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Novel applications of growth factors in solid tumors
Westermann, A.
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Citation for published version (APA):Westermann, A. (1999). Novel applications of growth factors in solid tumors.
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Download date: 26 Aug 2019
Background and outline of the thesis [summary]
Background In this century, chemotherapy has attained increasing importance in the treatment of advanced
cancer, fostered by the rapidly expanding insights into the origins and behavior of malignant
disease. Since the clinical observation that the sulfur mustard gas used in World War I caused
lymphoid aplasia, and its subsequent evaluation as an antitumor agent in the 1930s and 1940s ' ,
a range of natural and synthetic compounds have made their way into the clinic. In the 1960s
and 1970s, the dramatically improved outcome for patients with previously incurable tumors
such as lymphomas, leukemias and advanced germ cell tumors through the use of newly
discovered anticancer agents further enhanced the interest in chemotherapy. However, many of
the more common tumors either did not respond to chemotherapy, or rapidly relapsed after the
induction of remission.
Skipper et al2 observed that in certain laboratory tumors the growth fraction and cell loss
fraction were highly stable, independent of the size of the cell population. Further study showed
that when treated with cytotoxic drugs, a certain dose killed a certain constant fraction of these
tumor cells, regardless of the number of cells present, an observation often referred to as the
log kill phenomenon 3. In the absence of regrowth, repeated doses of the same drug will,
therefore, lead to an exponential decrease in the number of surviving tumor cells. This is the
theoretical basis for the common practice of chemotherapy administration in repeated cycles of
fixed duration.
Since the log kill fraction in the murine tumors used by Skipper often increases as the dose
increases, and each drug in combination treatment contributes its own log kill, combination
chemotherapy, with enough cycles in high enough doses of each individual agent, should eradicate
more, or even all tumor cells. This hypothesis led to the evaluation of increased doses of
chemotherapy in the 1980s, a concept called dose escalation. This evolution was greatly aided
by improvements in supportive care to overcome toxicity in normal tissues, such as anti-emetics
for nausea and vomiting, growth factors for bone marrow suppression, and novel antibiotics for
both prophylaxis and treatment of infectious complications.
The application of dose escalation to cancer treatment culminated in the use of very high,
myelo-ablative doses of chemotherapy with alkylating agents, supported by autologous bone
marrow transplants at first, and stem cell transplants from the 1990s onwards. While a very
hazardous venture in the 1980s, with high mortality and morbidity rates, the risk of high dose
chemotherapy with autologous stem cell transplant in the 1990s has decreased formidably
through the aforementioned supportive measures. In the 1990s, multiple high dose chemotherapy
Chapter 1
courses with stem cell support became feasible 4. The reduction in morbidity and mortality
eased the way for transfer of most of the treatment to the home setting rather than the prolonged
4 to 6-week hospital stays common in the 1980s 5. High dose chemotherapy has improved the
outcome for hematologic malignancies, childhood tumors and germ cell tumors. However,
although the likelihood of tumor response and complete remission has increased for most cancers,
no survival benefit has been proven for a range of more common malignancies.
In the 1980s, the recognition that many of the more common tumors in the advanced stages
could not be cured by even very high dose chemotherapy, led to a change in the direction of
anticancer research. The study of tumor cell kinetics and the way it is affected by anticancer
agents further focused research on drug scheduling rather than dose alone. Clinical experience,
such as the observation that larger tumors are not always more sensitive to treatment than
smaller tumors, did not seem to support the murine tumor model-derived concept of Skipper,
with assumed exponential proliferation, or constant doubling times, as the only kinetic paradigm
in human tumor cell growth. The sigmoid-shaped curve based on the 1825 Gompertz' equation
(the 'law of mortality') as a model for tumor cell kinetics does not presuppose a constant doubling
time, but shows increasing doubling time with increasing tumor size, with a maximum growth
fraction at about 37% of the maximum tumor size. Although the likelihood of a response of a
tumor to cytotoxic drugs is independent of the size of that tumor, the relative magnitude of that
response will depend on where the tumor is in its Gompertzian growth curve, because smaller
tumors will have a larger growth fraction than larger tumors. It then follows that the more
tumor cells are killed by chemotherapy, the faster the regrowth of the surviving cells, thus
severely restricting the ability to cure tumors6. Norton showed that Gompertzian sigmoid-curve
kinetics are consistent with the shape of survival curves of untreated breast cancer patients, and
with the curves of freedom of progression after mastectomy 7.
Further mathematical computations by Norton and Day 8 suggested a model, that predicted
that a schedule of sequential chemotherapy would lead to higher cell kill rates than the alternating
schedules that had been the cornerstone of especially hematological and childhood malignancies
for some time. Although the first results of such a sequential regimen in breast cancer showed an
advantage for this approach over alternating schedules 9, and promising results in small cell lung
cancer were obtained10, these results have not been confirmed by other studies11_13. Thus, sequential
regimens have not found a place in common practice so far.
High-dose chemotherapy in itself is not very likely to overcome the obstacle of regrowth in
the Gompertzian model, since even a very small remaining tumor burden at the end of treatment
10
Background and outline of the thesis [summary]
will rapidly proliferate. However, reducing the dose interval for standard dose combination
chemotherapy (a method of dose intensification known as increasing dose-density), could
minimize regrowth between chemotherapy cycles, and thus increase cell kill u . Theoretically,
this implies that if dose-dense combination chemotherapy at standard doses cannot be achieved,
single-agent therapy at standard doses might be preferred over low-dose combination
chemotherapy. This concept of dose-dense, frequent administration of single-agent chemotherapy
in standard doses has gained recognition in the dose-dense weekly cisplatin regimens in the
treatment of ovarian cancer15, head and neck cancer16, melanoma 17, and non-small cell lung
Although the efficacy of chemotherapy may be gradually increasing, partly due to the
implementation of dose-intensification and improved supportive care, long-term results in the
advanced stages of the most common tumors such as breast cancer, lung cancer and colorectal
cancer have remained modest. One explanation could lie in the survival of a small but consistent,
significant number of tumor cells irrespective of the amount of cytoreductive therapy, as was
suggested by the results of a phase III study of high-dose chemotherapy in patients with stage
IV breast cancer achieving complete remission on standard chemotherapy. Patients randomized
to immediate high-dose treatment had longer relapse-free survival, but shorter overall survival
than the patients randomized to undergo high dose chemotherapy only at relapse 20. After
high-dose chemotherapy, relapse-free and overall survival were identical, suggesting that there
is a limit to the amount of cytoreduction that can be achieved through high-dose chemotherapy.
If this is the case, no amount of chemotherapy can be expected to further minimize tumor
burden, after a certain maximum cytoreduction has been reached. This does not make sense,
however, since some patients are cured by chemotherapy. More likely, regrowth based on
Gompertzian kinetics may counteract chemotherapy as its efficacy increases, and a method to
inhibit regrowth by non-myelosuppressive means between high-dose courses could eliminate
this mechanism. Therefore a strategy directed at inhibition of regrowth of residual disease could
be very important.
In recent years, an array of novel targets for restriction of tumor cell proliferation without impairment
of chemotherapy effect has been recognized and has led to clinical studies. Examples are ras-
farnesylation inhibition, thought to suppress the growth of ras-transformed cancer cells21,22, vaccines
against cancer antigens 2324 and inhibition of angiogenesis, essential for tumor proliferation and
metastasis 25. The recent identification of growth factors and their receptors, in addition to the
elucidation of signal transduction pathways, suggests yet another treatment modality that can be
integrated into systemic therapy. Peptide growth factors and their receptors, such as the epidermal
11
Chapter 1
growth factor receptor (EGFR)-superfamily, the platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) family,
basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF), vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), transforming
growth factor ß (TGFß), the insulin-like growth factors (IGF), and the interleukins are often
overexpressed in human tumors. In addition to these bioactive peptides, the recent recognition
of the unique phospholipid, lysophosphatidic acid (LPA), as a growth factor for ovarian cancer
and possibly other cancers has further expanded our knowledge and possibilities for treatment 26'27. Growth factors induce cell proliferation through stimulation of specific tyrosine kinase
receptors. Specific patterns of growth factor activity and growth factor receptor expression may
explain the behavior of particular tumor types, e.g. a role of LPA that has been suggested in
ovarian cancer2S.
Inhibition of growth factor receptor loops is one of the novel strategies for therapy that has
spawned a large research interest, and the number of growth factor receptor-inhibitors in
development has boomed. Clinical trials of such, generally non-toxic agents include the use of
anti-p185HER2 monoclonal antibody (of the EGFR-family) in phase III studies in breast cancer,
after promising preclinical and phase II results29'30. For instance, an anti-EGFR monoclonal antibody
is currently being tested in phase II trials in combination with topotecan, with encouraging
preclinical results 31'32. We have chosen to exploit the blocking of growth factor-receptor
interactions by suramine, specifically aiming at the inhibition of the bioactive LPA-like lipid growth
factors33. In addition, myriad inhibitors of growth factors and their receptors are expected to
enter clinical trials soon, after completion of preclinical testing.
It may well be that the future of systemic anti-cancer therapy in advanced tumors lies in the
combination of dose-dense chemotherapy with the non-toxic biologic agents mentioned above.
The novel targeted interventions are expected to have the greatest impact in situations of minimal
residual disease, such as after intensive chemotherapy, between courses of chemotherapy, and
in the adjuvant setting.
Outline of the thesis The research described in this thesis focuses on the global strategies outlined above. We have
developed intensive, repetitive high-dose chemotherapy with peripheral blood stem-cell
transplantation (Chapter 6) and we have adapted its practical application to the requirements of
cancer patients by removing part of the treatment from the hospital setting (Chapter 7). Although
this approach leads to a high proportion of complete remissions in solid tumors, eradication of
12
Background and outline of the thesis [summary]
all tumor cells is achieved in only a minority of patients, and either inhibition of regrowth between
chemotherapy cycles, or effective treatment of minimal residual disease (or both) are required
to realize cure.
Regrowth inhibition between chemotherapy cycles might be reached through the use of
appropriate growth factor receptor-inhibitors, that are not myelosuppressive. We have studied a
novel lipid growth factor, LPA, and its role in peritoneal malignancies such as ovarian cancer and
mesothelioma (Chapter 2). LPA may be important as a growth-promoting factor in ovarian cancer
(Chapter 3), and we have attempted to inactivate it using intraperitoneal suramin (Chapter 4).
Intraperitoneal administration is feasible, and has a distinct pharmacokinetic advantage over
systemic administration. Its effect as an antitumor agent remains to be established, but we have
observed an encouraging response in a single patient with peritoneal meothelioma (Chapter 5).
The integration of LPA-inhibition as a regrowth-inhibitor between cycles of high-dose
chemotherapy is envisaged, but is, at present, no more than a challenging prospect.
13
Chapter 1
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14
Background and outline of the thesis [summary]
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