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Research Methods
Using Secondary Data
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Questions a literature review can answer
Literaturesearch and review
on your topic
What are the keysources ?
What are the key conceptstheories and ideas?
What are themain questionsand problemsthat have been
addressed to date?
What are themajor issuesand debates
about the topic?
What are thepolitical
standpoints?
What are the origins anddefinitions of the topic?
How have approaches to these questions increased our understandingand knowledge?
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Main readingMain reading
Saunders et al (2 nd ed.) ch. 7
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Aims and objectives
Aims and objectivesT o identify the wide variety of secondary data
(SD) that are available;
T o appreciate ways in which SD can be utilisedto help to answer research question(s) and to meet
objectives;
T o understand the advantages and disadvantagesof using SD in research projects;
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Aims and objectives
Aims and objectivesT o use a range of techniques, including published
guides and the Internet, to locate secondary data;
T o evaluate the suitability of SD for answeringresearch questions(s) and meeting objectives
in terms of coverage, validity, reliability, andmeasurement bias;
T o apply the knowledge, skills, and understanding
gained in your research project;
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Aims and objectives
Aims and objectivesT o consider a range of techniques with which
to analyse secondary data;
T o focus on documentary evidence in particular.
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P reviouslyP reviously we looked atwe looked atturning Research ideas into Research P rojectsturning Research ideas into Research P rojects
M ove from a R esearch idea
T o a General Focus R esearch Question
To a series of R esearch Questions
T o Specific R esearch Objectives
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A nd we considered..The literatureA nd we considered..The literature
review processreview process R esearc h questions and objectives
Define parameters
Generate and refine key words
Conduct searc h
O btain literature
Evaluate
R ecord
Start drafting review.after several iterationsWritten critical review of t h e literature..
Feedback loop
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Differing approaches to research
Th e researc h process onion
Data collectionmethods
R esearch strategies
Time horizons
R esearch approaches
R esearch philosophy
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Sampling issues also
Sampling issues also
P opulationSample
Case orelement
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Documents
Documents
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Documentary sources
Documentary sources
L ife HistoriesT
he Diary Newspapers and magazinesL ettersStories, essays and other writings
Official documents and recordsResearch reports
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Documentary sources
Documentary sources
M anuscriptsT
reatisesAccountsM inutes/memosHandbills
M aps, paintingsFilms, photographs
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Databases
Databases - -
PROMT
PROMT
Over 4
m records
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Subject C overageInformation in PRO MT includes:
Capital Expenditures
Financial ReportingIndustry and Business IssuesM anagement ProceduresM arket Plans and Strategies
M arket Size/Shares/ T rends
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Subject C overageInformation in PRO MT includes:
Plus
M ergers and Acquisitions New Products and T echnologies New and Expanded Facilities
Research and Development
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Sources include -
Annual reportsBusiness journalsInvestment analystsreportsM arket research studies
News releases News services Newsletters NewspapersT rade journals
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PROMT
PROMT
(Predicasts Overview of M arkets and T echnology)
Find the website
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REU
TE
R TEX
TLINE
REU
TE
R TEX
TLINE
Contains over 5 million citations withabstracts or full-text on companies,
products, services, general businessand economic topics as well asEuropean Union issues gathered fromover 5 00,000 organizations.
Web site:http://www.online.reuters.com
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B usiness ResearchB usiness Research
using this source..using this source.. Naresh. R.Pandit (199 6 )
'T he Creation of T heory:A Recent Application of theG rounded T heory M ethod',
The Q ualitativ e Repor t , 24 , December .
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G T : A rigorousG T : A rigorous
approachapproach
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Definitions
Definitions
Document: the medium on which the
message is stored
Text: the message that is conveyed
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Definitions
Definitions
Unobtrusive measures:Any method of observation thatdirectly removes the observer fromthe set interactions or events being
studied.
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Definitions
Definitions
P roximate: R esearcher has directaccess to data provider and
can influence data collection/generation
Mediate: No direct access.R esearcher cannot influence datacollection process
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Issues of validity :Issues of validity :
Authenticity?
Credibility?
Representativeness?
M eaning?
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Other criteria for Other criteria for
analysing documentsanalysing documents
Reliability?
Bias?
Cultural assumptions?
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A pply this to archivalA pply this to archival
evidenceevidence
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A drawing of Leeds inA drawing of Leeds in
18461846 Credibility?
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Issues of M
eaning?
L eeds in 18 46
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Otley Road,Otley Road,1930s1930s
Representativeness?
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B riggate, Leeds 1898?B riggate, Leeds 1898?CulturalCultural
Assumptions?Assumptions?
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H ydeP
ark Corner, 1903?H ydeP
ark Corner, 1903?Authenticity?
Authenticity?
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A classification of documentsA classification of documents
Authorship
P ersonal OfficialPrivate State
ClosedRestrictedOpen-archivalOpen-
published
Access
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U sing official statistics:U sing official statistics:P
rosP
ros
Readily available cost nothing to use
Sample sizes often large
Well planned with detailedinterview schedules
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U sing official statistics:U sing official statistics:P
rosP
ros
Conducted regularly allows for comparisons over time
Sometimes the only major source
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U sing official statistics:U sing official statistics:
ConsConsV alidity: do official statistics
measure what they claim to measure?
Can be deliberately biased in favour of officialdom
Classification e.g. unemployment
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4 1
Analysis
Analysis
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4 2
Types of A
nalysisTypes of A
nalysis
Content Analysis
T hematic Analysis
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Types of A
nalysisTypes of A
nalysis
T extual Analysis
Discourse Analysis
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CONTENT ANALYSIS CONTENT ANALYSIS
Example sExample s --
po litical s pee che s
t heme s in pop ula r songs
t re nds in new s pa per s
id eol o gical t one of e dit or ials
ans wer s t o ope n-end ed sur vey q s
t heme s in adv er tising me ssag e s
enemy prop aganda etc
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CONTENT ANALYSIS CONTENT ANALYSIS
Uni ts of anal ys i sUni ts of anal ys i s --
a word
a phrase
a theme or
series of related themes
a plot
a character
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M ea sur ing th e impor t an c e of a u ni t of M ea su ring th e impor t an c e of a u ni t of
anal ys i sanal ys i s --number of times mentioned (frequency)
number of column inches devoted to it
number of times it appears in the index
number of readers letters.
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A CODING SYSTE M
A CODING SYSTE M
- a set of inst r ucti onson how t o s y st ematicall y ob ser ve
and re cor d cont ent from t ext.
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A CODING SYSTE M A CODING SYSTE M
MANI FES T C O D IN G
coding the visible, surface content
L A T E N T C O D IN G
looks for the underlying, implicit meaning
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A n e x ampleA n e x ample
Nicola M orant Social representations
of gender in the media: quantitativeand qualitative content analysis
inM iell, D and Wetherell, M (eds) (1998).Doing Social Psychology. L ondon: Sage.
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V isual imagesV isual images
Colour
Body postureBackground contextClothes
Positioning of people in relationto each other G eneral feel of the image
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Te x tual imagesTe x tual images
Choice of headline message
Relative emphasis of themes withinthe topic
Positive or negative associations
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Te x tual imagesTe x tual images
V alue judgements
M etaphors
Feel of the writing e.g.Factual, humorous, dramatic?
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Te x tual imagesTe x tual images
Perspective of the writing
Who is the subject?
From whose perspective is
the article written?
With whom the reader isintended to identify?
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A pply this toA pply this towebsiteswebsites
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ContrastsContrasts
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Source.... titl e/ aut hor/p ublisher/ye ar, e tc.
A rticle topic......
N umber.... from a sampl e of .........
Coder........Date of coding ...........
Developing a Codebook
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Subcategory...........
column inc h es..........
TH E M ES references frequency
ch
osen (incl. page ref.) (number) ....... ....... .... ...... ....... .... N otes.......
Developing a Codebook
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Other forms of analysisOther forms of analysis
D iscourse Analysis ( DA)
and
C ritical D iscourse Analysis ( CDA)
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Techniques of DATechniques of DA
1. Using key words and themes;
2. L ooking for variation in the texte.g. sets of oppositions;
3. Read for emphasis and detail;
4 . L ook for silences, gaps, omissions.
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A ctively seek out :A ctively seek out :
V ariability
C onsistency
in an individuals discourse.
T hese provide clues to the functionsof discourse, i.e. how it works
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Rhetorical OrganizationRhetorical Organization
Look out for the author usingsuch techniques of persuasion as:
Lists (The C rescendo effect ) (Not onlybut also
.......plus the fact. )
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Look out for the author usingsuch techniques of persuasion as:
Generalisation
Extreme case formulations
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Rhetorical techniques used mayRhetorical techniques used mayinclude:include:
P aradoxes
Nominalisations
Metaphor
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Rhetorical techniques used mayRhetorical techniques used mayinclude:include:
R epetition
Juxtapositions: Guilt by association
Absences
The result : obfuscation
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U s ing Cri t i c al Di sc our s e Anal ys i sU s ing Cri t i c al Di sc our s e Anal ys i s( CDA) ( CDA)
1. What is the intended audience?
2. What does a critical reading of these documents uncover in terms of:
(a) what is defined as 'right' andwhat is 'wrong' and therefore whatis seen as problematic;
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C DAC DA
(b) what explanation is offered for whatis seen as problematic;
(c) what, therefore, is seen as thesolution?
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C DAC DA
3. What does a critical reading of
these documents tell us about
(a) what is not seen as problematic;
(b) which explanations are rejected or
omitted;
(c) which solutions are not preferred?
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I an P arker (in Banister et al, 1994 ) Directions for use
Choose a childrens brush that has a smallhead and add a pea-sized amount of Punchand Judy toothpaste.
T o teach your child to clean teeth, stand behind and place your hand under the childs chin to tilt head back
and see mouth. (contd )
E x ample of C DAE x ample of C DA
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E x ample of DAE x ample of DA
Brush both sides of teeth as well as tops.Brush after breakfast and last thing at night.Supervise the brushing of your childs teethuntil the age of eight.
If your child is taking flouride treatment, seek professional advice concerning daily intake.
Contains 0.8% Sodium M onoflourophosphate
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D iscourses found by P arker D iscourses found by P arker includedincluded
D iscourses found by P arker:
1/ rationalist
2/ familial
3/ developmental-educational
4/ medical
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Criticisms of DACriticisms of DA
1/ Positivists claim Its not scientific.
2/ T reating language as more powerful thanother material constraints on action e.g.Decisions made in boardrooms of M NCs
3/ T he authors intentions misrepresented
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Thank y ou! Thank y ou!
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A ppendi x A ppendi x
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Table 7.3 Checklist to evaluateTable 7.3 Checklist to evaluateS econdary D ata sourcesS econdary D ata sources
Ov erall suitability
Does the data set contain the information yourequire to answer your research question(s) andmeet your objecti v es?
Do the measures use match those you require?
Is the data set a proxy for the data you really need?
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Table 7.3 Checklist to evaluateTable 7.3 Checklist to evaluateS econdary D ata sourcesS econdary D ata sources
Ov erall suitability
Does the data set co v er the population that is thesubject of your research?
Can data about the population that is the subject of your research be separated from unwanted data?
Are the data sufficiently up to date?
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Table 7.3 Checklist to evaluateTable 7.3 Checklist to evaluateS econdary D ata sourcesS econdary D ata sources
Ov erall suitability
Are data a v ailable for all the v ariables you require toanswer your research question(s) and meet yourobjecti v es?
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Table 7.3 Checklist to evaluateTable 7.3 Checklist to evaluateS econdary D ata sourcesS econdary D ata sources
P recise suitability
How reliable is the data set you are thinking of using?
How credible is the data source?
Is the methodology clearly described?
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Table 7.3 Checklist to evaluateTable 7.3 Checklist to evaluateS econdary D ata sourcesS econdary D ata sources
P recise suitability
If sampling was used, what was the procedureand what were the associated sampling errorsand response rates?
Who were responsible for collecting or recordingthe data?
(For sur v eys) is a copy of the q aire or inter v iewchecklist included?
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Table 7.3 Checklist to evaluateTable 7.3 Checklist to evaluateS econdary D ata sourcesS econdary D ata sources
P recise suitability
(For complied data) are you clear how the data wereanalysed and complied?
Are the data likely to contain measurement bias?
What was the original purpose for which the data werecollected?
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Table 7.3 Checklist to evaluateTable 7.3 Checklist to evaluateS econdary D ata sourcesS econdary D ata sources
P recise suitability
Who was the target audience and what was theirRelationship to the data collector or complier(were there any v ested interests)?
Hav e there been any documented changes in the waythe data are measured or recorded including definitionchanges?
How consistent are the data obtained from this source?
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Table 7.3 Checklist to evaluateTable 7.3 Checklist to evaluateS econdary D ata sourcesS econdary D ata sources
P recise suitability
How consistent are the data obtained from this sourcewhen compared with data from other sources?
Are you happy that the data ha v e been recordedaccurately?
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Table 7.3 Checklist to evaluateTable 7.3 Checklist to evaluateS econdary D ata sourcesS econdary D ata sources
Costs and benefits
What are the financial and time costs of obtainingthese data?
Hav e the data already been entered into a computer?
Do the o v erall benefits of using these secondary datasources outweigh the associated costs?
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