa, andgraves with more artefacts appear only in the10th century.

Twelfth century burial grounds wereusually stone cemeteries without formalstructures, large attractive stone heaps on thelandscape. Calculations based on excavatedprehistoric burial grounds suggest that only asmall part of the population, probably theelite, was buried in stone graves. The locationof the cemeteries only near the best arablelands on the islands support thisinterpretation. Starting with the 11th century,and especially during the 12th century, thedead were copiously furnished with weapons,jewellery and other grave goods, alldeliberately smashed and burnt on the pyre.Only fragments of artefacts and crematedbones were brought to the stone graves.

When the Osilians accepted Christianityin the first half of the 13th century, burying instone graves soon stopped. People belongingto the elite were now inhumed in churches orchurchyards, in the beginning together withsome grave goods. Several (semi-) Christianso-called village cemeteries outsidechurchyards are also known on Saaremaa.Thirteenth century burials in these aresometimes equipped with few pieces ofjewellery or small gifts.

Sea unites peoplesArchaeological monuments and finds onprehistoric Saaremaa differ somewhat fromthese on mainland Estonia. At the same time,Saaremaa’s material shows several obviousfeatures that parallel the archaeologicalevidence of the Livs and the Couronians inthe territory of present Latvia, as well as thatof the Gotlanders in Sweden. Thisphenomenon can be explained by similarcircumstances where activities connectedwith sea played an important role, and byintensive communication between theseareas.

Prehistoric Saaremaa seems to have hadvery close connections with North-Couroniathat was inhabited by an ethnic Finnishpopulation, the Couronian Livs. In additionto similar finds and grave forms, the earliername of “the big island” of Saaremaa,

Kuresaar (Kure/Kura Island) also refers toclose connections with Kuramaa (Kura Land,Couronia) in the other side of the strait. Theethnological and folklore material collectedfrom the Couronian Livs who have surviveduntil our times, also has a lot in commonwith the Estonian islands.

Only a few sites of the prehistoricCouronian Livs have been investigatedarchaeologically, but a plentiful collection offinds has been unearthed from themonuments of the Couronians whoinhabited the rest of the peninsula. Artefactsfound in their cemeteries resemble thoseknown from Saaremaa; still, severaldistinctive features can also be considered.Frequent occurrence of horse harness in

graves and belts abundantly decorated withbronze fittings are characteristic to both ofthese areas. Cremation burials prevailed bothon Late Iron-age Saaremaa and Couronia,and some common features can be detectedin the grave forms.

The artefacts unearthed from the stonegraves of Saaremaa have many counterpartsin the graves of the Livs who inhabited largeareas in present north-western Latvia aroundthe Gauja River, and around the lowerreaches of the Daugava River. The Livspractised, probably due to the influence oftheir Baltic neighbours, both cremations andinhumations. Especially in the latter case,their grave goods were pretty well preserved.Some 11th–12th centuries cemeteries with“Osilian” finds in West- and South-Estoniaperhaps indicate more Livian than Osilianinfluence.

Viking-age Gotland and Saaremaa werelinked firstly by a similar grave form – thestone circle graves. Several parallels can alsobe drawn when comparing bronze- andsilver-decorated belts, luxurious weapons andsome ornaments, especially the penannularbrooches found on these islands. Gotlandicinfluence in artefacts, grave forms andsettlement pattern is most obvious on westSaaremaa.

Changing times, changing societyIn the 11th-12th centuries, a great number ofweapon graves characterised the cemeteries ofSaaremaa. This phenomenon correlates wellwith the piracy described in written sourcesand suggests that a plundering economyplayed an important role on the islands.Mighty Osilian hillforts with strongfortifications point to deeply stratifiedsociety. The strongest and most central wasthe Valjala hillfort, built of limestone in the12th century. In the chronicles of thebeginning of the 13th century, Valjala wasdescribed as the centre of the whole of

11th century weapon find from Viltina harbour site on southern Saaremaa.

The kerbs of stone circle graves atViking-age Piila cemetery on centralSaaremaa.



Saaremaa, and the chiefs residing there werecalled nobiles while the usual name for theOsilian elite was seniores. Perhaps the powerwas gradually concentrating towards Valjalabut the development was interrupted by thepolitical events, the conquest by theCrusaders?

In addition to the “warriors’ graves” withweapons, about the same number ofabundantly furnished women’s graves areknown. Women were sometimes, as in otherareas inhabited by Baltic Finns, buried withsome weapons; bronze-decorated belts andpieces of horse harness also occur in femaleburials. Archaeological, as well as somehistoric and folklore material thus refers tosociety where women had a comparativelyhigh position. Among the burials in Osilianstone cemeteries, richly equipped children’sgraves are also recorded, both boys and girls.

During the war at the beginning of the13th century the Osilians often took an active,leading position in military actions on themainland, but the majority of the territory ofSaaremaa remained untouched by directhostilities. In the peace treaty of 1227, theOsilians kept most of their rights. The mostrelevant was probably the prohibition againstkeeping foreign troops or building foreignfortifications on the islands.

Almost immediately after the conquestand official Christianisation, and in one caseeven before that, churches were erected in theadministrative centres of the islands. In themore important centres that were alsomarked by strongholds, the churches wereinitially built of stone while in centres of lessimportance wooden churches were erected inthe beginning and only later re-built in stone.The stone churches of Saaremaa are theoldest in Estonia, which, taking intoconsideration the political history probablyreflects the active part that the local eliteplayed in church-building. The rapidacceptance of Christianity, at least by theOsilian elite, is also indicated by the suddenabandonment of stone graves and cremation

burials. The old pagan elite probablyaccepted not only the new religion but alsothe principles and means of socialmanifestation it represented. In addition tothe other signs, this is splendidlydemonstrated in early 13th centurygravestones with mixed pagan and Christiansymbols in Osilian stone churches, wherethey probably covered the graves of localChristianised chieftains or the members oftheir families.

The epilogue: the fallof golden timesWhere, after all, did the Osilian old paganelite disappear? Even though written sourcesare scanty, it may be suggested that pagan-ageseniores were re-arranged as feudal vassals,most of them possessing only smallenfeoffments. Even as late as in the 15th–16th

centuries, the majority of Osilian landownershad family names formed from localtoponymes, which probably refers to theirEstonian origin; but by the end of the 16thcentury, they had already disappeared fromthe list of the landlords of Saaremaa. Theestates were enlarged mainly by selling andpawning of small manors. Since the vassalageof Saaremaa had the right to inherit the landthrough both male and female lines ofdescent estates were also united via marriages.Part of the old local elite families disappearedfrom written sources in this way. As the

upper class in medieval Old Livonia consistedmainly of Germans, we may suggest thatseveral of the Osilian families, first of all theones who resided in the strongholds, wereGermanised soon after the conquest.

The conquest brought integration into theWest-European highly regulated feudalsociety with restricted possibilities for bothplundering activities and barter initiatedfrom local places. The poor quality of thearable lands on the islands did not permit atotal re-orientation to agriculture, and thegeographical position of Saaremaa in the nearvicinity of the mainland was not favourablefor the emergence of towns. The first townswere founded in West Estonia and Latviaimmediately after the conquest and, over thefollowing centuries, Saaremaa graduallybecame a periphery.

The Valjala church is one of the earliest stone buildings on the Estonian islands.

About the authorMarika Mägi is an archaeologistworking in the Institute of History,Department of Archaeology inTallinn, Estonia. Her research coversmainly the island of Saaremaa, frompre-Roman Iron Age until the MiddleAges. She has also dealt withViking-age artefact typology inEstonia. Special interests areburials, ideology and settlementarchaeology. She was a member ofthe CCC project, and her PhD thesiswas published within the series ofCCC-papers.E-mail: mmaarriikkaa..mmaaggii@@mmaaiill..eeee

Marika Mägi’s PhD thesis At thecrossroads of Space and Time.Graves, changing society andideology on Saaremaa (Ösel),9th–13th centuries AD will bereviewed in the next issue ofVHM.

bishopric (of Haithabu) was restored in1026 in Schleswig. There are also recordsof great diets and celebrations in 1042 and1052/53.

In the autumn of 1042, King Magnus,in the presence of the Archbishop ofBremen and two bishops, negotiated withthe Saxon Duke Bernhard and theiralliance was confirmed with a “Statewedding”; in the winter of 1052, the twomost powerful potentates of Central- andNorthern Europe, King Sven Estridsen andArchbishop Adalbert von Hamburg-Bremen met in Schleswig to celebrate aneight-day ‘feast of peace’, negotiatingsuccessfully on the central question of a

Christian kingship: Pax



By Christian Radtke

In the decades around 1000AD many segments ofScandinavian society faced aseries of changes. Amongother things new functionsbrought new topographicpatterns to the urbanagglomerations. As oneexample of many, we shallconcentrate on whathappened in the importantcity of Schleswig during the150 years between the Vikingand the Middle Ages (ca 1000-1150).

Christianorum; and finally, a diocesansynod was summoned to Schleswig in1063. All these events required anestablished sacral and secular powerstructure in the settlement. They must haverequired at least a representative King’sHall and a Cathedral church, which, inturn, would have been possible only withinan appropriate infrastructure.

According to our opinion this is alsotrue for the place’s function in terms ofinternational trading and financialtransactions. Until now it has beenarchaeologically ascertained that shipwharves, in other words topographic marksfor transmarine trading, began to be builtfirst around 1080. If all of the source

Topography of the Old Town of Schleswig in the Middle Ages with growth phases. Themap is partly antiquated, but still gives a good impression of the settlement concentratedin the smallest core space. (Draft in the Deutscher Städteatlas 1973)

Schleswig between Haithabuand Lübeck (ca. 1000–1150 AD)

The topographic beginnings of thissettlement are still not known.Scientifically secured data shows a half-century gap between the latestdendrologically known building date of itsnearby forerunner Haithabu (Hedeby) in1020 and the earliest founding date ofSchleswig in 1071. This gap is, however,filled to some extent with data provided bywritten sources telling that this place had ahigh-ranking position within both secularand ecclesiastical organisation: thus the old

Harbour of the city of Schleswig in the 12th

century with embankments, shoresettlement, St. Peter’s Cathedral and RoyalPalace. (Reconstruction afterarchaeological research results.)

CCC-Paper

Baltic Sea. But it alsoincluded the Norwegiancoast along to Friesland in thewest as well as to the towns alongthe Rhine with Cologne as the centre andthe Westphalian metropolis in the inlandwith Soest and Dortmund. Before about1130/50 the eastern and the western partseach established vast enclosed territoriesthat had contact firstly via Schleswig.

We have tried to describe the role ofSchleswig in the late Viking-age trade as amodel, but it is archaeologically andhistorically well confirmed by finds ofcoins, scales and weights from the entire11th and 12th centuries, furthermorethrough huge quay constructions along adistance of around 150 metres, of whichfive wharves were built in the year 1095alone, and finally through commercial legalregulations in the town law, codifiedaround 1150, but whose terms go back tothe 11th century.

The annals and other written sourcestell about the great importance of theharbour in the development of the earlytown. Traces of merchant ships have beenfound in the form of recovered pieces ofwreckage from the 11th and 12th centuries,among them first and foremost a mightyknarr with a buoyancy of 60 tons built in

The Royal Palace ofSchleswig in the 12th

century with standingtower, Hall of State,

dwelling housesand Palace chapel.

(Reconstructiondrawn after

archaeologicalresearchresults).



material is taken into consideration, mostof it indicates that its function as an importharbour for continental silver, which was ingreat demand in the Baltic area, led to agradual move from the semi-circularrampart of Haithabu to the northern shoreof Schlei just opposite. So the suggestedeconomical argument is of great weight.

From the beginning of the 9th centurythe economies in the Baltic Sea area werebased on silver imported as coins from theOrient and valued by weight. When thisstream of coins grew thinner, due todomestic policy reasons in the Orient, andcompletely ceased around the year 1000, aserious collapse would have threatened thesocio-economic balance had not a newfloodgate opened: coins from the Europeancontinent. They came from mintinglocalities in the German Empire and wereminted directly for the Scandinaviantrade. (Additionally, there were Englishcoins that came as payment of debtsand later on through regulartaxation.) Totally the sum of theforeign trading coins thatoriginated from theGerman Empire in findsmade in the Baltic area,amounts to more than270,000 pieces. Theeconomic value thisreflects is very impressing: aprobable total import (at 10, 000mints per stamp) of around two billioncoins or 2000 barrels of silver.

According to numismatic research,around 50 percent of these originate fromthe towns situated in the estuary area of theRhine with Friesland and Westphalia, firstof all Cologne, followed by Deventer, Tiel,Dortmund and Soest. According toprevalent opinion these coins came bydistant trading across the North Sea andthe Eider – Treene-route to Schleswig, andfrom there drifted into the economies ofthe Baltic countries, or were buried shortlyafter arrival, especially on Gotland or inRus. The enormous number of coinsfunctioned in a trading system wheremoney was changed for goods; they reflectthe value of an intensely-run long-distancetrade, where the countervalue wasmeasured mostly in furs and wax.

To a growing extent Denmark had –until around 1030, even the Swedish townof Sigtuna – a need for silver for its ownminting. In other words: during the timewhen this system was in use, that is about1000 and 1130/50, Schleswig functioned asan export harbour for minted silver fromthe towns on the western part of thecontinent and as an import harbour for furs

and wax and other goods from the East. InSchleswig the two trading systems methead-on: the western monetary economyand the Baltic area’s system of weighingcoins: each one of the many thousands ofcoins from the towns in the Rhine axis thathave been found in the Baltic area had beenweighed in Schleswig before they receivedtheir value. In this way, Schleswig filled amost important function in the exchange ofmoney and goods during the time oftransition between the Viking Age and theMiddle Ages.

The trading net stretched fromNovgorod, far away to the east, acrossGotland and the countries around the

1025 and which later went down in theharbour of Haithabu. A similar cargo shipwas stranded after 1130 in the middle ofthe Schlei.

The town structure was totally adaptedto the main functions of the site: itsextensive harbour location that includedthe settlement’s entire waterfront intendedfor commercial business, its secular powerrepresented by a royal hall (aula regia) incontinental style, and its religious functionmanifested as a bishop’s see with acathedral and seven parish churches(mentioned in the year 1196). Its positionof authority was so pronounced that a localprefecture was developed in Schleswig atthe end of the 11th century, which formedthe foundation of the latter dukedom.

In contrast to all Danish towns, nomoney was coined in Schleswig between1050/70 and 1150. Obviously there wasalways enough foreign money in the town,and most likely the town lord who hadprincely monopoly on the weighing

system, profited by the exchangeof nominal- and weighing valueof the coins. Of course thetown’s merchants’ associationalso gained its share ofprofits from the trade. Thiseconomic prosperity has itsequivalent in theconstitutional structure:

since in the 1130s theburghers were organised as a

“commune”, a confederation,presumably after a model from Cologneand the Flemish towns with whom a livelytrade also took place.

As a successor to the Viking-agemetropolis, Haithabu (Hedeby), and as apredecessor to the Hanseatic town ofLübeck, considerable advancements wereattained in Schleswig in all parts of thesociety. Of course, only a limited numbercan be illuminated here. Not untilcompared with European town history canthe importance of Schleswig for theurbanisation research be truly estimated.

About the authorChristian Radtke M.A. is working inthe Archäologisches Landesmuseumof Schleswig, Germany, withexhibitions and editing. He is a well-known specialist on the urbandevelopment of Haithabu andSchleswig in the early and highmedieval periods, which he haswritten about in several publications.

This coin fromHedeby,embossed in the

10th century,shows a (royal?)warship.Copyright:

WikingerMuseum Haithabu

This splendid swordcomes from a ship

chamber burial fromHedeby. Copyright:Wikinger MuseumHaithabu

The scientific discovery of Hedeby1 (Haithabu) isowed to the Danish archeologist Sophus Müller.In 1897 he recognized a 24 ha-wide area nearSchleswig, surrounded by a semi-circularrampart, as the location of the former town. Inclose cooperation, numerous archaeologists, historians andnatural scientists have endeavoured to explore Hedeby’shistory. Hedeby is known to be northern Europe’s oldestsettlement organized as a town. From the 9th to the 11th

century, it was the central point for the distribution ofgoods between Middle-, North-, and East Europe as wellas a centre of manual production.



Towns in the NorthThe development of a well-organized tradingsystem with international routes, meeting attrading centres and harbours, was one reasonfor the early growth of the towns.

There is not much evidence that townsexisted in Scandinavia before 700 AD. Afterthat date they certainly did and grew innumber and size over time. Albeit thetowns founded by Vikings in the 8th

and 9th century were no towns inthe sense as it is understoodtoday. We know only littleabout how they were governedand they had no public housesbuilt of stone.

Most information aboutthese early towns is gainedfrom three special sites, whichare Hedeby, Ribe in Denmarkand Birka in central Sweden. Thenames of these three towns arementioned in the biography of Ansgar,the “Apostle of the North.”

Hedeby TownFor some time Hedeby was seat of theDanish kings and, as a gathering point forthe army and fleet, an important militarybase. Important cultural impulses wereconveyed from the South and West to theNorth and East via Hedeby.

The Christianization of Scandinavia

originated from this place: Hedeby’s firstchurch was erected in approximately 850 ADand one of northern Europe’s first churchbells also sounded here, which is confirmedby the discovery of a bronze bell in the town’sharbour. In 948 Hedeby was made a bishop’sseat.

The decisive impulse for the settlement’s

population during the following time.In the 9th and 10th century Hedeby was

northern Europe’s central trading centre.During this time 1000-1500 people lived inthe town, which from today’s point of viewcould be described as multi-cultural: Frisians,Danes, Swedish, Norwegians, Francs, Saxonsand Slavs lived together and ran theirbusinesses here.

Within the last century the sea level of theBaltic and the Schlei, which is connected toit, has risen about a meter. As a consequencewater has flooded the Viking-age shoreline.

Owing to the ground’s high moisturelevel, organic materials like wood, leather ortextiles have been very well preserved.Building foundations are clearly recognizable.

Hedeby’s settlement structure differedgreatly from those of high medieval towns:

The houses were built exclusively ofwood; stone buildings had yet not beenattempted.

Despite this fact, the urbane Arabianmerchant At-Tartûshi did not get theimpression of having come to a village on hisvisit to Hedeby in 965 AD:

”Schleswig2 is a very big town at thefurthermost part of the ocean. There are

development towards a leading trading centrein Northern Europe in the early 9th century isthought to have come from the Danish kingGodfred. In 808, he destroyed the Slavictrading centre of Reric, which was very likelyone of Hedeby’s competitors. Taxpayingmerchants were moved from Reric and settledin Hedeby, resulting in a rapid increase in

Hedeby– A Viking-age Trade

CentreBy Florian W. Huber

Notes:1 Hedeby (Haithabu)is located on the Schlei, afjord near Schleswig in northern Germany.2 Even At- Tartûshi calls Hedeby Schleswig.


He also mentioned that women have theright of divorce: a wife can get divorcedwhenever she wants. Furthermore there is anartificially manufactured eye-make-up,which, if applied, makes beauty neverdecrease, but even enriches it, in men as wellas in women.

Tartûshi said furthermore: “I have neverheard more disgusting songs than the songsof the Schleswigians, a growl sounding fromtheir throats similar to the barking of thedogs, only more brutish than this.”

As archaeological research has shown,Hedeby’s settlement structure differed clearlyfrom rural settlements. Compared to a villageit had a much higher population density andin consequence the limited area was far moredensely developed.

One major difference from ruralsettlements is the lack of barns for largeanimals on the properties and storage roomfor fodder in the buildings.

The relatively narrow house units wereseparated from neighbouring properties byfences. Sometimes a forecourt separated thehouse from the street. In the backyards shedsfor smaller animals were occasionally found.

The semi-circular rampart was built onlyin the second half of the 10th century asfortification against invaders from land.

Hedeby´s harbourAll important contemporary trading centreswere major ports as well. For safety reasonsthey were usually not situated directly on thecoast, but far from there in the hinterland.

In 1979/80 landing stages werediscovered in Hedeby’s harbour. As theyreached far out into the water andwere of such solid construction it isassumed that they supportedstorerooms or even stalls. Cargoships no longer needed to land onthe shallow beach but could be

moored at the landing stages, so that loadingand unloading became much easier.Archaeological finds prove major tradingactivities on the landing stages, as manyweights and coins were found here.

Hedeby’s harbour was well fortified: along line of posts was found rammed into theground in 7–8 parallel rows. Thisconstruction is interpreted as the remainderof the harbour palisade surrounding the innerharbour in a semi-circle for protection. Theharbour entrance was presumably flanked bytwo gate towers.

The Ships of HedebyWhich ships were at home in Hedeby andwhich ships visited this harbour? Marine-

archaeological research in Scandinavia andGermany has been able to prove that a verywide range of types of different vessels withspecial purposes was known in Viking times.In Hedeby there have been three significantfinds of shipwrecks (wrecks 1–3). Anadditional ship (wreck 4), assumed tooriginate from 1184 AD, will be examined inmore detail in the near future.

Wreck 1This Scandinavian battleship wasexcavated/dug up/raised in 1970 andprobably originates from the 10th century.Traces of use indicate that it was not newwhen it sank after a fire. With a maximumwidth of approximately 3 m, the ship wasabout 28–30 m long. The crew would havenumbered 50-55 men.

Wreck 2The planks of this approx. 12 m-long shipare made of oak and beech as well as pine.

The floor construction was made of oakplanks, possibly joined by

iron rivets; the middleplanks of beech were heldtogether with wooden

nails as were the upperplanks made of pine. Whileplanks with iron riveting are

sources of fresh water in it. Its inhabitants areSirius worshippers, apart from a smallnumber, who are Christians and have achurch there”.

At-Tartûshi says: “They have ceremonieswhere they gather to praise their god and toeat and drink.

When somebody slaughters a sacrificialanimal, he erects posts in front of the doorand puts the animal on these, be it cattle, aram, a billy goat or a pig. This is done so thatpeople will know that he is sacrificing it inpraise of his god. The town is poor in goodsand blessings. The people’s main food is fish,as there is plenty of it.

If children are born to one of them, theyare thrown into the sea in order to save costs”.

The semicircular rampart (1600 m long) atHedeby. Copyright: Wikinger MuseumHaithabu

About the authorFlorian Huber studies Archaeology,Scandinavian languages andAnthropology at the University of Kiel,Germany. He has contributed severalarticles to VHM.Email: fflloohhllyyss@@yyaahhoooo..ddee

CCoonnttiinnuueedd oonn ppaaggee 1144

This 16 cm long bronzepin from the 10thcentury was found inthe harbour. Copyright:Wikinger MuseumHaithabu


In 2000 during the archaeological excavations in Wolinmanaged by Prof. Wladyslaw Filipowiak, a perfectpreserved wooden disc, which could be interpreted as asun-compass, had been found.

Fig 2.Side A of the wooden disc from Wolin with thevisible straight line which looks like the gnomonicline for the time of the equinoxes.



This find was published for the first time inthe article “Dysk drewniany z Wolina jakokompas sloneczny – nastepny krok wbadaniach nad wczesnosredniowiecznanawigacja?” (The wooden disc from Wolin asa sun-compass – the next step in earlymedieval navigational research?).

The first half-preserved half-moon shapeddisc dated to about the year 1000 AD hadbeen found in 1948 near Uunartaq Fjord insouthern Greenland. The discovery of awooden disc from Greenland divided into 32points and with straight and curved linesinterpreted as gnomonic lines incised on thesurface was the first step of where researchwas going in the history of Viking navigation(see VHM 4/99).

The find siteThe wooden disc from Wolin had beendiscovered in the wooden landing-pier of theearly medieval harbour with the remains of aSlavic ship as well as Slavic and Viking artand a lot of Slavic pottery. Next to thelanding-pier two wooden houses built in theinter-postal construction typical for Wolin

are situated. The first house is interpreted asthe tanning workshop and the second houseas the woodcarving workshop with plenty ofwooden artefacts and production scraps.

This place (fig. 1) – archaeological site no.4 parcel 2 (size 10 x 15 m) is situatedbetween the Wolin – Old Town (site no. 1)and the production-commercial district ofthe early medieval Wolin – Silver Hill (siteno. 5 and 6). Our wooden disc wasdiscovered in the fourth archaeological level(-218 cm under ground).

Dating and dimensionsBased on dendrochronology as well as coins(Saxon coin with cross) and the style ofwooden amulet of a Slavic god (fig. 4a) wecan date this archaeological level and woodendisc to the first half of the 11th century AD orrather to the end of the first half of 11th

century AD. The dendrochronological datesof the wooden constructions of landing-pierand buildings done by Dr T. Wazny fromDepartment of Art Conservation of WarsawAcademy of Art, are: 935 AD +x\-7, 995/6AD, 996 AD +x\-7, 1005\6 AD and 1011AD +9\-8. The dendrochronological dates ofthe remains of the Slavic ship found next tothe wooden discs are: 938 AD +x\-7, 993 AD+x\-7, 995 AD +9\-7 and 961 AD +x\-7.

The level of charcoal on the top of thislevel could be connected with the destructionof this wooden construction during theinvasion of Magnus the Good in 1043 AD.

The approximate dimensions of thewooden disc from Wolin are: about 81–86mm diameter, 9 mm thick, with an axial hole10 mm diameter in the disc. Maybe this holeis made for the gnomon. The artefact fromWolin has two sides. On surface A (fig. 2)three concentric circles about 2 mm and 24lines more or less perpendicular to the central

The wooden discfrom Wolin – as the next sun-compass?

By Blazej M. Stanislawski

Fig 1.Beginning the excavation in Wolin - siteno. 4 parcel 2, where the wooden discwas found.

.

god amulet (fig. 4a)with many parallelsfrom the oldestexcavations in Wolin;

– a Scandinavian import like thewooden sculpture of dragon or horsehead made in Ringerike-style (fig.4b) as well as the Scandinavianbrooch;

– a local product by a Scandinaviannewcomer living and working inWolin like the wooden handledecorated in Borre-style, typical for“the local Pomern school of Boore-style art” (fig. 4c).

The aim of this article other thanpresenting this very interesting artefact is toinclude it in the discussion about earlymedieval navigation. I hope this paper willopen the discussion about them and will helpto elucidate them.

Many thanks to Mr. Søren Thirslund,Max Vinner, Erik Andersen, Karl Hobergand Curt Roslund for their great help.



hole are deeply incised. On surface B (fig. 3)one circle, 12 irregular triangles and fourmore irregular incisions are deeply incised.The conservation of Wolin disc has beendone in the Maritime Museum in Gdansk.

Discussion and interpretationTo begin the discussion about the woodendisc from Wolin and its possibleinterpretation we can put forth thehypothesis that it could be a sun-compass. Soit could be the next navigation tool tostrongly support the interpretation of theartefact from Uunartaq Fjord in Greenland.

To first support this opinion, we find lineswhich may have been drawn to represent theshadow of the Sun, both for the equinoxes(side A) and for the summer solstice (side B).The straight line incised on surface A of thewooden disc looks like the gnomonic line forthe time of the equinoxes and the curved lineincised on surface B looks like the gnomonicline for the time near the summer solstice atlatitudes 60° North. On both sides there aredivisions that lead to the idea that it couldhave been a Sun-compass. These divisions aremade after the 12 or 24-system, which wascommon in the Mediterranean Sea - whereasnorthern Europe usually used the 32-system.Unfortunately, on side B there should be 12points each with 30 degrees betweendivisions, in some places there are a fewdegrees of error or divisions missing.However side A has 24 very clear divisions onthe second concentric circle very nearlycorrect.

Next to the very important question –how could be it used? We have to ask thenext question – who have been made it?Study of the archaeological context of ourartefact would answer our questions whetherit is:

– a local Slavic product (maybe madein the neighbouring wood-carvingworkshop), like the wooden Slavic

References:Stanislawski, B. 2000. Dysk drewniany zWolina jako kompas sloneczny – nastepnykrok w badaniach nadwczesnosredniowieczna nawigacja, [in]Materialy Zachodniopomorskie 46, p. 157-176. Szczecin.

Thirslund, S. 1987. Viking Navigation. Sun-compass guided Norsemen first toAmerica, Humlebæk.

Thirslund, S. 1999. Viking Navigation,Viking Heritage Newsletter 4, p. 6-8. Visby.

About the authorBlazej M. Stanislawski, M.A.in 1995from Poznan University. Since 1996 heis employed by the Institute ofArchaeology and Ethnology, PolishAcademy of Sciences in Wolin. UnderProf. W. Filipowiak’s supervision he isconducting the archaeologicalexcavations in Wolin. He is the authorof the PhD thesis, “The ceramic fromearly medieval Wolin in thebackground of the South-west BalticRegion”. Among many other fields ofwork and interests he is the organiserof the Wolin-Jomsborg Viking Festivaland the Viking movement in Poland.

Address:Institute of Archaeology and Ethnology Polish Academy of Sciences Ul. Zamkowa 16, 72-510 Wolin, Poland Phone +48 91 32 61 885Email: bbllaazzeejjsstt@@kkkkii..nneett..ppll

Fig 2.Side B of the wooden disc from Wolinwith the visible curved lines that look likethe gnomonic line for time near thesummer solstice.

Fig 4.The Slavic godamulet (a) thewooden sculpture ofdragon or horsemade Ringerike-style(b) and the woodenhandle of iron tooldecorated Borre-style(c) showing theinterregional contextof wooden disc(drawings MieczyslawJusza).

b

ca

´

Differentlyshapedweights. Photo: JørgenPedersen

In theNeighbourhoodThe neighbourhood of Trelleborg– One of the circular Viking-age

fortresses in Denmark and Scania

Arabic silver coin. Thepierced hole may indicate that

it has been used as a pendant.Photo: Jørgen Pedersen

By Kåre Johannessen

Trelleborg in western Zealand, Denmark, is quite aunique institution among Danish museums. Centredround a huge, circular earthen fortress from thelate Viking Age, it comprises the monument per seand a museum presenting the variousarchaeological finds from the excavations, as wellas a reconstructed Viking settlement that is

currently being established next to the rampart.



Trelleborg has no formal archaeologicalduties, and with the monument, exhibitionand activity centre merged into one, theopportunities for presenting all aspects ofViking culture are extremely good. Thishas resulted in a rare chance to vieworiginal finds and high-quality replicas sideby side, and offers the visitor a path intothe past that is entertaining as well aseducational.

Since it lacks archaeological duties, sofar Trelleborg has been focusing strictly onthe educational aspects of museum work.During summer, the reconstructedenvironments are manned with staff

dressed in accurate copies of Vikingclothing, demonstrating various crafts andactivities and actively engaging the visitorin the process.

During thesummerseason, anumber ofspecial eventstake place,such as theannual VikingMarket, there-enactedBattle ofTrelleborg,and thetraditionalmidsummer’sbonfire (heretaking theshape of a

dead chieftain being burned in hismagnificent long-ship).

The circular fortress Trelleborg issituated west of the village of Slagelse.Together with the similar fortresses,Aggersborg at Løgstør, Fyrkat at Hobroand Nonnebakken in Odense, theyconstitute a complex of large and

distinguished monuments from theViking Age.

Two Scanian sites in southern Sweden canpossibly be added to this group; Trelleborgin Ystad belongs – although differing indetails – to the group, which is also true ofBorgeby in Lund, although excavationsthere have been limited so far. Theengineering skills, demonstrated by the

Viking-age strap-end mounting ofbronze. Photo: Jørgen Pedersen



forts’ stringentgeometrical construction,are a constant source ofreflection.

As the first of the forts,Trelleborg was excavatedas early as the 1930’s, andtoday the fortress site canbe regarded as quite welldocumented. The dating,to about 980 AD, could bedetermined whendendrochronology joinedthe archaeological datingmethods; on the other handthere is no clear idea of orunity around the fort’s function.

The earlier viewpoint that the fort haddirect connections with the large Vikingraids to England, has been replaced byothers – as a stronghold in connectionwith Harald Bluetooth’s national assemblyor as a short-term barracks in connectionwith a military dispute against the Germanemperor.

These discussions will certainlycontinue. New wisdom can always beobtained from such a place, if newinvestigations are performed. Severalinvestigations have been carried outpreviously, but on the whole everythingregarding the circular fortress inarchaeological terms has seemed to be inorder until now.

The same cannot be said about the areasurrounding the fortress. The interactionbetween Trelleborg and its immediatesurroundings has never been thoroughlyclarified, and this is a situation that recursat many of our central localities. Thequestion is interesting at any rate, becausewhen such a gigantic fortress was suddenlyplaced in the middle of a local societyaround 980, it must have had quite aneffect, to say the least.

For a long time the Museum atTrelleborg has wished to get a closerglimpse of this interaction, and when aresearch project in Vestsjælland countyopened opportunities to study the so-calledcentral places from the late Iron Age moreclosely, the question could be raised again.

The undertaking had two different“parts”. Firstly, the archives, collections andreports of finds were examined andregistered to create a necessary survey ofthe archaeological localities in the region.Secondly, the ground in the immediatevicinity of the circular fortress wasinvestigated. Both parts proved to bearfruit, the latter showing impressive resultsat least in its first round of activity. Not far

from the fortress’ rampart a large numberof objects emerged from the ground. Evenif they themselves weren’t reallymagnificent objects, they were neverthelessworthy of attention.

The general conception is that themighty fortress must have dominated its

shaped object among the finds plays animportant role – a so-called casting-cone ofbronze, occurring when the liquid metalsolidifies in the mouth of a casting mouldand then is broken off the cast material. Afind like this will of course not attracthordes of visitors through a museum, butit has nevertheless great importance asproof of handicraft production. In otherwords, an industrious trading centre layclose to the fortress rampart, in thegarrison’s backyard so to speak. We weren’taware of that, to express it mildly.

Of course it is too early to draw anymajor conclusions from the find, but itmakes us think that the surroundings wereperhaps not so subdued as we’ve assumeduntil now. The impression is a flourishingactivity that went on splendidly side byside with the Trelleborg. Perhaps futureinvestigations will show that HaraldBluetooth not only brought pyres and firewhen he built his fortresses.

That this trading place was founded inconnection with the fortress doesn’t seemprobable. Some of the objects that havebeen found are centuries older than thefortress and the objects stretche over a verylong period of time, from the Iron Agewell into the 15th century. All in all, thefind material gives the impression ofreflecting civil activities. Only one piecebears witness to fighting and war, and thatis an almost intact hilt, which has adorneda sword sometime during the 8th century.

There is a massive dominance of morepeaceful objects. For instance two silverpendants shaped as male faces. One ofthem is brutally sawn off under the noseand has been used as a means of payment.Another pendant is made of bronze and iscompletely intact, aside from a brokenloop. Such a wealthy trade and productionplace, that the amounts and character ofthe new metal finds give expectations of, isinteresting in itself, but things are made

To the left a bronzebuckle from lateGerman Iron Age.The two pendants tothe right are fromthe Viking Age. Theone in the centre ismade of silver and oneto the right is made of

bronze. Photo: JørgenPedersen

Gilded bronze jewellery. Photo: JørgenPedersen

surroundings and that the propertiesimmediately surrounding Trelleborg weresubdued, but a considerable part of thenew finds are quite expensive objects.Beautifully decorated buckles, fittings andjewellery in silver and bronze, a few ofthem even gold-plated, were found in adelimited area, which shows that theyactually belonged to this place, and werenot just lost by warriors on their way toand from the fortress. Several weights,Arabic silver coins and silver jewellery cutinto pieces give evidence of lively tradingactivities in this place.

An almost insignificant, small funnel-

Gilded bronze buckle withgeometric ornament.Photo: Jørgen Pedersen

Brooch in the shapeof a snake and a

dragon in battle. Photo:Jørgen Pedersen



even more exciting by virtueof its proximity to thefortress.

At the time of writing,we are looking into thepossibilities of starting aproper archaeologicalpreliminary investigationand more systematicscanning. Additionalguesses about the character of the newfinds’ site – until further results are at hand– serve no purpose. However it should bementioned that traces of an older civilsettlement were found at Aggersborg,which was abandoned at the time of thefortress’s establishment, and that a numberof production finds were found in theexcavated part of Fyrkat.

On the very site of Trelleborg, evidencesuggests older cult activities as well as ayounger. These things may well play acentral part in a coming review of thesecircular fortresses. Right now the new findsare being cleaned up,preserved and moreclosely analysed and,after that, hopefullyexhibited at Trelleborgwhere they willcontribute to placingthe fortress in a widerperspective for the visitors.

The same goes for anotherfind that is being preserved atthe moment. The Tude stream, likemany other waterways regulated inmodern times, was brought back to its oldlocation below the rampart in 1994. Onthis occasion, shaped wooden objects cameto light, and, for want of something better,a local amateur archaeologist took custodyof them.

During the following six years thesefinds were kept carefully in obscurity in awater-bath on a farm, but in the beginningof 2000 the Trelleborg museum got windof the situation, after which the objectswere brought to the National Museum inBrede, Copenhagen, for preservation.

Among the wooden objects were partsof a smaller boat, a wooden plate, differentshaped wooden artefacts and a sharpenedoak pole, where the annual rings willhopefully be able to provide an exactdating. A piece of woven material about 25x 25 centimetres aroused attention amongthe curators, because the weavingtechnique seems unknown up to now. Thematerial is unusually thick, almost like felt,but it is clearly not felted.

It is probably some sortof domestic textile, a horse-

blanket or a cloak, but we need toawait the completion of more detailed

investigations before giving a final answerabout its use. However the circumstancesaround the find may indicate that thetextile is connected with the woodenobjects time-wise – and thus, probably alsowith the fortress.

Unexpected, encouraging traces thathave now appeared at the well-knowncircular fortress, individually seem to givepromises of new knowledge. One can onlyhope that it will be possible to obtain thefinancial means to have these possibilitiesthoroughly examined. It is hardly the lasttime new things will appear at Trelleborg.

typical for Scandinavian shipbuilding, Slavicshipbuilding was characterised by planks withwooden riveting. Was this ship built byScandinavian shipbuilders and then rebuiltby Slavic shipbuilders before it sank inHedeby harbour?

Wreck 3 This ship is a large Scandinavian cargo ship.The ship was 24–26 m long and amidships5.70 m wide. Its construction wasparticularly high-sided and robust, and had aload capacity of at least 40 tons. Five to sixmen were able to sail such a ship, and ifnecessary, the number could be increased.

HandicraftsThe establishment of towns in northernEurope in Viking times was linked to themovement of people from the countrysideinto the towns. This gave rise to a gradualdivision of labour between countryside andtown. While the countryfolk were specialisedin producing an excess of food to supply thetowns, the townsfolk created increasinglyspecialised handicrafts, the products of which(e.g. jewellery and combs) they could thensell to the rural population.

Hedeby’s wealth of well-preserved findsenables us to reconstruct a detailed image ofthe handicrafts and trading activities of itspopulation.

Highly specialised metalwork had reacheda remarkable technological level. From thefinds we can see, for example, the goldsmiths’complicated methods of production.Specialised craftsmen melted glass andworked it into beautiful beads. Small stonesfor games, pendants and beads were madeout of jet and amber raw materials. Knifehandles, stones for games, dice, hairpins andcombs were made of stag and reindeerantlers. Corresponding finds indicate thatshipbuilding and repairs were also carried outin Hedeby, which is to be expected of such animportant trading area.

The blossoming foreign trade required adeveloped payment system – a monetaryeconomy. Coins were minted in Hedebyfrom 825 AD, making it the first and oldestmint in northern Europe.

In the 11th century, the settlement beganto decline, the cause of which is still notclear. Looting and pillage (1050 AD and1066 AD) accelerated this process. Itsfunction was taken over by the settlement ofmodern-day Schleswig, which is situated onlytwo kilometres away on the north bank ofthe Schlei.

Only five percent of the area of Hedebyand one percent of the harbour have beenexcavated until now. However, this is a moreextensive area than has yet been investigatedin any other comparable Viking settlement.

CCoonnttiinnuueedd ffrroomm ppaaggee 99

Further information – including acalendar of activities – can be found atwww.vikingeborg.dk (English versionavailable).

This article was first published inDanish in SKALK 2001:5.wwwwww..sskkaallkk..ddkk

About the authorKåre Johannessen was born in 1964,and educated at the universities ofOdense and Aarhus. He has a PhDin early medieval history, and hasworked as a curator at the Centre ofExperimental Medieval Technology inNykøbing F, Denmark. He is currentlyworking as curator at the Museumof Trelleborg, Denmark. He haspublished a number of essays andbooks, including one on sex in theMiddle Ages.

E-mail: bbeerrssaaeerrkk@@yyaahhoooo..ccoomm



As part of our Ale Viking Age Villagereconstruction work, we are endeavouring toreplicate and use the types of tools andmethods that were used during the Vikingperiod. The first known method for creatinga façade on buildings in this area was that ofusing an axe to hew out the timber to give ita decorative pattern. This method was widelyemployed at least from the Viking Age rightup to the Black Death in 1350. When thisepidemic swept across the country, about onethird of the population was wiped out, withthe result that practically no constructionwork was carried out for a whole century.Naturally, this meant that numerous skills fellinto disuse, including the method of herring-bone pattern. When construction workfinally got under way again, the only methodthat was applied was that of rough-hewing,whereby the carpenter used a broad-axe tohew more across the grain.

Herring-bone pattern has often beeninterpreted mainly as a technique for

producing ornamental decoration, but thecarpenters were, quite simply, extremelyskilful in the way they handled their axes.The main purpose was to cut material inorder to hew out the right dimensions. Theherring-bone pattern comes from thecarpenter’s endeavour to always hew thewood in the same direction, in order toachieve a fair, smooth and water-repellentsurface.

From the medieval buildings in Swedenand Norway where I have studied herring-bone pattern surfaces, there is a great deal tobe learned about the design of the axe andthe methods used by the carpenter. The basicprinciple for herring-bone pattern is that thetimber is hewn along the direction of thewood’s grain and that the axe cuts away fromthe wood, which is achieved by using anobtuse angle on the bevelled or short edge.

When the surface is illuminated at anoblique angle, the start marks are accentuatedand since these still remain it is possible tosee that the carpenter always hewed awayfrom the finished surface, with the bladepointing in the direction of the unworkedsurface. Also, when the wood’s grain wastwisted, the carpenter often hewed severaledges on a level down to the pith using thesame grip. He would then turn the log up-side-down and hew the other way. If thewood was straight-grained, he could hew inboth directions on the same side of the pith.On such timber, it can be seen that thecarpenter simply changed his grip on the axeat the end of the log and worked in the otherdirection on the same side of the log. Thecarpenter thus avoided any unnecessary

moves. This resulted in the herring-bonepattern.

The pattern was not always symmetrical.It is evident that the experienced carpenterchanged grip when he came to a branch. Atthat point he would instead hew a couple ofdistinct strokes towards the branch from theother direction in order to prevent the woodfrom splitting.

Obviously, the quality of the material wasimportant, not just for the end results butalso to make the work of the carpenter as easyas possible. It was aspects such as these thatwere taken into consideration by thecraftsmen who only used edge-tools.

Magnus Börjesson, carpenterand instructor.

Ale in the Viking AgeThe construction of the Viking Age Village inwestern Sweden in the municipality of Ale, is

being conducted as a training project inancient building methods. Alongside the

practical aspects of the construction work, theproject training includes instruction in history

and archaeology, presentation methods,forging, tillage and cultivation, wood-carving,needlework and the crafting of wooden tools.The courses are being run by archaeologists,

drama instructors, building carpenters,specialist instructors and lecturers.

The following article is the first in a seriesof articles about the ancient handicrafts and

the techniques that the Ale Viking Age Villageproject participants are learning as part of

their training.

Magnus Börjesson, carpenter andinstructor, Ale Viking Age Village.

Herring-bone pattern

The Ale Viking Age Project was startedby Ale Municipality in 1999, withsupport from EU’s RegionalFund/Norway through Interreg IICNordsjön (trans-national co-operationin the North Sea region) with the aimof collecting and spreading informationand knowledge about the culturalheritage of the Viking Age in the NorthSea region. In autumn 2001, the projectbecame a cultural tourism projectsupported by the European Social Fundand the Ale Employment Office.

For more information about the AleViking Age Project, please call +46 303 - 33 09 35 or visit our websiteon wwwwww..aalleevviikkiinnggaattiidd..nnuu

Example of how the herring-bone pattern method is used to create a surfaceon the wood. Södra Råda Old Church. Photograph: Magnus Börjesson.

NewSeries of articlesabout ancienthandicrafts



By J Bjørnar Storfjell

On 18 April 2002, ThorHeyerdahl, perhaps the bestknown Norwegian in thesecond half of the twentiethcentury, died peacefully in hissleep at the family home inColla Micheri in Italy where hehad gone to spend the Easterholidays with his nearestfamily around him.

On Saturday, 21 April 2001, at about7:00 pm I greeted Thor Heyerdahl andhis wife Jacqueline Beer Heyerdahlalong with his assistant Anne Nyströmin the lobby of the airport hotel inMoscow, Russia. I had just arrivedfrom London, England where I hadbeen living outside the metropolitanarea for almost three months. Thorlooked just the same as when I saidgoodbye to him and Jacqueline in Tbilisi,Georgia early in the morning on Saturday,9 September 2000. At that time I had spentsome time with Thor and his wife whenthey visited the Kish Excavation inAzerbaijan where I was working and he wasrenewing his interests in the history of theCaucasus region and its possiblerelationship with the early history of theNordic region of Europe.

As early as on his first visit to theCaucasus in the early 1960s, Thor had beenaware of the similarity of some of theGobustan, Azerbaijan petroglyphs withpetroglyphs in Scandinavia, especially thepetroglyphs of Alta, Norway. Even thoughthe two sites reflect different periods of pre-history, the similarity was still noticeable.Nevertheless, Thor was interested ininvestigating the possibility of other culturalconnective links between the Caucasus

region and Scandinavia.That was the reason for his visit to the

region in the autumn of 2000 when I spenta week travelling with him and his wifeJacqueline in Azerbaijan and Georgia. Hewas seeking to answer some questions thathad arisen from his reading of SnorreSturluson. According to Snorre, writing in

the 13th century AD, Odin was supposed tohave migrated from the region of theCaucasus or the area just north of the BlackSea near the turn of the era. Thor wanted tofind out if there were any material culturalremains that could lend support to such acursory reading of Snorre and consequentlyorganised the Joint ArchaeologicalExcavation in Azov in 2001.

That is why I met him in Moscow on

Thor Heyerdahl in Asov 2001. Photo:Gunilla Wickman-Nydolf

April 21, last year. Thor had already madecontact with Dr Sergey Lukiashko of theInstitute of Archaeology at the StateUniversity of Rostov-on-Don. Followingclues in the geographical descriptions inSnorr, Thor wanted to start hisinvestigations in Azov, Russia.

I worked in the Scandinavian teamtogether with two other Norwegianarchaeologists, Katharina Lorvik and IngarGundersen, and two Swedish archaeologists,Gunilla Wickman-Nydolf and Nils-GustafNydolf, and for a period of six weeks wecarried out the excavation together with

our Russian colleagues. The results of thefirst season of excavation in 2001brought to light more than 35,000individual pieces of material culturalremains, all numbered and registered.Most of these items would excite onlyan archaeologist and offer littleoccasion for joy to the uninitiated. Iam referring primarily to brokenceramic vessels whose many sherdsfilled several buckets every day. It is

these unglamorous sherds that, byrevealing their secrets of when they were

manufactured, help us assign dates to thevarious layers of soil in which they werefound and consequently their importancefar outshines their lack of glamour.

Among the more significant finds wereseveral fibulae, the circular ring-pins used tofasten garments, from the first to secondcenturies AD. They showed a clear affinitywith fibulae from the Baltic region andwould not have been out of place ifdiscovered there. The same can be saidabout a sword found in a burial from thesame period. After just one season ofexcavation we can point to a modest level ofcultural connectivity between the stepperegion of the Black Sea and the Baltic. It isvery likely that the great rivers of Russiawere the conveyors of these cultural links,something that puts us right back into anenvironment that Thor Heyerdahl was very

Obituary

Thor Heyerdahl: Personal reflections on his last year



familiar with, water.The first season in this extensive project

was in Azov, Russia. The total scope of theproject envisions several more seasons ofexcavation in and around Azov. Then theinvestigation hopes to move to theCaucasus, where the As and Van peopleslived in the distant past. This is all reflectedin the Norse Sagas, but, as early as 2000years before, Snorre in Iceland wrote aboutthese people. The Van groups were referredas a geographical term in Assyriancontemporary records of in the 13th centuryBC. The As are known, also incontemporary Assyrian records, from asearly as the 7th century BC. This literaryevidence warrants continued research in theCaucasus, not just to test the statements ofSnorre, but to help us understand moreabout a region that has figured soprominently as a cultural bridge early inhuman history.

For octogenarian, Thor was one of themost energetic persons in Azov. Daily hevisited every excavation site, five in all,scattered throughout the city. WeScandinavians were excavating in astrawberry garden with the kind permissionof the owner who decided to forego theberries in favour of history. In the manydiscussions at meal times the idea of aresearch centre that would carry out Thor’sarchaeological work was aired and began totake shape. It would be more than half a

year later before it would become a reality.In the meantime, after the excavation,

work shifted to analysis of the finds and thetask of writing up reports of the fieldwork.Thor continued working on the manuscriptof his last book that was published inNorway in November 2001; Jakten på Odin(In search for Odin). A couple of days afterThor returned to his home in Tenerifefollowing the book launch in Oslo, Norway,I visited him in connection with the reportwriting, but he had other matters to discuss.

He had been offered funding for thesecond season of excavation in Azov if healso established a research centre bearing hisname. I was asked to set up the centre andthen to direct it; it would be located inEngland for a variety of practical reasons.

By the middle of February 2002, TheThor Heyerdahl Research Centre was a reality,organised and registered at CompaniesHouse in England and Thor Heyerdahl wasthe first Chairman of the Board ofManagement. Now his widow, JacquelineBeer Heyerdahl holds that position and iseager to oversee the continuation of Thor’swork in Azov, the greater Caucasus andbeyond.

Beyond is especially a new project thatThor was planning in Samoa in the Pacific.He had been made aware of the existence ofa structure, pyramidal in shape, which isthought to be the largest of its kind in thePacific. In February this year he visited the

site with his wife and started makingarrangements for an excavation in theautumn of 2002. He wanted this to be hislast project. It was in the Pacific that hestarted his long and illustrious career, andthere he wanted to finish it. The 18th ofApril 2002 conspired against him. ThorHeyerdahl, perhaps the best knownNorwegian in the second half of thetwentieth century, died peacefully in hissleep at the family home in Colla Micheri inItaly where he had gone to spend the Easterholidays, with his nearest family aroundhim. The Norwegian Government gave hima State Funeral in the Oslo Cathedral onApril 26, 2002. His urn will be placed inthe garden of the family home in CollaMicheri. Even in death he belonged to theworld. He is dearly missed by all who cameto know him.

An article about the excavation in Azov2001 was published in VHM 4/01 and apresentation of the book Jakten på Odin inVHM 1/02 (ed. note).

About the authorJ Bjørnar Storfjell, PhDChief Executive and ArchaeologistThe Thor Heyerdahl Research Centre

E-mail: bbjjoorrnnaarr@@ssttoorrffjjeellll..ffssnneett..ccoo..uukk

Plans are made up for theexcavation in Azov 2001. ThorHeyerdahl and his co-workers,from left Nils-Gustaf Nydolf,Sergej Loukiashko andBjørnar Storfjell. Photo:Gunilla Wickman-Nydolf



Last year, in August 2000, the latest result ofthis international co-operation was presented:the 90-m2 woollen sail for the Skuldelev 1reconstruction, Ottar, woven in 2/1 twill.Some years will pass before we have acomprehensive view of the qualities (orshortcomings) of this sail.

Four larger woollen sails were producedearlier by the Viking Ship Museum, andthree of these have been in use for manyyears. Experience with these sails suggeststhat, contrary to general belief, woollen sails

The three primary weaves:1/1 ‘two-shaft’2/1 ‘three-shaft’2/2 ‘four-shaft’Copyright: NationalmuseetsMarinarkæologiske Forkningscenter, DK.

are not inferior to sails of linen, hemp, orcotton, for example. In fact, the picture thathas begun to present itself is that a goodwoollen sail is quite up to the standard of, forexample, a linen sail. Because of its elasticity,a woollen sail has the ability to remainsmooth when sailing. At the same time, awoollen sail can evidently have a very longworking life.

Various types of woollen material in theViking Age and laterAfter the Viking Age and the medievalperiod, woollen sails were in use well into the19th century throughout a large geographicalarea that includes Iceland, the Faroe Islands,the Hebrides, the Shetland Islands, Norway,Sweden and Finland. In Norway woollen sailsor remains of these are still available forstudy. Thus, there is a considerable amountof source material for the study of woollensails that has not been fully explored.

Research has shown that three types ofweaving or binding processes of the materials

Thewoollensail– Research inlong lengths

By Erik Andersen

Since 1977, the Viking ShipMuseum has conductedresearch on the production anduse of woollen sails. From thevery beginning of our efforts,Norwegian researchers haveworked in close co-operationwith Roskilde, and the studieshave involved weavers,sailmakers, boat-researchers,groups interested in the usesand customs of the sea, textile-researchers, etc. In the courseof time Faroese and Englishcolleagues have joined us.

Ottar’s wool sail on itssailing trial in August 2000,before being given itsprotective surfacetreatment. Copyright:NationalmuseetsMarinarkæologiskeForkningscenter, DK.



employed were used to make woollen sails inthe past. These processes were dependent onthe region, the resources available, andtradition. What is today referred to as ‘two-shaft’ (1 thread over and under 1 thread),‘three-shaft’ (2 threads over and under 1thread) and ‘four-shaft’ (2 threads over andunder 2 threads), were, in earlier timesreferred to as einskept, tuskept, and priskept,respectively. Both the warp and the weft inthese sail types would generally have beenone-threaded with right-spinning in the warpand right- or left-spinning in the weft,depending on the weave.

In the middle of the 11th century, theperiod to which the Skuldelev ships belong,priskept was probably quite common inwoollen sails, but einskept and tuskept maystill have been used. Tuskept and priskept arewhat we would today call 2/1 twill and 2/2twill. The possibility cannot be excluded thatvery large sails in the Viking Age andmedieval period may have been two-threaded, at least in the warp, but thespinning direction in the thread seems tohave been the same as in later periods.

For centuries in Iceland and the FaroeIslands, the thread for woollen sails was spunon a distaff and the cloth woven on anupright loom, but by the middle of the 19th

century; the horizontal loom came in use.When this transition in loom types tookplace in the other regions of Scandinavia,however, is still unclear. In the Viking Ageand early medieval period, the upright loomwas probably dominant for the production ofwoollen textiles.

A few archaeological finds, however,suggest that the horizontal loom was notunknown, but where and to what extent itwas employed is unclear, as is the emergenceof the so-called round loom. A commonmisconception is that on an upright loom,one cannot weave 2/1 twill, but in fact, sucha loom is actually very good at this task.

General scholarly opinion has held that on

centuries. From the Faroe Islands, we knowthat on an upright loom, a length of 9 ells,approx. 5 m, could be woven and this isactually quite sufficient to make the lowFaroese square sails. In Iceland, on the otherhand, it was possible in the Middle Ages andlater to weave uninterrupted lengths of 20ells, or almost 11 m, on an upright loom.

Considering the available archaeologicalmaterial for sail manufacture for the Viking-ship reconstructions, we have used 2/1 twill(tuskept) woven wool, a type that is alsodocumented in the available ethnologicalmaterial. For the production of the largeamount of 2/1-twill woollen-cloth for Ottar’ssail, the threads were spun on a spinningwheel and the material woven on a horizontal

an upright loom, one cannot weave long lengthsof material, but with a rolling-beam at the topof the loom this is quite possible. Incidentally,a rolling-beam has been found together with theremains of an upright loom in the excavationof the so-called “farm beneath the sand,” aViking settlement by the Godthåb fjord inGreenland.

This particular rolling-beam is identical insize and form to those that were used onupright looms in Norway in the 18th and 19th

loom (a foot-powered loom).At the same time several large pieces of

specimen cloth were woven on an uprightloom from threads spun on a distaff. Thissecond, parallel trial was decisivelysignificant, since it proved that the quality ofthe material was not inferior when woven onan upright loom. In addition, it appeared asthough there were some interesting technicaldifferences between the two products thatmust be studied more closely in the future.

Initially, an upright loom would appear tomake work proceed slower than a horizontalloom, as indicated by Icelandic material fromthe 19th century. The upright loom does notrequire as much space as its counter-part,however, and weaving on it appears not to beso physically demanding. Several spinnersand weavers shared the work at several loomsof preparing a woollen sail, whose working-life would have been considerable. Based onexperience from the parallel experiments, inone year five people would be able to spinand weave Ottar’s sail that would probablylast for 30–50 years.

The type of square sail employedWhen we are constructing a sail at the VikingShip Museum, we have deliberately decidedto work with one particular type of woollensail. This type has continuous vertical lengthsof cloth sewn together with round seams andwith transverse rope reinforcements on thesail’s backside. These seams are sewn in sucha way that they do not lock the movementsof the cloth. In traditional square sails, roundseams were used up to the present time.Round seams give sails completely smoothjoins on their front side.

When sailing close to the wind with asquare sail, low pressure gives a highwindspeed, which should preferably be ableto pass across the sail’s surface withouthindrance. For Ottar’s sail, uninterrupted 11-m lengths of cloth have been used, as suchlengths were probably obtainable in the 11th

century. If short lengths of material had beenjoined with round seams at two or three

Anna Nørgård weavingsamples parallel tomore moderntechniques from 19th

century, Norway. Noticethe rolling-beam at thetop of the uprightloom. Copyright:NationalmuseetsMarinarkæologiskeForkningscenter, DK.

Round seam. Copyright: Nationalmuseets Marinarkæologiske Forkningscenter, DK.



places, this would probably not have had anyimportant influence on the strength, shape,and effectiveness of the sail.

This approach is necessary in order thatwe can become familiar with various typesand qualities of woollen materials. In a sailwithout some form of diagonalreinforcement cords, the woollen cloth has to“look after itself ” and is therefore mucheasier to evaluate. The results are at the sametime directly comparable with sailcloth madeof other materials, such as linen, cotton, andthe modern duadon.

A thorough knowledge of the possibilitiesoffered by wool, as sailcloth, is necessary inorder to carry out serious sailing trials, as wellas to assess the iconography of ship sails, suchas images from the Gotland picture-stones.

Iconography and the weaving-lengthThe sails of the ships on the Gotland picture-stones have led some scholars to suggest thatthe upright loom could only originally beused to weave short pieces of material,because the material’s length was dictated bythe set-up and height of the loom. Such alimitation is not unlikely in early times, andthe chessboard pattern on the sails on theearly picture-stone ships may reflect thisfeature. Short pieces of material sewntogether with round seams would probablyhave functioned well as a sail.

One can imagine that each individualViking household produced a ‘square’ (thishas been observed in more recent times inconnection with boat-sails, such as at St.Kildan, Outer Hebrides). The square piecesmay also have been produced in differentcolours. The picture-stones show sails withcoloured bands of material, and suchdiagonal patterns are attested later in bothtexts and iconography, but it is not possibleto determine whether such bands werefor strengthening the sail, for decorativepurposes, or both.

It is important not to neglect thedecorative aim of the bands, a style thatseems to have persisted until the 14th century.On some sails, the crossing points of thediagonal bands are emphasised with a dot.This pattern was common at the time anda similar style appears on the sideboards ofthe 9th century Oseberg sledges.

There is a possibility that the images ofsails with thin diagonal stripes as well asthose with chessboard-patterns representpieces of cloth sewn together but this doesnot seem likely. Plaited sails, with right anglesor diagonal patterns, cannot be dismissed butwould have required a lot of material.

The entire body of iconographicalmaterial serves as an important source for ourresearch, but its application should be madewith caution. One cannot automaticallyassume, for example, that a sail depicted withvertical pieces of cloth without diagonal

stripes or bands, or with square pieces ofcloth, represents a linen or hemp sail; instead,such a design may well represent wool.

On the other hand, linen sails may havebeen equipped with reinforcements as well,depicted as coloured bands that crossdiagonally or vertically over the joins. Inaddition, these vertical stripes can alsorepresent rope-lines, especially when the sailis shown from the front. Naturally we do notknow what kind of woollen cloth ships suchas the Skuldelev 1 and Skuldelev 3 wouldhave had as their sails, and the possibility thatSkuldelev 3 had a linen sail cannot bedismissed, either.

Finally, it is perhaps necessary to stress thefollowing: in theoretical discussions regardingwoollen sails at different periods, one must

be careful with theories that claim woollensails that developed in more recent periodswere superior to those that existed earlier.There is little evidence to support this idea.With the advanced construction of thesailing-ship hulls of Skuldelev 1 andSkuldelev 3, and the advanced sailing- androwing-ship hulls of Skuldelev 2, 5 and 6, theuse of a correspondingly high-qualitysailcloth product would seem appropriate.

Gotlandicpicture-stones withtheircharacteris-tic sailpatterns.Copyright:NationalmuseetsMarinarkæologiskeForkningscenter, DK.

Sledge from the Oseberg find. Drawingfrom Oslo Universitetsts oldsakssamling.

This article was first published in Danish inMarinarkæologisk Nyhedsbrev fra RoskildeNr.16/2001.

wwwwww..nnaattmmuuss..ddkk//nnmmff

Literature and reports dealing with theViking Ship Museum’s research intowoollen sails:

AAnnddeerrssoonn,, EE..,, 11999955:: Square Sails ofWool. In O. Olsen, J. S. Madsen, and F.Rieck, Eds: Shipshape. Essays for OleCrumlin-Pederson, 249-270. Roskilde.

AAnnddeerrssoonn,, EE..,, 22000000:: Textiles ofSeafaring, An Interdisciplinary approach tothe study, preservation, and disseminationof the Cultural Context and developmentof craftsmanship associated with

traditional textiles of seafaring(S. T. I. A.) 98/03405 (97/M/1.3),Final Report. Viking ShipMuseum in Roskilde, The

Museum of Natural History andArchaeology, Hitra, Tømmerviken

Textile Trust, Manchester University,Lödöse Museum, National Museum ofScotland.

Working reports:AAnnddeerrssoonn,, EE..,, 11999988:: Indledende prøver ogvalg af kvalitet. Vurdering af stofprøver tilSkuldelev 1s sejl. 13 oktober.AAnnddeerrssoonn,, EE..,, aanndd FF.. BBjjøørruu,, 22000000::Tilskæring og syning af uldsejlet. 7 januar.AAnnddeerrssoonn,, EE..,, Testresultaterne - herunderudgangspunkt og problemstilling omkringSkuldelev 1 kopiens uldsejl, vægt ogsmøring.AAnnddeerrssoonn,, EE..,, Supplerende dokumentationog bemærkninger til Bill Cook og CarolChristiansens rapport.

and short panel discussion.This topic was a naturalextension of the millenniumcelebration in 2000 of Leif Erikson’s voyagesto North America.

Many Americans feel that the Norse impacton America has been poorly investigated.

People tampering with the evidence havecompromised finds that could have shedsome light on the subject.

Contrary to earlier belief, some scholarstoday say that the Medieval Norse as well asthe earlier Vikings could well have sailed theinterior of the Americas, venturing on suchexpeditions using the natural highway systemof lakes and rivers. To accept that Norsemenleft behind this controversial rune stone hasnot been easy.

Scholars still think it is a fake, as theybelieve the runic language on the stone isindicative of a 19th century origin rather thana 14th century origin. The most commonstatement has been that the farmer OlofOhman from Sweden who uncovered thestone in 1898 made the runes himself or didso with some friends.

The panel discussion two years agotriggered new interest to a point that SACHF


Viking Heritage Magazine

Claimed to be a hoax and surrounded bycontroversy for more than one hundred years,the Kensington Runestone has developed alife of its own. Hardly any relic in America,including the Liberty Bell, has received moreattention nationally and internationally.Hundreds of articles and books have beenwritten about this subject. Plays, shows,songs and jokes developed from theKensington Stone early in the last century,even in Scandinavia, and the jokes haverefused to go away. The controversy aroundthis famed stone has made its way around theworld. Today the Kensington Runestone is ashot a topic as ever.

In February of 2000 the ScandinavianAmerican Cultural and HistoricalFoundation (SACHF) at Thousand Oaks,California arranged a Nordic SpiritSymposium together with CaliforniaLutheran University on The Vikings:Westward Exploration, Expansion andSettlement with speakers from England,Canada, Norway and the U.S. In view of theKensington Runestone’s long and fascinatinghistory for more than a century as purporteddocumentation of Norse explorers reachingwestward into the interior of the NorthAmerican continent, it was included in thesymposium with a historical introduction

was asked to include recent research in thisyear’s Nordic Spirit Symposium onScandinavian immigrants. Whether the stoneis a hoax or not, it is an interesting aspect ofNordic immigrants: if it is a hoax perpetratedby late 19th century Scandinavian immigrantsin the middle of the continent, it is a wittyand interesting one whose existence tellsmuch about how Scandinavian immigrantsrelated to their new homeland and to theirold homelands. On the other hand, if theinscription dates to the 1300s as it purports,then it is an important document aboutNordic immigrants centuries earlier and isthe earliest documentation of Europeans inmid-America.

Many people believe this stone, found byrural Swedish immigrants in theScandinavian heartland of the old mid-American prairie in the late 19th century, is

Overall view of the Kensington Runestone,today on display at the RunestoneMuseum in Alexandria, Minnesota. Allillustrations: Courtesy of LuAnn Patton,Executive Director, Runestone Museum,Alexandria, Minnesota.

The KensingtonRunestone Forumat California Lutheran University,February 24, 2002

A report by Olaf Engvig

8 Goths and 22 Norwegians ondiscovery journey from

Vinland over the west wehad camp by 2 skerries one

day’s journey north from this stonewe were and fished one day afterwe came home found 10 men red

with blood and dead AVMsave from evil

have 10 men by the sea to lookafter our ships 14 days journey

from this island year 1362



indeed a document which revolutionizesAmerican history. However, the majority ofscholars reject it.

Because of the recent research beingconducted and the resulting heightenedpublic interest, organizers of this year’simmigrant symposium added a day in orderto arrange a forum for a discussion of thelatest studies on this stone with anintroduction by three scholars who representdifferent views.

Howard Rockstad, chair of thesymposium, opened the Forum with a briefintroduction that summarized the majorworks and development of the stone’s history.

While clearing land on his farm inMinnesota in 1898, Swedish immigrant OlafOhman found the stone embedded in a tree’sroots. His ten-year old son noticed somestrange markings on the stone. As localpeople couldn’t decipher the inscriptions,copies of the inscription were sent to variousuniversity professors including runologists ofthe University of Oslo who opined it was afake. Scholars concluded some of the runeswere modern inventions, probably made by aScandinavian-American shortly before thestone’s discovery.

That was the end of the story for a fewyears until in 1907 a young historianHjalmar Holand heard about the stone, andsubsequently spent his lifetime researchingand proclaiming the stone’s authenticity.Many other authors have written about thestone, either defending or opposingauthenticity.

One opponent with major influence wasErik Wahlgren, a UCLA professor ofScandinavian languages who wrote twobooks, The Kensington Stone: A MysterySolved (1958) and The Vikings and America(1986). Wahlgren ridiculed both the stoneand Hjalmar Holand, and his books weregenerally considered authoritative in theirarguments against authenticity.

On the side of authenticity, Robert Hall,Jr., a retired Cornell University linguist,argued that certain aberrant runes which hadbeen used to prove the stone a hoax actuallyproved the opposite (The KensingtonRunestone is Genuine, 1982). He claimedthese runes had been used several centuriesearlier but knowledge of them had been lost

so that experts around 1900 did not know oftheir existence. Other scholars did not acceptHall’s conclusions and the controversy stillcontinues.

Recent studies of the linguistics of theinscription by Richard Nielsen and scientificanalysis of the stone’s surface by BarryHansen and others are ongoing and formedthe subject of this forum.

Barry Hansen, a scientist fromWisconsin, lectured on the recent geo-physical studies of weathering andcrystallization of the stone’s surface and thegeological and physical features of the stone.This is an entirely new approach for thestudy of this stone, as Hansen noted thatuntil recently the stone had not even beenstudied under a microscope, let alonemodern scientific analysis techniques.

The chemistry of the surface of the stoneand of the carvings seems to be very old. The

researchers also reveal that the stone had beenin the ground long before Ohman discoveredit. Root markings on the stone, which relatecritically to the story of the stone’s discoveryby Ohman, require further research as oftoday.

The stone itself is a hard stone from thevicinity of Manitoba well suited for runecarving. The geo-physical analysis is far frombeing concluded but the preliminaryconclusion offers a strong defense of OlofOhman. He could not have inscribed therunes as the physical features show that theywere made substantially more than a hundredyears ago. How long ago has yet to bedetermined.

Richard Nielsen, an American engineerwho has studied in Denmark, compared theKensington Runes to rune stones found inScandinavia. He has also looked into olddiplomas, or official records, from 14th

Century Scandinavia to try to find

Side view of the Kensington Runestone.

The center of this photo shows Olof Ohman, a pioneer farmer from Helsingland, Sweden,who uprooted a tree on his farm at Kensington and unearthed the stone in 1898.

This group photo was taken in 1927 at Fallins Point by Oscar Lake, a lake to the east ofwhere the Runestone was found. The photo was taken during a celebration put togetherto raise funds to create Runestone Park. The gentlemen are as follows: Back row from theleft – Rev. Carl G. Zaar, Rev. Johns Hog, Rev. John Daniels, Lewis Williams, unknown.Front row – Iver Lee, Olof Ohman, Hjalmer Holand and Edwin Bjorklund



explanations for some of the runes that makelittle sense.

Nielsen suggests that documents of the1300s confirm that the language of theKensington Runestone agrees with the OldSwedish language of the 1360s. He is stillinvestigating and looking for clues that couldhelp solve the controversies. He is a strongbeliever that the stone is an authenticdocument from 1362.

Henrik Williams, a language professor atUppsala University, Sweden discussed thelinguistic issues. He is a runologist andpointed to evidence for and against thestone’s authenticity. He does not belongclearly among the believers or the non-believers but takes the criminologists stand totry to find the best possible solution to themany unanswered questions.

He understands that common people arecaught in the middle and don't know what tobelieve as the scholars themselves are sobitterly divided. Although he does not believeOhman carved the inscription, neither doeshe believe the mixed dialects of theinscription are consistent with a 14th centuryorigin.

A series of questions from the participantsof the lectures showed that the audience wasvery engaged in the issue. The empiricalsciences were complemented for their newapproach in an attempt to solve the mystery.Some have high hopes that the exact scienceswill do better than the rune readers havedone over the years, at least when it comes topinpointing the age of the runes – anessential in understanding the language.

Barry Hansen and his team hope to getmore funding to continue research of thestone’s surface.

Another question was: How do we knowthat the current translation is the right one?Professor Williams answered that we don’tknow and that it is not likely that today’stranslation is the final one. Barry Hansenanswered a question about the quarry,revealing that the Kensington Stone wasobtained from a naturally shaped glacialstone which originated in Canada.

The final conclusion from the Forum wasthat only time and more research would tell.The Kensington Runestone is still much of amystery, just as it was a hundred years ago. Ifit is a hoax it is probably one of the greatesthoaxes of all time.

The Nordic Spirit Symposium is a uniqueannual lecture/performance program for thepublic, celebrating Scandinavian contributionsto USA’s history and culture. It is a project ofSACHF and the Scandinavian Cultural Centerat California Lutheran University in ThousandOaks, California. The topic for 2003 will beScandinavia during World War II.

A previously unknown rune stonehas been found in Vallentunasituated about 40 km north ofStockholm.

A farmer was clearing big stonesfrom one of his fields. He put onesmooth, nicely shaped stone (200 x70 cm) on the edge of the field. Acouple of days later he and a helperwere sitting beside the stone andpicked some soil away from it.Suddenly they became aware ofcarved lines in it and understoodthat it was a rune stone. They calledstraight away to report their findand I examined the stone the verysame day.

It proved to be a completelypreserved rune stone from thesecond half of the 11th century. Theinscription is very well carved withsmooth thin lines. The circleanimal is biting itself in the throat.The lengthy animal body follows

the contour line of the stone andthe tail bends upwards in themiddle of the carved area endingright below a cross at the top of thestone.

All the runes are well preservedand easy to read. The text conformstotally with the so-called rune stoneformula and reads, “Olög had thestone erected in memory of Holme,her son”. This is the first certainSwedish rune-evidence of thefemale name Olög.

The rune stone was found in itsoriginal location. Old maps showthat a smaller road passed by here.Thus the rune stone has beenstanding beside the road that ledalongside a grave field, which issituated directly south of the findsite. The stone will be raised on theedge of the field.

Marit Åhlén

The newly found rune stone lying at the edge of the field. The carving iswhitened by chalk. Down in the lower part of the stone the thick layer of soilstill remains. Photo: Marit Åhlén, The Swedish National Heritage Board.

New rune stone foundnorth of Stockholm

Axe, 10th

century, fromMammen,Jutland.



By Michael Cunningham

Part 1 of this article waspublished in VHM 1/02

When one examines the archaeologicalrecord there are numerous finds of Mjöllnirrepresented as amulets and upon ornamentedrune stones. The amulets were usually wornaround the neck or hung from an arm-ringand there are examples of hammers withlavish and symbolic styling, such as chevrons,which may be suggestive of rain andlightning – facets of fiórr.

A famous example of this is a hammerfrom Scania, which has staring eyes, aneagle's beak and a beard (it is interesting tocompare the style of this hammer with theceremonial axehead from a 10th century gravein Mammen, Denmark).

Hammers of relatively plain constructmay be seen in the find of a hammer on aring from Laby, Uppland. Nevertheless, Ifeel, the hammer amulet encompasses aphysical representation of the wearer'srecognition of the protection anddefence afforded by fiórr in respectof the individual and theirkinfolk in many aspects oflife.

Hammer amuletshave also been foundin valuable coin andmetal hoards such asCuerdale and Golborough,both in England, and variousareas of Scandinavia. The hammerswould have been purposely deposited withthe hoards in a protective and/or votiveaspect. The numerousness of hammers of this

nature found with hoards discountsaccidental deposition.

The hammer amulet when worn on a ringmay have often been accompanied by otherminiature objects such as swords, staffs, fire-steel or strike-a-lights, or even otherhammers. A good example of this was foundin the Anglo-Saxon burials from thecemeteries of Gilton and Ash in Kent,England while another was recovered fromSweden. Another factor from the lore is that:

“ ...if [fiórr] liked, [Mjöllnir] was so small thatit could be kept inside his shirt”(Faulkes 1987).

And so here may be a symbolicconnection between Mjöllnir and theminiature amulets worn by folk. The use of aring, which was also a symbol of fiórr, fromwhich the miniature hammer was hungechoes of the oath-rings of gold and silver,such as the one taken from fiórr's temple inDublin in 994 AD, and the one used whenthe Danes swore peaceoaths with King Alfredin 876 AD.

Of course fiórr is the thunderer andobjects such as small prehistoric weapons ortools such as axe-/adze-heads, flintarrowheads or fossils such as belemnites orthose of sea-urchins and also crystals werelong thought of as “thunderstones” or“thunderweapons”. It was said that suchobjects fell from the heavens during athunderstorm and sank seven fathoms downinto the earth where, after the passing ofseven years, they would rise to the surface.

These would then be used as charmsagainst thunder and there are many recordedinstances of them having been found insidedwellings – for instance in 19th and 20th

century Denmark where thunderstoneswhere found placed in homes safely awayfrom prying eyes and fingers. The presence ofsuch charms is believed to safeguard thedwelling and/or possessor against the ravagesof lightning and fire.

In East Prussia it was the custom to put afinger into the perforation of a prehistoricaxe-/adze-head, spin it around three times inthe midst of a thunder storm before throwingit against the door of the dwelling for whichprotection is sought from lightning and fire.

Thunderstones could be tested as to theirvalidity by wrapping string around them andcasting them into a fire where, it was said, ifthe string did not burn it would be evidencethat the thunderstone was genuine. From theViking Age there is a bronze brooch fromBirka, Sweden, which has a thunderstone (afossil sea-urchin in this instance) betweentwo goat-like animals.

The small stone axes, such as those foundin Denmark, were not only used to protectone from lightning and fire alone, no theywould also ward off rats, witches and trolls;to protect from disease and stop milk fromsouring and the butter to come in the churn.On occasion they were added to water or haddust filed off them to make a medicine. Theywould also have been placed in the cot of anunchristened infant.

Returning to the lore we read in

Thrymskvida how fiórr disguised as Freyjabehind a bridal veil in Thrym’s hall recoveredMjöllnir when it was placed on his lap tohallow the bride. The hammer/axe was usedas the symbol of a wedding and furtheremployed in the hallowing of same (althoughsome scholars question the periodicity ofthis).

If for a moment one considers thefunction of the hammer in the hands of thesmith it may be said to enable the marriage of

Hammer amulet, Viking Age, from Scania,Sweden.

Under the Hammer Part 2



metals in a catalytic manner, the result of themarriage thus being the creation of a form. Inthis instance, I would submit, the hammerfunctions as a uniter rather than a sunderer.

Gender aspects also enter the equationespecially in respect of the axe which, alongwith the hammer, is construed as a malesymbol which, for example, in Mediterraneanregions was placed in a deep cleft in the earthor forced into the pillar or a tree trunk - theresultant image at once symbolic and whollyevident is the legacy it articulated.

Mjöllnir also had a connection withfunerary rites and mortuary practices:

“...Thór took the goats and slaughtered them,then had them skinned and put into acauldron. [...] Thór spread the skins out awayfrom the fire, and told the farmer and hishousehold to throw the bones onto the skins.Thjálfi, the farmer's son, took firm hold of athigh-bone of one of the goats and split itwith his knife, breaking it for the marrow.Thór stayed there that night, and just beforedaybreak got up and dressed, took thehammer Mjöllnir, raised it and consecratedthe goatskins. Then the goats stood up. Oneof them was lame of a hind leg...” (Young1954).

A comparative, I feel, may be found inthe practices of the Saami where theyattach great importance to the catching andkilling of the bear. Not one of its bones wasallowed to be broken or discarded. Insteadthe bones were carefully collected andstored until they would eventually beburied. Indeed it was a common practice inthe Arctic for the bones of a sacrificedanimal to be restored to their anatomicalorder when the remains were committed tothe ground.

Such sacrifices may have been made tothe thunder god. This act may serve toplacate the elemental forces and ensure thelongevity of nature’s cycle of abundance inrespect of food supply and favourableconditions for same.

The importance of the fact that the bonesare left intact is made clear in the aboveextract and furthered with the Saami ritualpractice. Mjöllnir signed and hallowed thereconstruction and continuance of lifebeyond dry bones and staining soils.

The hammer was not just reserved formen as its presence in female graves is wellattested to in the archaeological record. Againan example is also provided from theliterature:

“...Baldr's body was carried out on to the ship[...] Then Thor stood by and consecrated thepyre with Mjöllnir” (Faulkes 1987).

A further symbol cognizant with Mjöllnirwas the swastika and this appears on

cremation urns and weapons, primarilyswords. An excellent example of the swastikais found on a memorial stone from Martebo,Gotland, dated to the 5th century AD. Herethe largest swastika form exhibits the fourarms with each arm forming a spiral andsurrounded by warriors along with twodragon-like animals.

Further examples are the swastikas presentupon a number of cremation urns. TheAnglo-Saxon cemetery at Lackford, Suffolk,has yielded some exquisite designs of thisimage. The presence of the swastika, I wouldposit, upon cremation urns may be adeliberate assertion linking the symbol with

weapon's hallowing and the chevrons maydisplay the tangible attributes of lightningand/or rain. Thus: a symbol invokingprotection and strength to the wielder anddoom to his foe.

Hallowing could also be performed bymovements of the empty hand in the form ofMjöllnir. And once again evidence reachesone via the literature when Hakon the Goodattended the autumn sacrifice at thepersuasion his heathen subjects. The kingsomewhat perturbed by the ceremony wasobserved to make the sign of the cross overthe cup, which was passed round to honourthe Gods. A supporter of the king actedquickly to avert criticism saying:

“The King acts like all those who trust intheir strength and might - he made the markof the hammer over it before he drank”(Heimskringla, Hákonar S. gó› a).

The wish for fiórr's protection is alsowell attested to on a number of grave-stonesin Sweden. Invoked, through the form ofMjöllnir, to deliver and receive the ancestorand hallow the staves and stones by whichthey are recalled.

The presence and veneration of fiórr inIceland during the Viking Age is well known.Many of Iceland's harbours and headlands(Thorshofn and Thorness) carry his nametogether with the personal names of Iceland'ssettlers which bore the element, Thor. Apopular story recounting the cult of fiórr isthat of fiórólf Mostrarskegg found inLandnámabók and Eyrbyggja Saga.

Indeed fiórr resided at Helgafell and in theearly days of Iceland's settlement duellingwas regarded as an authorized way to acquireland and this was reinforced by the supportof the Gods, particularly fiórr.

Naturally the journey by sea frommainland Europe to Iceland was fraught withdangers. One was at the mercy of the wavesand the potency of the storm and fiórr wasrecognised as the God of seafarers and, withthe dependency on farming to sustainIceland's early settlers and fledgelingeconomy, of farmers. Such factors, amongothers, may account for fiórr's importance inIceland.

Examining the distribution of thehammer amulets it has been suggested incomparative studies with that of mainlandnorthern Europe, that the rarity of suchartefacts in Iceland may be, in part, due to alower frequency of thunderstorms. Givensuch other factors as seafaring and farming itmay be said that Mjöllnir was inscribed onmaterial such as wood or sail - materialswhich have poor survival rates in adverseenvironments in the archaeological record. Itmay be that future excavations and

fire and light. The fire that consumes and thelight that nurtures rebirth from the warmbelly of the Earth. The direction throughwhich the swastika wheels could furtherindicate recognition of death and/or rebirth,both aspects being relative to the funerarycontext.

As stated the sword also, on occasion, borethe swastika and this is evidenced by suchfinds as a ringed pommel from Grave 39 atBifrons which carries a swastika on one sideand chevrons on the other side. Plaques fromthe sword-belt, also present in Grave 39, haveboth swastika and chevrons. Suchornamentation may be suggestive of the

Picture-stone, 5th century, from Martebo,Gotland. Copyright: The Museum ofNational Antiquities, Sweden.



subsequent finds may address the balance. An account in Njál's Saga tells of an

encounter which took place between anIcelandic poetess, Steinunn, and themissionary Thangbrand following thewrecking of Thangbrand's ship where thepoetess proclaimed the fact that fiórr hadcrushed the ship while Christ had been nomore than a helpless shadow.

The symbolism embodied by thehammer/axe was prevalent in northernEurope from the prehistoric through to theRoman and Viking periods but gradually, dueto the politics of Christianity, its formwas absorbed and clouded. The creep ofChristianity into the indigenous culturesof northern Europe began to stain theliterature, the art, the crafts and theancient beliefs and practices of ancientnorthern Europe. A 10th centurymetalworker's soapstone mould fromTrendgården, Denmark, holds themoulds for both Mjöllnir and theChristian cross.

Culture contacts and the spread ofmissionaries no doubt brought to theattention of heathen nobles the richesand powers flaunted by the Christianpriests, thus driving this alien faithbetween the folk and the Gods. Indeedmany merchants from northern Europe mayhave received the ‘Prima Signato’ – the crossmark which was a facet of the Christianconvert's first rite of initiation andinstruction undertaken before baptism. Thismark was a requisite for trading betweenheathen and Christian markets, the soapstonemould mentioned earlier evidences this. Thephrase “Prima Signato” was adapted to formthe Norse verb, “primsigna”.

A silver pendant from southern Icelandalso exhibits what could be a “joining” ofMjöllnir with the Christian cross crownedwith a grimacing beast headed suspensionloop which is undoubtedly a heathenelement.

Given the climate of change and theencroaching refashioning of ancient symbolsand the like, it is interesting to note that ahistory of Denmark, wrote by Ælnoth, anOdense priest of Anglo-Saxon roots, in 1120AD includes in the introduction:

“The Svear and the Götar, however, seem tohonour the Christian faith only when things goaccording to their wishes and luck is on theirside; but if storm winds are against them, if thesoil turns barren during drought or is flooded byheavy rainfalls, if an enemy threatens to attackwith harrying and burning, then they persecutethe Christian faith that they claim to honour,and with threats and injustice against thefaithful they seek to chase them out of the land”(Sawyer 1993).

Folktales also preserve the old beliefs anda story which was current in northern Icelanddisplays another aspect of Mjöllnir:

“If a man owns a ‘Thor’s Hammer’, he willknow who it is who has robbed him if he losesanything. To make this hammer, one must havecopper from a church bell, three times stolen.The hammer must be hardened in humanblood on a Whitsunday, between the reading ofthe Epistle and the Gospel. A spike must also beforged out of the same material as the hammer,and this spike one must jab against the head of

who was said to be learned in Magic. Thehammer was made of copper, with adetachable handle, which served as a jabbingspike.

The punishment of a thief by knockingout his eye(s) was popular in parts ofScandinavia, both in esoteric literature andpractice – the latter rite was nearly alwayscarried out by a blacksmith. Again the imageof the smith. The “suitable sign” may havebeen that of a variant form of the swastika.

German scholars of the 19th century say,that on the front of a house at Osnabrück,

and also on the city gates of severalgates in Silesia and Saxony, there usedto hang mallets accompanied by verses.Grimm was of a mind that these malletswere actually representative of thehammer symbol of Donar/Thunor/Thor, which had once beensuspended or represented at theentrances to heathen temples, and thatwith the advent of Christianity theyfound a place on churches and gates tocities as dedicatory symbols of goodluck.

The hammer in the context ofnorthern Europe, from prehistory tothe modern age, encapsulates theelements of creation and destruction asit spirals to and from fiórr's mighty

grip, its legacy unending.

About the authorMichael Cunningham is anarchaeologist living and working inIreland. His main interest isprehistoric Scandinavia. He ispresently studying the Viking Age andits subsequent impact on NorthWestern Europe.

E-mail: wwoollffkkiinn@@bbiiggffoooott..ccoomm

BibliographyÁÁrrnnaassoonn,, JJ.. 1863-64: Íslenzkar fijó› sögurog Aefint_ri. Leipzig.DDaavviiddssoonn, H. E. & FFiisshheerr P. 1996: SaxoGrammaticus - A History of the Danes,Books I-IX. D.S. Brewer.EEllddjjáárrnn, K. 1956: Kuml og haugfé úrhei› num si› á Islandi.FFaauullkkeess, A. 1987: Edda, Everyman.MMaaggoouunn, F. P. 1949: On the Old-GermanicAltar or Oath-Ring, Acta PhilologicaScandinavica, 20.MMaannkkeerr, E. 1938: Die lappischeZaubertrommel. Stockholm.MMaannkkeerr, E. 1957: Lapparnas heliga ställen.Stockholm.MMaarrssbbrraannddeerr, C. 1915-16: Revue Celtique36.MMiittffoorrdd, B. 1983: The Sutton Hoo ShipBurial III. British Museum Press.SSyyddooww, C.W. von (ed.) 1931: Folksäger ochFolksagor, Nordisk Kultur IXB.Stockholm-Copenhagen-Oslo.

Soapstone mould, 10th century, from Trendgården,Jutland.

the hammer, saying: ‘I drive this in the eye ofthe Father of War, I drive this in the eye of theFather of the Slain, I drive this in the eye ofThor of the Aesir’. The thief will then feel painin his eyes; if he does not return the stolen goods,the procedure is repeated, and then the thief willlose one eye; but should it prove necessary torepeat it a third time, he will lose the other eyetoo” (Árnason 1863-4).

Another method is for a man to steal acopper bell from a church between theEpistle and Gospel, and make a hammerfrom it. When he wants to know who thethief is, he must take a sheet of paper anddraw a man's eyes on it, or, better still, awhole face with two eyes, using his ownblood, and on the reverse of the sheet draw asuitable magic sign.

Next, he must take a steel spike and setone end of it on the eye and strike the otherend with the Thor's Hammer, saying “I amgiving eye-ache to the man who robbed me”, or,“I am knocking out the eye of the man whorobbed me”. Then the thief will lose one eye,or both, if he does not give himself up first(Árnason 1863-4).

A hammer of the type alluded to above wasseen by Konrad Maurer in 1858 (Maurer wasa German scholar who toured Iceland for sixmonths in 1858). A woman who had beensupplying Maurer with information hadinformed him that the hammer had beengiven to her late husband by an old woman



Some of the Viking Events in the summer of 2002

June

VViikkiinngg FFeessttiivvaall iinn HHaaffnnaarrffjjoorrdduurr,, IIcceellaannddJJuunnee 1111 –– 1133Festival with about 110 Vikings, crafts,fighters, music, drama, feasts, Vikingtents and lots of other activities.Tel. +354 - 565-291E-mail: vviikkiinnggss@@hhaaffnnaarrffjjoorrdduurr..iisshhttttpp::////wwwwww..ffjjoorruukkrraaiinn..iiss

TThhee VViikkiinngg PPllaayy aatt LLiinnddhhoollmm HHøøjjee,,DDeennmmaarrkkJJuunnee 1188 –– JJuunnee 3300Every summer a Viking play isperformed.Tel: +45 98 17 33 73hhttttpp::////wwwwww..ggeeoocciittiieess..ccoomm//vviikkiinnggeessppiill//iinndd--ffrraammee..hhttmmll

AAlltthhiinngg 22000022,, DDeecceeppttiioonn PPaassss SSttaattee PPaarrkk,,WWaasshhiinnggttoonn,, UUSSAAJJuunnee 2200 –– 2233Workshops and demonstrations areplanned on the Eddas, sagas, history,runes, ale and mead brewing, traditionalcrafts, story telling, and much more.Marketplace. Awards will be presentedto winners of the Viking games, andother activities. There will also bespecial activities for children.Email: iinnffoo@@iirrmmiinnssuull..oorrgghhttttpp::////wwwwww..iirrmmiinnssuull..oorrgg//aatt//aattnneexxtt..hhttmmll

VViikkiinngg PPllaayy aatt FFrreeddeerriikkssssuunndd,, DDeennmmaarrkkJJuunnee 2211 –– JJuullyy 77The festival features an open-air playperformed by 250 “Vikings”, followed bya traditional banquet set in a recreatedValhalla. This year’s play is called“Holger the Hare Hearted”. There is alsoa Viking market every year. Tel: + 45 47 31 06 85 hhttttpp::////wwwwww..vviikkiinnggeessppiill..ddkk//eennggeellsskk..hhttmmll

MMiiddssuummmmeerr FFeessttiivvaall,, SSccaannddiinnaavviiaannCCeennttrree,, BBuurrnnaabbyy,, BBCC,, CCaannaaddaaJJuunnee 2222 –– 2233At this event there will be a Vikingvillage built up and people in Vikingcostumes so you can experience how lifemight have been like in the Viking Age.Tel: +1- 294 2777hhttttpp::////wwwwww..ssccaannddiinnaavviiaanncceennttrree..oorrgg

JJeellss VViikkiinnggee ssppiill,, JJeellss,, DDeennmmaarrkkJJuunnee 2288 –– JJuullyy 1144In Jels, a Viking play has been performedevery summer for 25 years, this year’splay is called “Den Røde Viking”.AA VViikkiinngg mmaarrkkeett iiss aallssoo hheelldd hheerree JJuunnee 2299 –– 3300hhttttpp::////wwwwww..jjeellssvviikkiinnggeessppiill..ddkk//ddeeffaauulltt..hhttmm

TThhee VViikkiinngg wweeeekk aatt FFootteevviikkeennJJuunnee 2244 -- 3300There will be different activities all weekat Foteviken and during the weekend,JJuunnee 2288 –– 3300, one of the biggest VViikkiinnggMMaarrkkeettss in the Nordic countries will takeplace. It will be three days of feasts,competitions, performances, lots ofcraftsmen and exciting goods. Tel. +46- 40 45 68 40hhttttpp::////wwwwww..ffootteevviikkeenn..ssee

JJuullyy

BBoorrrree VViikkiinngg MMaarrkkeett,, HHoorrtteenn,, NNoorrwwaayyJJuullyy 55 –– 77Email: aammwweerrnneerr@@oonnlliinnee..nnoohhttttpp::////wwwwww..bboorrrree--vviikkiinnggllaagg..oorrgg//

VViikkiinngg MMaarrkkeett aatt TTrreelllleebboorrgg,, DDeennmmaarrkkJJuullyy 66 –– 1144The big annual market is one of themany Viking activities organised forvisitors during the year. Tel. +45 58 54 95 06 hhttttpp::////wwwwww..vviikkiinnggeebboorrgg..ddkk//

VViikkiinngg MMaarrkkeett aatt BBrroonnsseeppllaasssseenn nneeaarrKKrriissttiiaannssaanndd,, NNoorrwwaayyJJuullyy 1122 –– 1144Vikings from all over Europe, crafts,battles.Tel. +47 37 27 41 69hhttttpp::////wwwwww..bbrroonnsseeppllaasssseenn..nnoo//

VViikkiinngg MMaarrkkeett iinn NNyynnäässhhaammnn,, SSwweeddeennJJuullyy 1199 –– 2211For the second time a Viking Market willbe held here with crafts, food, drama,music and storytelling.Email: jjaann..jjoonnssssoonn@@ttoorreenn..nnuuhhttttpp::////wwwwww..ttoorreenn..nnuu//

VViikkiinngg MMaarrkkeett iinn FFaaggeerrnneess,, NNoorrwwaayy JJuullyy 1199 –– 2211Tel. +47 922 66 191Email: ddrroottttnn@@yyaahhoooo..ccoomm

HHllööddvveerr VViikkiinngg MMaarrkkeett,, ÅÅllaanndd,, FFiinnllaannddJJuullyy 2266 –– 2277At this annual event you will experiencea feast for Vikings, a marketplace,games, horseback riding, axe throwing,Viking songs and theatre.Tel. +358 (0)18 24 25 9hhttttpp::////wwwwww..qqnneett..ffii//rruuss--pprroojjeecctt//ssaallttvviikkmmaarrkknnaadd..hhttmmll

hhttttpp::////wwwwww..ggooaallaanndd..nneett

TThhee SSttoorryy ooff SSaaiinntt OOllaavv,, SSttiikklleessttaadd,,NNoorrwwaayyJJuullyy 2255 –– 2299A historic play dedicated to St Olav andthe introduction of Christianity toNorway is performed here every year.Tel. +47 74 07 31 00hhttttpp::////wwwwww..ssnnkk..nnoo//eenngglliisshh//

MMooeessggåårrdd VViikkiinngg FFeessttiivvaall,, DDeennmmaarrkkJJuullyy 2288 –– 2299Annual Viking Market with crafts, Vikingships, horses, feasts and more.Tel. +45-89 421100hhttttpp::////wwwwww..88220000..ddkk//IInnddssllaagg//vviikkiinnggeettrraaeeff..hhttmm

AAuugguusstt

HHoorrnnbboorree TTiinngg,, SSwweeddeennAAuugguusstt 22 –– 44This great event will take the spectatorsback in time to the Viking Age. Play andmarket. 5000 visitors last year.Tel. +46 – 525 34 52 3hhttttpp::////wwwwww..hhoorrnnbboorreebbyy..oo..ssee//

TThhee BBaattttllee aatt TTrreelllleebboorrggAAuugguusstt 1100 –– 1111Battle with over 300 fightershhttttpp::////wwwwww..vviikkiinnggeebboorrgg..ddkk//

VViikkiinngg MMaarrkkeett iinn WWoolliinn,, PPoollaannddAAuugguusstt 99 –– 1111Annual festival with 300 participants(warriors, craftsmen, music andceremony groups), Viking ships and alarge archaeological excavation hhttttpp::////wwwwww..wwoolliinn..ppll//

VViikkiinngg MMaarrkkeett iinn KKöörruunnddaa,, SSwweeddeennAAuugguusstt 1188 -- 1199Viking market with crafts, food, fights,horses and more. Attracted about 2000visitors last year.hhttttpp::////hheemm33..ppaassssaaggeenn..ssee//bbooffaa00112233//Tel. +46 (0) 85 20 30 498

LLaarrggss VViikkiinngg FFeessttiivvaall,, SSccoottllaannddAAuugguusstt 3311 –– SSeepptteemmbbeerr 88The Largs Viking Festival celebrates theViking heritage of Scotland and inparticular Largs, where the Vikings weredefeated in 1263. Festival favouritesinclude the authentic Viking village, theBattle of Largs re-enactment, traditionalboat burning ceremony and aspectacular fireworks finale. A ceilidh,concerts and craft fair are other integralparts of this extravaganza.Tel. +44 (0)1 294 324482hhttttpp::////wwwwww..llaarrggssvviikkiinnggffeessttiivvaall..ccoomm//hhttttpp::////wwwwww..vviikkiinnggaarr..ccoo..uukk//mmaaiinn..hhttmm



By Ny-Björn Gustafson

It might seem a bit strange to writeabout movies in the summer, a subjectone might think more suited for dark,drizzly autumn. But when it comes toViking movies, there is no season, youcan watch and enjoy them all yearround.

The concept of furry Norsemen indragon ships has intrigued filmmakersever since the early 20th century. Butcompared to Westerns, with which it hasa lot of features in common, the Vikinggenre never took off, so to speak. Therehave been several brave attempts bring itto life, but most of them fell flat as theturkeys they were. There are, however,several movies that are well worthwatching, or at least good for a laugh.This listing is far from complete; thosewho are interested may find severalothers.

Let us start with the oldest:

The Vikings1958, Directed by Richard Fleischman

This is a real treasure! It features KirkDouglas (Einar), Tony Curtis (Eric) andgood old Ernest Borgnine (Ragnar) in alovely piece so filled with anachronismsthat you simply have to love it.Einar/Douglas is a great arrogant Vikingwarrior, Eric/Curtis is an ex-bondsman,

but nevertheless they are half brothers.Ragnar/Borgnine is the Viking chieftainof your dreams, leaving very little towish for. Here you can find most of theclichés generally considered ‘vikingish’;furry costumes, huge mead-smellingfeasts, massive battles and much more.The only cliché they seem to have leftout are the otherwise notorious hornedhelmets. Be sure not to miss the greatscene where Douglas and others in hisViking crew show off by running on theoars of their dragon ship, it will keep yousmiling for a week…

The Outlaw (Útlagin)1981, Directed by Ágúst Gudmundsson

This is an adaptation of the saga of GisliSúrsson, one of the shorter, butnonetheless epic Icelandic sagas. Thestory follows the original story to a greatextent with blood feuds and intricatefatalism. Most things in the film aresurprisingly archaeologically accurate,even though the many beards and late70’s hairstyles make it hard to separatethe different characters from each other.A clear drawback though is that the paceof the story is slow enough to put all butthe most devoted to sleep.

When the raven flies In the shadow of the raven1984 and 1988, Directed by HrafnGunnlaugson

Here we have two movies made by theman who is credited with creating a

whole new genre, the so-called ‘CodWesterns’. This is especially apparent inthe first of the two; it is actually a mererip-off of Kurosawa’s Yojimbo, and morerecently ‘A Fistful of Dollars’. The plot: alone avenger who by treason andcunning takes revenge for his slainfamily. This film is the origin of thelegendary line: ‘fiungur knivur…’.

The second film is an adaptation ofthe Tristan and Isolde epic, set in an

Viking Movies



early Christian Icelandic environment.Both films are the opposite of ‘TheOutlaw’. They are filled with action andbreathtaking scenes, but one can’t helpbut wonder where all the nice,reasonably authentic clothing, weaponryetc. used in the former were when thesetwo were shot.

Sadly Gunnlaugson seems to joinwholeheartedly in the mud-plague-and-rag view of pre-history. The greatest assetin the two films is actually the late actorHelgi Skúlason. No one could stare asviolently as he could!

Dragens fange/ I na kamnyakhrastut derevya1985, Directed by Stanislav Rostotskij

This Norwegian/Russian co-productionnever really took off. That is, it has beenavailable in Russia, but the Norwegianversion was never released on themarket. That is a tragedy! Even though ithas its apparent flaws it is one of themost accurate Viking films ever made.The story centres on a Russian boy,Kuksja, who is abducted by plundering,but nonetheless quite civil, NorwegianVikings and taken to Norway. The ship-fighting scene in the Nova documentaryon Vikings stems from this film. If youcan find a copy of the film itself, be surenot to lose it!

The Viking sagas1995 Directed by Michael Chapman

Here we have a turkey if I ever saw one!The initial idea may have been good, butthe result is of a kind that seldomreaches the shelves of VHS rental stores,cinemas being out of the question. Thisfilm tries to take the ‘goodies’ out of theIcelandic saga treasure and put them allin the same story. Most of the actors areIcelandic, but since the film was madefor an international audience, all of themspeak English. The hero is played by abroiler-like fellow that wears some kindof pseudo kilt for most of the film.During the crucial (or should I saynotoriously inevitable?) fight at the endhe slips into a very peculiar lookingchain mail ‘waistcoat’ (I lack other termsto describe it…). One of the moredisgusting scenes however is when the

Broiler’s father is forced to coil his ownguts around a large stone (which is quiteobviously made from styrene plastic). Ifyou are looking for a great laugh and thesight of talking, decapitated heads, this isthe film for you!

The thirteenth warrior1998, Directed by John McTiernan

When it arrived it was much awaitedand was actually shown at cinemas. Thestory is a mix between two great, butvery different written accountscontemporary to Scandinavian Iron Age:Beowulf and the incomplete ‘travel diary’of the Muslim envoy Ahmad Ibn Fadlan.Antonio Banderas made a great numberout of his character, Ibn Fadlan, andthere are actually some brilliant scenes inthe film, for instance when Ibn Fadlan‘learns’ the language of the Norsemen hemeets.

It is a sad fact though thatfilmmakers, even with a Hollywood-sized budget, can’t use existing sourcesbased upon archaeology when they makemovies. In “The thirteenth warrior”there a number of characters dressed andequipped in a manner more like anadaptation of “Hagar the Horrible” thananything else. Michael Crichton’s bookon the other hand is well worth readingfor what it is – a fantasy novel.

These are a few of the Viking moviesthat have been made to date. If you getthe opportunity, watch them and enjoy,be it from real joy or in maliciousdelight!

About the author: Ny-Björn Gustafson is anarchaeologist and a Viking re-enactor. Right now he is working asan archaeological guide in Birka.

Email: mmiiddvviikk11@@hhoottmmaaiill..ccoomm

International virtual universitycourses about Vikings in progress! New and exciting university courses about Vikings will be run by Viking Heritageand Gotland University College from spring 2003! These will be organised by thenew section of Viking Heritage called Viking Heritage Academy and become apart of Gotland Virtual University. The courses are organised as higher educationon the Web, which will make it possible for students from all over the world to beadmitted. We are planning both theoretical courses, but also advanced fieldcourses concerning Viking history. And, as usual, courses at Swedish universitiesare free of charge.

Right now a team is working on the curriculum and study literature. Furtherinformation will be provided in the next issue of VHM and on our websitehhttttpp::////vviikkiinngg..hhggoo..ssee

Written byAnne C.SørensenWithcontributions byVibeke Bischoffand Kenn Jensenand PeterHenrichsen. Published 2001 asVol. 3 in the seriesShips & Boats of theNorth by The VikingShip Museum,Roskilde in cooperationwith The NationalMuseum of Denmark andKerteminde egnens Museer.

Some of the most fascinating remains from theViking Age are the ships, found mainly in Norwayand Denmark. Some of them are found in wateras wrecks, but a few are excavated as part of agrave. Most well known are the ship graves fromOseberg and Gokstad in Norway, or for the samereason, also the very famous ship grave at SuttonHoo in England. But even in Denmark, shipgraves are found and excavated. One of the mostfascinating and well-known ship graves inDenmark was discovered by pure chance in 1934

by Poul Helweg Mikkelsen, an amateurarchaeologist.

The ship and its contents were excavated inthe course of two consecutive years under thedirection of Gustav Rosenberg, aconservator from the National Museum ofDenmark. There was practically no woodleft from the actual ship, but about 2000rivets revealed its construction.

No skeleton was found, but it wasclear that the ship had been used forthe burial of a distinguished person,

obviously a man to judge from the grave-goods,among other things weapons, table service andriding-gear. In the forepart of the ship were theskeletons of eleven horses and three or four dogs.

A first complete publication of this tremendous



(The Viper. The means of transport for theancient Orient traveller)

Written and published by Fredrik KoivusaloTrangränden 301450 VandaFinlandEmail: kkooiivvuussaalloo@@qqnneett..ffiiISBN 951-98954-0-X

This book deals with the subject of the typeof vessel the Vikings used on their voyageseastwards. The author is a boat researcherand is well known to many for his work in

the Rus ship project of which he publishedhis first book The Rus Project. His secondbook is a practical guide for sailing andhandling Viking ships.

The leading idea of this new book is thatvessels for coastal as well as inland watershave been adapted to their differentsurroundings. He emphasises that the boatswere built and used by human beings tosatisfy their need for transport and contacts.

Here the author gives several aspects onthe type of vessel that was used a thousandyears ago for long expeditions on the

Russian rivers. The book starts with achapter on finds and written sources. Part 2deals with construction techniques and part3 is a report on an experimental riverexpedition with the viper boat in Estonia inthe summer of 1996. In the last part of thebook he discusses how stems and plankshave been made in different places.

The publication is richly illustrated andhas 104 pages. So far it is available only inSwedish.

Ladby – A Danish Shipfrom the Viking Age

N e w

b o o k !

ISBN 87-85189-44-0, ISSN 0901-778X

N e w

b o o k ! Äspingen Den forntidaösterlandsfararens

färdmedel

ship grave was made by Knud Thorvildsen in1957, and is now followed by an extensivedetailed analysis by Anne C. Sørensen. The mainpart of the book is her PhD, but there are alsocontributions by Vibeke Bischoff and KennJensen about computer visualization of the findand the preservation situation from 1934 to 1999by Peter Henrichsen. The book contains 293pages and is well illustrated with both black andwhite and colour photos.

Anne C. Sørensen gives a thorough picture ofthe ship burial and its context and also thegeographical location. In her study she uses theoriginal excavation plans and descriptions and,with the help of modern techniques, gives aprofound interpretation of the ship and itscontent.

She concludes that the ship was a good 21.5metres in length and almost 3 metres wideamidships, constructed mainly of oak. It was alongship with sails and room for 30-32 oarsmenand a steersman, and can be dated to around theyear 900.

The grave-furnishings include a large numberof items, belonging to four or five sets of ridingequipment of generally high quality and thecombination of artefacts suggests that the buriedperson was a man of high social status.

Dan CarlssonAssociate ProfessorGotland University College


For the fifth year in succession, thearchaeological excavations of the Viking-age harbour and trading place at Fröjel onGotland continues this summer. Acompletely new exhibition will be shownthis year, where you as a visitor can catch aglimpse of the world of the Vikings.

The excavations and the exhibition willbe a thrill for all those who are interestedin and curious about archaeology. If yougo with a guide, their expert knowledgewill give you an insight into the fieldworkof the archaeologists and how they cancreate an image of the Vikings from thetraces they find in the soil.

The new exhibition will be opened onSaturday, June 29 at 2 pm. On Sunday,June 30 there will be an activity day thatstarts at 10 am with crafters and different

activities for children. Guided tours willbe available both days. Welcome!

Guided toursMon–Sun 10 am, 1 pm, 3 pm 1/7–18/8

ExhibitionMon–Sun 9:30 am – 5 pm 1/7–18/8

ExcavationsMon–Fri 9 am – 4 pm 26/6–16/8

Coffee, tea, soft drinks and ice cream areavailable.

For more information:hhttttpp::////ffrroojjeell..hhggoo..ssee

The new excavations at the Viking-agetrading port of Kaupang in southeastNorway seem to rewrite the country'searly history. What was previouslyconsidered to be a seasonal trading centrecould now turn out to be the nation’soldest permanent town! Dagfinn Skre,who is in charge of the excavation thatstarted in May 2000 and will continue fortwo years, says that the first year producedevidence that Kaupang was inhabited allyear round. Last summer living quartersand craftsmen’s workshops were amongthe new finds and archaeologists have alsodiscovered a large chieftain’s or king’s hall1.6 kilometres north of the settlement.

This summer the excavation continuesand is open to the public from June 18 toAugust 23. On weekdays there are guided

tours several times a day led by skilledarchaeologists and archaeology students.On these tours you will get an insight intohow new knowledge about Vikings isgained and you will also have theopportunity to see the latest finds.

Guided toursTuesdays: 4 pm 5 pm and 6 pmWednesdays – Fridays: 1 pm, 2 pm and 3pmMondays closed

You can also book a special guided tour forgroups. Contact Larvik’s Tourist Office:+47- 33 13 91 00

For more information:hhttttpp::////wwwwww..kkaauuppaanngg..uuiioo..nnoo

Heritage News

Visit the Vikings’ Fröjel!

This summer’s excavation at Kaupang

Viking-age silver hoard found in DenmarkA large silver hoard has been found and excavated at Duesminde near Vejlebyin the southern part of Lolland, Denmark. The hoard weighs as much as 1,3 kgand contains silver pendants and belt accessories. Most of the objects areFrankish – only a few are from the Nordic countries. According to Lolland-Falsters Stiftsmuseum the hoard was buried sometime between 925 - 950 AD.This spring the hoard was displayed at Lolland-Falsters Stiftsmuseum inMaribo, Denmark.


-Grave

Heritage News



Vikings going East A new travelling exhibition from the Museum of NationalAntiquities in Sweden, called Vikingar i österled (Vikings goingEast) opened in the end of April at the Estonian NationalMuseum in Tartu. Full-scale copies of rune stones that tellabout the eastern voyages of the Vikings are exhibited togetherwith local original objects.

The rune stones, often called “east-traveller stones”(östfararstenar), are examples of the close contacts that haveexisted between the countries around the Baltic Sea for a verylong time. On these stones, for the first time in text, differentBaltic geographical names such as Estonia, Semgallen andDomesnäs are mentioned.

The exhibition is small in size but it includes seven copies ofrune stones and a copy of the bronze weathervane fromSöderala church, Sweden. The weathervane was placed in themast or at the prow of a Viking ship and after that it wastransferred to the church.

The idea of the exhibition is that it will act as a meetingplace for contacts between Sweden and the Baltic region andthat it will be the basis for different local events. Therefore thecopies from Sweden are displayed together with local originalobjects chosen by different museums in the East. In connection

with the exhibition different activities such as workshops andconferences will be held.

– This exhibition is an example of the National Museum ofAntiquities’ international collaboration, says Mr. Kristian Berg,the museum director. Priority is given to the Baltic Sea region.The countries around the Baltic Sea have long been parts of acommon cultural area, but during the Soviet era many of thecontacts had been cut off. It is now important that the contactsbe re-established and that we collaborate around our commoncultural heritage.

After Tartu, the exhibition will go on to Kuressaare on Ösel(Saaremaa) and later on this autumn to the Historical Museumof Estonia in Tallinn. Thereafter displays are planned in WhiteRussia, Ukraine and Russia.

Vikings going East is a collaboration between the NationalMuseum of Antiquities, The Swedish Institute and the Swedishforeign authorities in the countries involved.

The Olsbro stone from Norra Åsarp in Västergötland, Sweden.The stone tells about Olav who was killed in Estonia. This isthe first time the name Estonia is mentioned in writing. A copyof the stone is part of the travelling exhibition. Photo: The Swedish Central Heritage Board/Bengt A Lundberg.

Well, a datingproblem…

Dating an archaeological remain is not always the easiestthing to do and that is what the archaeologists at Fröjelhave experienced. The well that was found during lastsummer’s excavation at the Viking-age harbour andtrading place at Fröjel now seems not to be of Viking-age origin. Instead it dates back to the middle of 16th

century. The earlier dating was based upon a silver coinfrom the 11th century found in the well, but also on thefact that the wooden construction reminded of a wellfound in Kaupang, Norway, which was built in a similarway.

Before the Fröjel archaeologists could be really sure ofthe dating they sent the wooden logs for preservationand dendrochronological analysis. Now they have theanswer from the analysis, which states that the logs inthe well were chopped down in 1547 AD. It was a slightdisappointment perhaps but not surprising since thefield has been used as a meadow and pastureland by thefarms nearby since the Middle Ages.


Birka, on the island of Björkö inMälaren Lake, is one of the best-preserved examples of trading

places from the Viking Age. In themuseum the lives of the Vikings aredescribed with finds from thearchaeological excavations and modelsthat fire the imagination. Themagnificent objects from graves showthe wealth of Sweden’s first town.

When visiting Birka you will be takenon a tour through its history both in thelandscape and in the exhibition. Betweenthe 29th of June and the 18th of Augustyou can visit the excavations where thearchaeologists from the University ofStockholm continue their investigations.Opposite the museum you can tryViking-age cooking and handicraftlike forging, wooden and textilecrafts or you can watch theatrewith masks in a true Viking-agespirit. A storyteller will take theyoungest visitors to the Viking-age world of sagas and myths.

The Masters of fire This summer’s exhibition atBirkaDuring our prehistory the productionof iron and the art of forging was atechnical innovation of vital economicand social importance. The blacksmithand forging had, judging from Norsesagas, a special part in the Iron Ages andearly medieval society. The technicalknowledge and art skill appears to haveled to the blacksmith and his work beingascribed almost magical characteristics in

the world of the saga. Similarassociations have been made about theblacksmith in the folklore of later years:the blacksmith has been considered ableto protect against evil. A forginghammer underneath the marital bedincreased the chance of healthy male

offspring and letting the blacksmithblow with the forging bellows on nettlerash made the rash disappear.

The last four years archaeologicalexcavations on Birka have given usdeeper knowledge about the town’s

defence and also on its craftsmen. Lastsummer a smithy was found in theGarrison area near the earlier excavatedWarrior’s hall. In this year’s summerexhibition, The masters of fire – Theblacksmith in Viking-age Birka, you willsee the most exciting findings from theforge. The summer exhibition is aboutthe Viking-age blacksmith and his work,about forging in Birka and the

blacksmith’s role in society and infolklore.

During the month of July twoskilful blacksmiths will be guestsin Birka. Here you can hearthem tell about theirhandicraft, see how theproduction of Viking-agejewellery and other objects

might have been done and youcan also try to forge yourself.The museum of Birka is open

every day 1/5 – 22/9. To get to Birkayou go by boat. The StrömmaKanalbolaget has departures from severalbridges around Mälaren Lake, forexample from Stadshusbron inStockholm, Sweden, tel. +46 (0) 8-587140 00. You can also get to Birka withMälarö Skärgårdstrafik from Rastaholmon Ekerö, tel. +46 (0) 711 14 57.

Heritage News


The well-known Ale ship-setting in the south of Swedenwill be investigated again. For a long time there have beendisputes about the interpretation of the ship-setting. Is it aburial ground or a sun calendar? Maybe an extendedarchaeological excavation will be able to disperse thequestions regarding the ancient monument.

Now Professor Märta Strömberg has been grantedpermission to supplement previous investigations. Earlier

pits will be re-examined and documented again. Test pitswill be opened outside the ship. Also a metal detector willbe used in investigation.

All the C14-datings done during previous investigationshave indicated that the Ale stones were erected during lateIron Age.

From Artefact, Internet Malmö 2002

Ale’s ship-setting will be re-investigated

Birka – the Viking townin the summer of 2002


In the ancient Russian river routesbetween Scandinavia and the Black Sea,one of the links was the Neva Riverwhere the large city of St. Petersburg isnow situated at its mouth in the BalticSea. This is the motivation for present-day Vikings in several countries toparticipate in the 300th-anniversarycelebrations of the city in the summer2003.

The idea is that ships from differentdirections will sail into the city and thatthe daily life in the Viking Age will bedisplayed on the spot to the localpopulation and tourists for about aweek. At the same time a specialtravelling exhibition about rune stones,produced by the National Museum ofAntiquities in Stockholm, is planned tobe on display in St. Petersburg (readmore about the exhibition on page 32.ed’s note).

The ability of today’s Viking shipreplicas to sail the routes across theBaltic Sea has been proved several times,for example through the expeditions ofAifur and Krampmacken towards Russia,the Baltic States and Poland. This timethe intention is to include many moreand make the sailing a big event for boththe crews involved and the organisers inRussia. Twelve ships from Sweden,Poland, Norway, Denmark, Holland andUSA have showed interest at present inparticipating in the expedition.

Questions regarding routes,timetables, budget etc are so far open.

The project is led by a working team,consisting right now of Maria Bessmertand Yngve Lundin from the Vikingvillage Storholmen close to Norrtälje inSweden, Peter Olausson from theVikingaleden Society in Värmland,Sweden, (owner of the ship, Glad ofGillberga) and Ola Olsson from theNational Museum of Antiquities,Stockholm. In the early summer asmaller delegation will visit St.

Petersburg to discuss the arrangementswith the authorities as well asarchaeologists and local Vikingenthusiasts. This will be a reconnaissancetour that also is supported by theSwedish Institute in Stockholm.

Do you want to know more? Do youand your ship team want to be a part ofthe project? Welcome to contact theVikingleden Society at email:eenneebbyy..ggiillllbbeerrggaa@@tteelliiaa..ccoomm

iron slag and semi-manufacturedproducts. We can see that the forginghas been extensive and intensive.Weapons have been repaired and re-forged. Furthermore other objects,such as amulets of Thor’s hammer,have been made.

Most likely weapons have beenmade there as well. If this is the case,this will be one of the questions thatthey want to try and answer duringthe summer’s excavations. Anotherburning question concerns theconstruction of the forge. In May, asupposed foundation of a landingstage situated next to the shore belowthe Garrison will be excavated. For thewarriors it must have been of vitalimportance to be able to quickly get tothe sea to defend against hostileattacks.

The summer’s excavations will begoing on from the first of July untilthe 16th of August. The participantsare scientists and students from theLaboratory of Archaeological Science,Stockholm, Sweden.

Contact: Lena Holmquist Olausson,project leaderTel: +46 (0) 8-16 21 78Mobile phone: +46 (0) 70-591 85 16Email: llhhoo@@aarrkkllaabb..ssuu..ssee

The latest years of excavations, in whathas shown to be the Garrison of Birka,has revealed new knowledge about theViking-age town. On the upper terraceat the Garrison, remains of amagnificent house, 19 m long and 9.5m wide, have emerged. The housediffers totally from the small squarehouses known from the harbour areaof Birka and had a completelydifferent function. Along the walls ofthe house a great amount ofspearheads, parts of shields (shieldbosses), locks, keys and chest fittingswere found. The house had a specialfunction as a warriors’ assembly hall,intended for gatherings, festivities andreligious ceremonies. The warrior wemeet here is a well-equipped, educatedsoldier who had connections from afarwith Byzantium, for example,. (Formore information see Viking HeritageMagazine, number 2, 2001)

The Garrison constituted “a societywithin the society” which needed to besupplied with food, fuel and othernecessities. A vital function, whichought to have been connected with theactivities at Birka, is a forge. At the lastsummer’s excavation the remains offorging activity was found on a terracenext to the Warriors’ Hall. Whatappeared were forges (forging pits),

Heritage News


New discoveries at the Garrison in Birka

Viking ships to Russia in summer 2003

Please note!New date for theViking Festival inWolin, Poland:

August 9-11, 2002www.jomsborg-vineta.com

BAC

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33//22000000RRoocckk ccrryyssttaall lleennsseess •• TThhoorr’’sshhaammmmeerr •• VViikkiinngg ffoollkklloorree

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44//22000000TTrraannssffoorrmmaattiioonn ooff tthhee ttrreeffooiill

mmoouunntt •• TThhee ssiillvveerr hhooaarrddss ffrroommSSppiilllliinnggss •• TThhee rroouunndd ttoowweerreeddcchhuurrcchheess •• RReeyykkhhoolltt oonn IIcceellaanndd•• SSaaggaass aanndd ssoocciieettyy oonn IIcceellaanndd

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22//22000011TThhee ffoorrttiiffiiccaattiioonn ooff BBiirrkkaa •• TThheeffiirrsstt SSccaannddiinnaavviiaannss iinn nnoorrtthheerrnn

RRuuss •• TThhee IIssllaammiicc rreeccoorrdd ooffVViikkiinnggss •• RRuunneessttoonneess tteellllss aabboouutttthhee EEaasstt •• TThhee LLuurr ooff tthhee VViikkiinnggss

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FFoollllooww tthhee VViikkiinnggss.. HHiigghhlliigghhttss ooff tthhee VViikkiinngg WWoorrlldd..This guidebook contains 50 of the mostimportant destinations in different countries,selected by an international group ofarchaeologists. It contains more than 150colour photographs and diagrams, 128pages. Price: SEK 130 per copy

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