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![Page 1: Uslides3](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5461a7d8af79595d448b5957/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Light Waves
![Page 2: Uslides3](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5461a7d8af79595d448b5957/html5/thumbnails/2.jpg)
X-rays
3 x 108 m/sF = c / = 2.19 x 10-10 m
= 1.37 x 1018 Hz
![Page 3: Uslides3](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5461a7d8af79595d448b5957/html5/thumbnails/3.jpg)
Radio Waves
Live 105:105.3 MHz
3 x 108 m/s
= c / f = 105.3 x 106 Hz
= 2.85 m
![Page 4: Uslides3](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5461a7d8af79595d448b5957/html5/thumbnails/4.jpg)
Red Light
= 728 nm = 7.28 x 10-7 m
3 x 108 m/sf = c/ = 7.28 x 10-7 m
= 4.12 x 1014 Hz
![Page 5: Uslides3](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5461a7d8af79595d448b5957/html5/thumbnails/5.jpg)
Light Energy
Planck’s Law:E = h f
High frequency -> High energy
![Page 6: Uslides3](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5461a7d8af79595d448b5957/html5/thumbnails/6.jpg)
Properties of Light
Reflection:
Specular &diffuse
![Page 7: Uslides3](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5461a7d8af79595d448b5957/html5/thumbnails/7.jpg)
Refraction
“Bending” of light rays
With a change in media
![Page 8: Uslides3](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5461a7d8af79595d448b5957/html5/thumbnails/8.jpg)
Light rays and vision
![Page 9: Uslides3](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5461a7d8af79595d448b5957/html5/thumbnails/9.jpg)
Myopia (Nearsightedness)
![Page 10: Uslides3](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5461a7d8af79595d448b5957/html5/thumbnails/10.jpg)
Lens Correction
![Page 11: Uslides3](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5461a7d8af79595d448b5957/html5/thumbnails/11.jpg)
Hyperopia (Farsightedness)
![Page 12: Uslides3](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5461a7d8af79595d448b5957/html5/thumbnails/12.jpg)
Lens Correction
![Page 13: Uslides3](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5461a7d8af79595d448b5957/html5/thumbnails/13.jpg)
Refracting Telescope
![Page 14: Uslides3](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5461a7d8af79595d448b5957/html5/thumbnails/14.jpg)
Refraction
![Page 15: Uslides3](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5461a7d8af79595d448b5957/html5/thumbnails/15.jpg)
Index of Refraction
cn = v
![Page 16: Uslides3](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5461a7d8af79595d448b5957/html5/thumbnails/16.jpg)
Refraction due to Temperature
“mirages”
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Refraction via (temperature)
n (air 0ºC) = 1.0029
n (air 30ºC) = 1.0026
Light travels faster in warm air
![Page 18: Uslides3](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5461a7d8af79595d448b5957/html5/thumbnails/18.jpg)
Refractive Index valuesMaterial Refractive Index
Air 1.0003
Water 1.33
Glycerin 1.47
Oil 1.515
Glass 1.52
Zircon 1.92
Diamond 2.42
![Page 19: Uslides3](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5461a7d8af79595d448b5957/html5/thumbnails/19.jpg)
Laser
Single frequency
Focused
Single direction
![Page 20: Uslides3](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5461a7d8af79595d448b5957/html5/thumbnails/20.jpg)
Incandescent Light Bulb
Filament heated to glow
All visible light frequencies
All directions
![Page 21: Uslides3](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5461a7d8af79595d448b5957/html5/thumbnails/21.jpg)
Wave Vs. Particle?
Young’s experiment
![Page 22: Uslides3](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5461a7d8af79595d448b5957/html5/thumbnails/22.jpg)
Photoelectric Effect
Quanta
E = h x f
High frequency photonshave more energy
![Page 23: Uslides3](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5461a7d8af79595d448b5957/html5/thumbnails/23.jpg)
Electron Ejection
![Page 24: Uslides3](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5461a7d8af79595d448b5957/html5/thumbnails/24.jpg)
Bohr model for Hydrogen
Niels Bohr
What about more complex atoms?
![Page 25: Uslides3](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5461a7d8af79595d448b5957/html5/thumbnails/25.jpg)
Atomic Theory
Leucippus & Democritus4th century BC
“indivisible”eternal, moving
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Elements
![Page 27: Uslides3](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5461a7d8af79595d448b5957/html5/thumbnails/27.jpg)
Aristotle
Continuous matter
Natural motion
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Age of Experimentation
Lavoisier (1743 - 1794)
Conservationof matter
![Page 29: Uslides3](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5461a7d8af79595d448b5957/html5/thumbnails/29.jpg)
Lavoisier
“Traite Elementaire de Chimie”
HgO --> Hg + oxygène
![Page 30: Uslides3](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5461a7d8af79595d448b5957/html5/thumbnails/30.jpg)
Dalton
Elements made of atoms
All atoms of one element are the same but different than those of other elements
Atoms of different elements can form different combinationswith different properties
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Compounds
Water Hydrogen Peroxide
H2O H2O2
![Page 32: Uslides3](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5461a7d8af79595d448b5957/html5/thumbnails/32.jpg)
Compounds
Nitrous oxide Nitrogen DioxideN2O NO2
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Dalton
Atomic masses
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Benjamin Franklin
Like charges - Repel
Unlike charges - Attract
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Michael Faraday
Ions = Charged atoms
![Page 36: Uslides3](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5461a7d8af79595d448b5957/html5/thumbnails/36.jpg)
+/- Charged Particles
J.J. Thomson (1897) Cathode rays
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The Size of an Electron
Millikan (1911)
me = 9.11 x 10-31 kg 1 H atom
= 1840
![Page 38: Uslides3](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5461a7d8af79595d448b5957/html5/thumbnails/38.jpg)
Positive Particle?
Rutherford (1907)
particle = He+ nucleus
![Page 39: Uslides3](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5461a7d8af79595d448b5957/html5/thumbnails/39.jpg)
Neutrons
Chadwick (1932)
Neutron = neutral = “spacer”
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Atomic Structure
Plum pudding planetary
![Page 41: Uslides3](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5461a7d8af79595d448b5957/html5/thumbnails/41.jpg)
Subatomic particles
Quarks
![Page 42: Uslides3](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5461a7d8af79595d448b5957/html5/thumbnails/42.jpg)
Atomic Number
Atomic Number = # of protons
Atomic Mass = protons + neutrons
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Isotopes
€
1
1H 1
2H 1
3H
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Unstable Isotopes
![Page 45: Uslides3](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5461a7d8af79595d448b5957/html5/thumbnails/45.jpg)
Radioactivity
Henri Becquerel
![Page 46: Uslides3](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5461a7d8af79595d448b5957/html5/thumbnails/46.jpg)
Radioactivity
Marie Sklodowskaand Pierre Curie
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Alpha Decay
€
92
238U - - - -- > 2
4He + 90
234Th
![Page 48: Uslides3](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5461a7d8af79595d448b5957/html5/thumbnails/48.jpg)
Beta Decay
€
88
228Ra - - - -- > 89
228Ac + -1
0e
![Page 49: Uslides3](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5461a7d8af79595d448b5957/html5/thumbnails/49.jpg)
Gamma Radiation
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Radiation Safety
Paper
Al foil
Lead
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Artificial Elements
€
92
238U + 6
12C - - - -- > 98
244Cf + 60
1n
€
98
249Cf + 8
15O - - - -- > 106
263Sg + 4 0
1n
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Rate of Decay: Half Life
![Page 53: Uslides3](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5461a7d8af79595d448b5957/html5/thumbnails/53.jpg)
Isotope Half Lives
Isotope Half Life
U - 238 4.5 x 109 years
Pu - 239 24,360 years
C - 14 5730 years
Co - 60 5.3 years
I - 131 8 days
Po - 214 1.63 x 10-4 sec
![Page 54: Uslides3](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5461a7d8af79595d448b5957/html5/thumbnails/54.jpg)
Medical Radioisotopes
99Tc and 123I
![Page 55: Uslides3](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5461a7d8af79595d448b5957/html5/thumbnails/55.jpg)
Technetium Half life
99Tc half life = 6 hours
If 10 g injected into a patient, how much is left after 24 hrs?
24 hrs = 4 x 6 hrs = 4 half lives
10 g -> 5 g -> 2.5 g -> 1.25 g -> 0.625g
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Radiocarbon Dating
Atomic Clock
![Page 57: Uslides3](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5461a7d8af79595d448b5957/html5/thumbnails/57.jpg)
Radiocarbon Dating
![Page 58: Uslides3](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5461a7d8af79595d448b5957/html5/thumbnails/58.jpg)
Shroud of Turin
![Page 59: Uslides3](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5461a7d8af79595d448b5957/html5/thumbnails/59.jpg)
Ice Man (Ötzi)
![Page 60: Uslides3](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5461a7d8af79595d448b5957/html5/thumbnails/60.jpg)
Nuclear Fission
Otto Hahn &Lise Meitner
€
0
1n + 92
235U - - - - > 56
141Ba + 36
92Kr + 3 0
1n
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Chain Reaction
![Page 62: Uslides3](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5461a7d8af79595d448b5957/html5/thumbnails/62.jpg)
Fission Energy
Control rods= moderators
usually Boron, Carbon
Keep reactionunder control
![Page 63: Uslides3](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5461a7d8af79595d448b5957/html5/thumbnails/63.jpg)
Manhattan Project
![Page 64: Uslides3](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5461a7d8af79595d448b5957/html5/thumbnails/64.jpg)
US Fission Reactors
![Page 65: Uslides3](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5461a7d8af79595d448b5957/html5/thumbnails/65.jpg)
Three Mile Island (TMI) 1979
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Chernobyl 1986
![Page 67: Uslides3](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5461a7d8af79595d448b5957/html5/thumbnails/67.jpg)
Breeder Reactor
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Fast Breeder Reactions
![Page 69: Uslides3](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5461a7d8af79595d448b5957/html5/thumbnails/69.jpg)
Radioactive Waste
![Page 70: Uslides3](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5461a7d8af79595d448b5957/html5/thumbnails/70.jpg)
Fusion
![Page 71: Uslides3](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5461a7d8af79595d448b5957/html5/thumbnails/71.jpg)
Fusion into Heavier Elements
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Fission vs. Fusion
High energy higher energy
Radioactive waste no radioactivity
Need fissionable small commonnuclei atoms
Currently used need solar conditions
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Cold Fusion (1989)
Fleischman/Pons (Utah)
![Page 74: Uslides3](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5461a7d8af79595d448b5957/html5/thumbnails/74.jpg)
Cold Fusion
![Page 75: Uslides3](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5461a7d8af79595d448b5957/html5/thumbnails/75.jpg)
Cold Fusion (2005)
Naranjo, Gimzewski & Putterman
Using a strong Electric Field
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Tokamak reactor
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Chemical Reactions
Proton Transfer Electron Transfer
H+ e-
acids/bases reduction/oxidation
![Page 78: Uslides3](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5461a7d8af79595d448b5957/html5/thumbnails/78.jpg)
Proton Transfer
Acid: Sour taste, corrosive Releases H+
Base (alkaline): bitter, corrosiveAccepts H+
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Identifying Acids, Bases
2 HBr + CaO --> H2O + CaBr2
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Identifying Acids, Bases
2 HBr + CaO --> H2O + CaBr2
ACID BASE
All proton transfer reactions must haveBOTH an acid and a base
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Amphoteric Compounds
H2O + HCl --> H3O+ + Cl–
H2O + NH3 --> OH– + NH4+
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pH
“pouvoir hydrogène”
pH = – log10 [H+]
Acid: excess H+, low pH
Base: H+ deficit, high pH
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pH scale
Low pHacid
pH = 7neutral
High pH basic
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“pH Balanced”
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Buffers
Combination of acid/base form designed to keep pH at setlevel
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Antacids
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Excess Stomach Acid
Overindulgence
Skipping meals
Stress
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Antacid = Mild Base
Sodium BicarbonateNaHCO3
NaHCO3 + HCl --->
H2CO3 ---> carbonic acid
CO2 + H2O
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Sodium - Free?
Hypertension
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Alka SeltzerNaHCO3 + aspirin + citric acid
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Calcium Carbonate
Twice the acid relief!
CaCO3 + 2 HCl --->
H2CO3 --->
CO2 + H2O
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Milk of Magnesia
No gas
Mg(OH) 2 + 2 HCl ->
2 H2O + MgCl2
High dose = laxative
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Acid Rain
Rainfall with ph < 5.5
Normal rainis mildly acidic
due to H2CO3 (carbonic acid)
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Locations
![Page 95: Uslides3](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5461a7d8af79595d448b5957/html5/thumbnails/95.jpg)
Causes
Impurities in fossil fuels: N, S (+ O2)
NOx, SOx
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Effects of Acid Rain
Limestone, marble erosion
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Effects of Acid Rain
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Chemical Reactions
Proton Transfer Electron Transfer
H+ e-
acids/bases reduction/oxidation
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Electron Transfer
Oxidation electron loss
Reductionelectron gain
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Electron Transfer
Oxidation electron loss
2 Ag --> 2 Ag+ + 2 e-
Reductionelectron gain
silver tarnishingS + 2 e- --> S2-
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Electron Transfer
OxidationOxygen gain C + O2 --> CO2
Hydrogen loss NH4+ --> N2 (rocket fuel)
Reduction
Oxygen loss ClO4- --> Cl2 (rocket fuel)
Hydrogen gain C18H34O2 --> C18H36O2unsat Oleic acid sat Stearic acid
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Safety Matches
3 S + 2 KClO3 -> 2 KCl + 3 SO2
ox
Red
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Biological Redox
Alcohol metabolism
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Alcohol Metabolism
Acetic acid
Liveralcoholdehydrogenase
Aldehydeoxidase
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Hangover
Nausea
Headache
Sensitivity tolight, sound
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Batteries
Daniell cell: Cu and Zn
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Battery Operation
Anode: oxidation Zn -> Zn2+ + e-
Cathode: where reduction occurs
MnO2 + e- Mn2O3
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Alkaline Batteries
Anode: Manganese
Cathode: Zinc
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Rechargeable Batteries
Ni-cad
Cd -> Cd2+ + e-
NiO2 + e- -> NiO
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NiMH batteries
Higher capacity
Longer lifetime
NiOOH -> Ni(OH)2 (Ni+/Ni2+ oxidation)M+H- -> M (reduction)
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Lead-Acid Batteries
Pb + SO42- -> PbSO4 + 2e-
PbO2 + 4 H+ + SO42- + 2e- -> PbSO4 + H2O
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Corrosion
Fe -> Fe2+ oxidation
O2 -> OH- reduction
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Statue of Liberty
Gift fromFrance 1876
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Renovation (1986)
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Capturing Light
Louis Daguerre
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Exposure
Silver salts: AgBr or AgI
Light + 2 Ag+ X- 2 Ag+* + X2
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Development
Ag+* + C6H6O2 Ag + HBr + C6H4O2
Use Acid to Stop this process
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Fixing
Removes excess insoluble Silver:
Ag+ + S2O32- Ag(S2O3)-
HYPO
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Color Photography
Light + Ag+ + Dye -> Ag+* + Dye*
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Instant Photography
Polaroids