Using information

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Information Systems

Using Information(Higher and Intermediate 2)

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Information Systems

A system to convert data from internal and external sources into information and to communicate that information, in an appropriate form, to people at all levels in all functions to enable them to make timely and effective decisions for planning, directing and controlling the activities for which they are responsible.

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Introduction

Information and knowledge are so important nowadays that society can be divided up into two groups.

Information rich – those who have access to: many TV and radio channels books, newspapers and journals computers and the World Wide Web.

Information poor – those who: tend to not have access to the Web and probably

find it difficult to access relevant books and journals.

If you are following this course you will probably be information rich.

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Learning Objectives

Throughout this unit we will learn about the nature and uses of information by looking at:

Differences between Data and Information Organisational Information Systems Information Management Software Implications of Information and Communications

Technology.

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Data and Information

Data is raw unprocessed facts and figures that have no context or purposeful meaning.

Information is processed data that has meaning and a context.

Data

36.41

Binary patterns on a disc

Information

£36.41 – bill for DVDs

Processed data – e.g. display on screen, icons, etc.

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Data and Information

A single unit or item of data is called a datum

It is one or more symbols used to represent something.

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Knowledge

Knowledge is derived from InformationWe gain knowledge from information and we use that information to make decisions.

Explicit knowledge is rules or processes or decisions that can be recorded either on paper or in an information system.

Tacit knowledge exists inside the minds of humans and is harder to record. It tends to be created from someone’s experiences, so again is a set of rules or experiences.

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Metadata

Metadata can be thought of as data that describes data. It is structured information about a resource.

Examples a data dictionary A meta tag in a web page contains information

about the contents of the web page. the card index system used by libraries before

computerisation, where each card told you the author, title and where to find the book

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LI - Categorisation of Information

Information can be categorised under several headings that allow us to determine its overall usefulness.

Main categories Source Nature Level Time

Frequency Use Form Type.

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Source – Primary or Secondary

Where statistical information is gathered, such as in surveys or polls, the survey data or polling data is the primary source and the conclusions reached from the survey or the results of the poll are secondary sources

A secondary source of information is one that provides information from a source other than the original.

A primary source provides the data to an information system from an original source document.

• e.g. an invoice sent to a business or a cheque received. • sales figures for a range of goods for a tinned food manufacturer

for one week or several weeks and one or several locations.

• e.g. an accounts book detailing invoices received, or a bank statement that shows details of cheques paid in.

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Source – Internal

All organisations generate a substantial amount of internal information relating to their operation.

Examples of internal sources: Marketing and sales information on performance,

revenues, market share, distribution channels, etc. Production and operational information on assets,

quality, standards, etc. Financial information on profits, costs, margins, cash

flows, investments, etc. Internal documentation such as order forms, invoices,

credit notes, procedural manuals.

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Source – External

An external source of information is concerned with what is happening beyond the boundaries of the organisation.

• census figures

• judgments on court cases

• legislation, e.g. the Data Protection Act

• trade journals

• professional publications

• industry standards

• telephone directories

• computer users’ yearbook

• gallup & national opinion polls

• Ordnance Survey maps

• Financial services agencies such as Dunn and Bradstreet

• the Internet

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Source - Nature

Formal Communication information presented in a structured and

consistent manner main methods

the formal letter, properly structured reports, writing of training materials, etc. in cogent, coherent, well-structured language.

Informal Communication less well-structured information

transmitted within an organisation or between individuals who usually know each other.

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Source - Nature

Quantitative Information information that is represented numerically.

Qualitative Information information that is represented using words.

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Levels of Use of Information

STRATEGIC

TACTICAL

OPERATIONAL

Long-term decisions - both internal & external sources

Top level of management

Medium-term decisions - mostly internal but some external sources

Middle management

Day-to-day decisions - largely internal sources

Lowest level of staff

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Time

Historic Information gathered and stored over a period of time. It allows decision makers to draw comparisons between

previous and present activities. Historic information can be used to identify trends over a

period of time. Present

Information created from activities during the current work-window (day, week or month).

In real-time systems this information would be created instantly from the data gathered (e.g. the temperature in a nuclear power plant turbine) giving accurate and up-to-date information.

Future Information that is created using present and historic

information to try to predict the future activities and events relating to the operation of an organisation.

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Frequency of Information

Continuous This is information created from data gathered several times a

second. It is the type of information created by a real-time system.

Periodic Information created at regular time intervals (hourly, daily,

monthly, annually). Annually – On an annual basis a company must submit its

report and accounts to the shareholders. Monthly – Banks and credit card companies produce

monthly statements for the majority of their customers. Daily – A supermarket will make daily summaries of its sales

and use the product information to update its stock levels and reorder stock automatically.

Hourly – A busy call centre will often update totals for each operator on an hourly basis and give the top employee for the hour some reward.

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Uses of Information within Organisations

Planning is the process of deciding, in advance, what has to be done and how it is to be done.

Planning is decisions by management about: What is to be done in the future How to do it When to do it Who is to do it

An objective is something that needs to be achieved.

A plan describes the activities or actions required to achieve the objective.

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Control is the monitoring and evaluation of current progress against the steps of a pre-defined plan or standard.

Operational level the manager’s time will be spent on control activities

At higher levels planning and control are more closely linked, with

management being concerned with the monitoring of progress against the plan, assessing the suitability of the plan itself, and predicting future conditions.

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Decision-making – means selecting an action or actions from those

possible based on the information available. involves determining and examining the available

actions and then selecting the most appropriate actions in order to achieve the required results.

is an essential part of management and is carried out at all levels of management for all tasks.

is made up of four phases:Finding occasions for decision making Finding possible courses of action Choosing among these courses of action Evaluating past choices.

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Forms of Information

Written Hand-written, word-processed, e-mails. Reports from different classes of software. Reports, memos and tables, receipts, invoices, statements,

summary accounting information. Aural

Speech, formal meetings, informal meetings, talking on the phone and voice-mail messages.

Employee presentations to a group where there may be use made of music and sound effects as well as speech.

Visual pictures, charts and graphs. Presentations via data projects, DVDs, etc.

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Types of Information Detailed

An inventory list showing stock levels Actual costs to the penny of goods Detailed operating instructions Most often used at operational level

Sampled Selected records from a database Product and sales summaries in a supermarket Often used at a tactical level (maybe strategic)

Aggregated Totals created when detailed information is summed

together Details of purchases made by customers totalled

each month

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LI - Characteristics of Information

There are 8 main characteristics of information

Not all information has all the characteristics

Always use the example given when answering

You may have to make assumptions when answering questions

Completeness Accuracy Timing Conciseness Reliability Relevance Availability Presentation

Use CATCRRAP mnemonic

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Availability / Accessibility

Information should be easy to obtain or access for use when required

How to write about it: state the information item state whether the info is available/accessible or not give your reason why eg. if on-line it is very accessible, but need hardware

if on paper, only accessible to those who have the

paper copy.

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Accuracy

Information needs to be accurate enough for the use to which it is going to be put.

How to write about it: state the information item state whether the info is Accurate or not Generally professional/Government bodies provide

accurate info Adverts are supposed to be accurate Internally created info is open to debate Websites must be treated with caution

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Reliability or Objectivity

Reliability deals with the truth of the information or the objectivity with which it is presented.

How to write about it: state the information item state whether the info is reliable or not a trusted source will usually provide reliable info internal info ie. e-mails are usually reliable Websites must be treated with caution

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Relevance / Appropriateness

Information should be relevant to the purpose for which it is required. It must be suitable.

How to write about it: state the information item state whether the info is relevant to the purpose it is

intended or not

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Completeness

Information should contain all details required by the user.

How to write about it: state the information item state whether the info is complete or not if not state what might be missing and the problems this

would cause to the user of the info

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Level of Detail / Conciseness

Information should be in a form that is short enough to allow for its examination and use. There should be no extraneous information.

How to write about it: state the information item state whether the info is concise or not if not describe the amount of time that would be wasted

reading irrelevant info If it is describe the info that is needed for the task

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Presentation

Information can be more easily assimilated if it is aesthetically pleasing.

How to write about it: state the information item state whether the info is well presented or not if it is well presented describe how this will aid the user in

digesting the info If not, describe how this will cause difficulty in reading

and digesting the info

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Timing

Information must be on time for the purpose for which it is required. Information received too late will be irrelevant.

How to write about it: state the information item state whether the info is on time or not Give reasons for your answer

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Value and Cost

Value The relative importance of information for decision-making

can increase or decrease its value to an organisation.

Cost Information should be available within set cost levels that

may vary dependent on situation.

The difference between value and cost Valuable information need not cost much. Information costly to obtain may not have much value.

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Categories of Information Systems

Data Processing Systems (DPS) Management Information Systems (MIS) Decision Support Systems (DSS) Executive Information System (EIS)

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Categories of Information Systems

Organisational Level

Type of information system

Strategic Executive Information System (EIS)

Tactical Decision Support Systems (DSS)

Management Information Systems (MIS)

Operational Data Processing Systems (DPS)

How do Information systems fit into levels of IS?

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Data Processing Systems (DPS)

Transactional Processing System Deals with day-to-day transactions Accountancy, invoicing, stock control Items scanned by bar code reader etc

DPS are the tools used at the Operational level of an organisation

DPS involves use of a computer

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Concepts in Relation to Organisational Management Systems

Speed The processor is able to carry out millions of calculations per

second. Accuracy

Computers store and process numbers to a high degree of accuracy.

Depends on the software written and of course human accuracy. Much financial software is accurate to 3 decimal places rounded

to 2. The software and hardware combined will perform the calculation

correctly every time. Volume

The number of transactions in a period of time is the volume. Efficiency

The efficiency of an Information System is a combination of the speed, accuracy and volume of the data processed.

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The Data Processing Cycle

Data Gathering

DataPreparationand Input

Processingand

Storage

InformationOutput

See CDP Presentation

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The Functions of an Organisational Information System (1)

Gathering data Turnaround documents in mail order and bills Bar codes on almost every item sold Call centres, customers pay by card Internet ordering – credit and debit cards Cards with magnetic strips and chip and PIN Magnetic ink character reader on cheques Optical character recognition Mark sense reader (Lottery tickets) In each case the data is captured and then stored

electronically and used for some purpose.

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The Functions of an Organisational Information

System (2)

Storing information Magnetic media

Magnetic tape – long-term and backup storage. Very cheap but slow to access.

Hard disk – very fast random access, used in most applications including ordering and booking systems.

Optical media CD-ROMS and DVDs – both available in writeable and

re-writeable formats. Not as flexible as disk, but very compact.

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The Functions of an Organisational Information

System (3)

Processing data Searching and selection

Search and select a sub-section of the data that matches specified criteria.

Sorting and rearranging Alphabetic or numeric, ascending or descending.

Aggregating Summarising data by totalling details.

Performing calculations Working out bills like utility bills.

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The Functions of an Organisational Information System (4)

Outputting information Paper

Till receipts, statements, cheques, internal reports and almost anything.

Screen Data entry screens and reports for managers. Web-aware applications where pages are viewed

as if on the Internet. File

Saving to backing storage. Files can be e-mailed as attachments.

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Management Information Systems

MIS convert data from internal and external sources into information for managers.

The source of data for an MIS usually comes from numerous databases. These databases are usually the data storage for Data Processing Systems.

MIS summarise and report on the organisation’s basic operations.

MIS produce reports for managers interested in historic trends on a regular basis.

MIS operate at the tactical level.

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Decision Support Systems

DSS provide information and models in a form to help tactical and strategic decision-making.

They support management decision-making by integrating: Company performance data Business rules in a decision table Analytical tools and models for forecasting and planning A simple user interface to query the system.

DSS are useful when making ad-hoc, one-off decisions.

The sources of data for DSS tend to be a combination of summary information gathered from lower-level DPS and MIS.

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Executive Information Systems

EIS provide senior managers with systems to assist in taking strategic and tactical decisions.

Purpose – to analyse, compare and identify trends to help the strategic direction of the organisation.

EIS incorporate data about external events. They: draw summarised information from internal MIS and DSS. filter, compress, and track critical data. reduce time and effort required to obtain information useful to

strategic management. employ advanced graphics software to provide highly visual and

easy-to-use representations of complex information and current trends.

do not provide analytical models. EIS allow the user to look at specific data that has been

summarised from lower levels within the organisation and then drill down to increase the level of detail - data warehouse analysis.

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Expert Systems

An expert system is a computer program that tries to emulate human reasoning.

It does this by combining the knowledge of human experts and then, following a set of rules, draws inferences (solutions).

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Expert Systems

An expert system is made up of three parts:

A knowledge base stores all of the facts, rules and information needed to represent the knowledge of the expert.

An inference engine interprets the rules and facts to find solutions to user queries.

A user interface allows new knowledge to be entered and the system queried.

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Expert Systems

Expert systems are used for the following purposes: To store information in an active form as

organisational memory. To create a mechanism that is not subject to

human feelings, such as fatigue and worry. To generate solutions to specific problems that are

too substantial and complex to be analysed by human beings in a short period of time.

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Organisational Information System

Management Strategies Network strategy

Addresses data transfer, distribution, access and security, facilities, storage.

Security strategy Deals with access to the network and keeping

unauthorised people out. Backup and recovery strategy

To ensure data is not accidentally erased and that it can be recovered once backed up.

Upgrade strategy To plan new hardware and software and ensure that

everything new will work properly. Software strategy

Choose between bespoke and standard packages.

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Centralised Database

A very large and powerful database - at the heart of an organisation.

Database program is called the database engine; it saves and indexes files in tables and manages the relationships between the tables.

Information can be found fairly easily by querying the centralised database.

Usually a multi-user or network system is used which means that any user on the system can have access to the database.

Advantages to the database being centralised. Much easier to organise, edit, update and back-up the

data. Communications are easier. No real disadvantages to a centralised database.

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Network Strategy

Networks LAN (Local Area Network) – in one area.

Device sharing. Software sharing. Data sharing. Communication.

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LAN Topologies

Topology means layout There are various different topologies The main ones are:

Bus Star Ring Mesh Tree

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Mesh Network

Fully connected mesh - every node is connected to every other node.

Partially connected mesh – not all nodes are connected.

Expensive Greatest amount of redundancy which means that

routes are always available to pass the data Difficult to manage Errors can be difficult to detect

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Tree Network

Series of star networks Nodes can be easily added Easy to install and wire No disruptions if a device fails within a

segment Whole segment may fail if the segment

central node fails Easy to detect faults

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Network Strategy

Protocol Rules that govern communication across network Often called handshake

Deals with eg. Data transmission speed, access method, topology,

packet size, cabling

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Ethernet Protocol

Most common cabled system Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision

Detection (CSMA/CD) Computer senses (listens) to cable 10/100 Mbps Fast Ethernet standard

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Network Hardware

Client-server networkCentral server stores data files and log-in details.

Workstation

workstation

workstation

server clients

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Network Hardware

Server

A computer or device that manages the network resources.

File serverPrint serverApplication server

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Architecture - Application Server

Server hosts the main programs which are used by the terminals on the network

All the users require is a ‘dumb’ terminal which can send keystrokes/input and receive screen output from the server.

Needs a high powered server with a large RAM to cope with the demands on it.

Example – Travel Agents viewdata screens

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Architecture - File Server

The server hosts main programs and data files for all the work stations to access

When a work station wants to process data, the data and the application are transferred to the work station for processing to take place.

Little demand on the server as the application programs which created the files are run on the work station processor.

Example – UCAS software

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Client - Server Architecture

The server hosts dedicated network programs such as database management and communications

When a work station (client) wants to process data, it requests a service.

The server transfers the data back to the client and it is then formatted by the client workstation.

Processing is split between the server and the client.

Example - EDI

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Network Strategy

Peer-to-peer network (P2P)

No central server All stations equal Cheaper Files can be shared between computers Communication is easy between computers Data less secure

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Network Strategy

WAN (Wide Area Network) – over a city, country or the wide world.

Uses telecommunications Enables one network between branches Internet is good example

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The Internet

Uses Client-Server architecture Many host servers transmitting data on a

request basis (client pull) Occasionally server transmits data which is

not a direct request from the user (server push – pop-ups)

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Network Strategy

Distributed networks

LAN with several servers Processing is shared Data accessible from all over the network

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Network Hardware

Hub Connects segments of a network together Send packets to all segments

Switch Routes packets only to their intended destination

Router Forwards the data packets along the network path

Repeater Regenerates or boosts signals on a network

Bridge Connects two LANs using the same protocols together

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Network Adapter Card (NIC)

Attached to or Built-in to the computer. Allows the computer to send and receive data

around the network. Uses MAC addresses to locate the computer

Wireless networking would require a wireless network hub and each computer would require a wireless network adapter card

More information on Network Hardware

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Extending Networks

Internet

R o u t e r

S w i t c h

R e p e a t e r

R e p e a t e r

H u bH u b

F i l e S e r v e r

R e m o t e

O ffi c e

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Switch

Hub

Hub

Hub

Segment 1

Segment 2Segment 3

Extending a network

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Repeater

Allows the connection of segments Extends the network beyond the

maximum length of a single segment A multi-port repeater is known as a Hub Connects segments of the same network,

even if they use different media Receives a signal which it cleans up Transmits the signal on to the next

segment

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Hub

A central point of a star topology

Allows the multiple connection of devices

Can be more than a basic Hub – providing additional services (Managed Hubs, Switched Hubs, Intelligent Hubs)

In reality a Hub is a Repeater with multiple ports

Functions in a similar manner to a Repeater

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Bridge

Like a Repeater or Hub it connects segments of the same LAN or two different LANS using the same protocol

Acts as a ’filter’, by determining whether or not to forward a packet on to another segment

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Switch Similar to a hub but interprets the

destination of the data packet Keeps track of the locations of all attached

devices (just like a bridge) Sends the data packet only to its intended

destination Similarly priced to Hubs – making them

popular

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Router

Work in LAN, MAN and WAN environments Usually located at Gateways – where two or

more networks connect Can interconnect different protocol networks

– Ethernet with Token Ring Changes packet size and format to match

the requirements of the destination network Determines the ‘best path’ Share details of routes with other routers

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Advantages and Disadvantages

Repeater Advantages – Can connect different types

of media, can extend a network in terms of distance, does not increase network traffic

Disadvantages – Extends the collision domain, cannot filter data, can not connect different network architectures, limited number only can be used in network

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Advantages and Disadvantages (2)

Hub Advantages – Cheap, can connect

different media types Disadvantages – Extends the collision

domain, can not filter information, passes packets to all connected segments

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Bridge Advantages – Limits the collision domain,

can extend network distances, uses MAC address to filter traffic, eases congestion, can connect different types of media, some can connect differing architectures

Disadvantages – Broadcast packets can not be filtered, more expensive than a repeater, slower than a repeater – due to additional processing of packets

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Switch Advantages - Limits the collision domain,

can provide bridging, can be configured to limit broadcast domain

Disadvantages – More expensive than a hub or bridge, configuration of additional functions can be very complex

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Router Advantages – Limits the collision domain,

can function in LAN or WAN, connects differing media and architectures, can determine best path/route, can filter broadcasts

Disadvantages – Expensive, must use routable protocols, can be difficult to configure (static routing), slower than a bridge

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Network Hardware

Structured Cabling

Cables made from copper wire, co-axial cable, fibre-optic cable and twisted pairs.

Twisted pair Ethernet is the most common. Fibre optic used to link over longer distances and

to carry a very high bandwidth Structured cabling attempts to future proof the

network architecture

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Network Software

Network Operating System – 2 parts

The version that runs on the server

This is needed to control which users and workstations can access the server eg. restrict and control access; to keep each user’s data secure; and to control the flow of information around the network.

It is also responsible for file and data sharing, communications between users and hardware, and peripheral sharing.

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Network Software

Network Operating System – 2nd part

The version that runs on the personal computers to turn them into network stations.

Each workstation (computer) connected to the network needs the Network Operating System installed before it can connect successfully to the network facilities.

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Network Software

Network Auditing and Monitoring Software

This software keeps a track of network activity. It records user activity and workstation activity. In a commercial organisation this sort of auditing

and monitoring can be used to detect fraud and suspicious activity.

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Network Software

Network Management Systems Performance management

Used to control and measure network performance

Configuration management Monitors the configuration of different devices attached to

the network

Fault management Detects, logs, notifies and corrects network faults

Security management Controls user’s access to the network

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Recommend a network strategy for a new school – similar in size and structure as Rothesay Academy

What type of data will be transferred on the network?

Where is the network to be located? Will structured cabling be used? What security will be in place? What hardware and software will be required? What storage will be required?

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Security Strategy

This covers security, integrity and privacy of data.

Data security means keeping data safe from physical loss.

Data integrity means the correctness of the stored data.

Data privacy means keeping data secret so that unauthorised users cannot access it.

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Security Risks to Information Systems

Unauthorised access Hacking

Malware Virus, worm, trojan, spyware, dishonest

adware

Denial of Service Theft Physical damage

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Unauthorised Access

Also known as Hacking

This is the gaining of unauthorised access to a computer information system.

The hacker often alters, steals or deletes data

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Malware

This is a piece of programming code that causes some unexpected and usually undesirable event in a computer system.

Viruses can be transmitted as attachments to an e-mail as a download on a removable storage being used for

something else.

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Malware

Some viruses take effect as soon as their code takes residence in a system.

Others lie dormant until something triggers their code to be executed by the computer.

Viruses can be extremely harmful and may erase data or require the reformatting of a hard disk once they have been removed.

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Types of Virus

Trojan These are used to sneak in where they're not

expected. A Trojan is a method for inserting instructions in a program so that the program performs an unauthorized function while apparently performing a useful one. Trojan horses are a common technique for planting other problems in computers, including viruses, worms. Often used for fraud as they are hard to detect.

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Types of Virus

Virus A virus is a program which modifies other

programs so that they replicate the virus. How? It inserts a copy of itself in the code.

Thus, when the program runs, it makes a copy of the virus. This happens only on a single system.

It can then be copied via removable storage to other systems.

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Types of Virus

Worm Unlike a virus, a worm is a standalone

program in its own right. It exists independently of any other programs. To run, it does not need other programs.

A worm simply replicates itself on one computer and tries to infect other computers that may be attached to the same network.

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Phishing

Employees should be made aware of identity theft

Phishing is the criminally fraudulent process of attempting to acquire sensitive information such as usernames, passwords and credit card details, by masquerading as a trustworthy entity in an electronic communication

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Spyware

Spyware is computer software that is installed surreptitiously on a personal computer to intercept or take partial control over the user's interaction with the computer, without the user's informed consent.

While the term spyware suggests software that secretly monitors the user's behavior, the functions of spyware extend well beyond simple monitoring. Spyware programs can collect various types of personal information, such as Internet surfing habit

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Adware

Adware or advertising-supported software is any software package which automatically plays, displays, or downloads advertisements to a computer after the software is installed on it or while the application is being used. Some types of adware are also spyware and can be classified as privacy-invasive software.

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Denial of service

This involves flooding an organisation’s

Internet server with a large number of requests for information (traffic).

This increase in traffic overloads the server, which becomes incapable of dealing with the backlog of requests, and results in the server crashing or needing to be taken offline to resolve the problem.

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Theft and physical damage

Break ins to the building or computer in order to steal or cause damage

Personnel damage Employees with a grudge Employees who accidentally lose or delete data

Natural disasters

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Policies and Procedures for Implementing Data Security

Codes of conduct

These apply to users of an information system. Most organisations insist that users follow a set

of rules for using their system. Employees have to sign a code of conduct as

part of their conditions of employment. A code of conduct can cover basic professional

competences as well as obvious statements like “Never disclose your password to anybody else and change your password every week.”

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Policies and Procedures for Implementing Data Security

BCS code of ethics covers:Professional conduct Professional integrity Public interest Fidelity Technical competence.

Password guidelinesMinimum length of 5 charactersMust consist of letters and numbersMust not contain any wordsMust not be the same as the previous passwordMust not use easily guessed strings of letters or

numbers (e.g. 123456 and abcdef).

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Implementing Data Security

Virus protection

Prevention Prevent users from using floppy disks. Scan incoming e-mails for viruses. Do not open mail or attachments from someone you

don’t recognise. Detection

Install anti-virus software. Update it regularly to detect new viruses.

Repair Anti-virus software can quarantine a virus. Can delete the virus code from an infected file.

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Firewalls Device or software used to prevent

unauthorised access to a network. Placed between the server and the Internet

connection (router). Can block sections of the network. Only allows authorised users to join the

network (dial-in).

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Encryption

This is the process of transforming information (referred to as plaintext) using an algorithm (called cipher) to make it unreadable to anyone except those possessing special knowledge, usually referred to as a key.

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Encryption

Used by on-line retailers to keep card details secure

Needed in order to gain trust of purchasers 32-bit encryption almost impossible to crack

Public-key encryption schemes Pretty Good Privacy (PGP) Data Encryption Standard (DES) Secure Sockets Layer (SSL)

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Access rights Read – allows users to read files.

Allows files to be made read only. Write – allows users to write (save) files. Create – allows users to create new files. Erase – allows users to erase files. Modify – allows users to modify files. Groups of users may have.

Read/write/create/erase on home drive. Read only on shared areas.

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Back-up Strategy

Every computer user should have a strategy in place to back-up their data.

Backing up is the process of making a copy of the data stored on fixed hard disks to some other media.

This can be tape, external portable hard disks, writeable CD-ROM or DVD.

The purpose of backing up data is to ensure that the most recent copy of the data can be recovered and restored in the event of data loss.

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Archive

Archiving is the process of copying data from hard disk drives to tape or other media for long-term storage.

Long-term archives are usually stored in a fireproof safe away from the main site location

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Recovery

Data verification It is important to check that the data stored on

the back-up media can be recovered. Special backup and recovery software is used

to recover the data

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Storage methods

DAT tape on built-in drives on servers. USB removable hard drives.

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Frequency and version control

Full back-up (monthly) all data is copied

Differential (weekly) all files that have changed since the last full

backup are copied

Incremental (daily) only files that have changed since the last backup

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Media rotation and storage

Grandfather-father-son method

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Upgrade Strategy

Future proofing Making sure that a system has a reasonable life

and does not need to be totally replaced too soon

Hardware & software compatibility Will older s/w work with new operating systems, etc? Will older h/w work with newer equipment (e.g. printers

with computers)?

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Upgrade Strategy

Integration testing Are the peripheral devices compatible with the

hardware and operating system? Does the network software support the hardware

and operating system? Is the application software compatible with the

operating system and computer? Is the hardware compatible with the operating

system?

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Upgrade Strategy

Legacy systems Old information systems running on out-of-date

hardware and operating systems are often referred to as legacy systems.

Problems with legacy systems led to many computer companies developing software that conformed to Open Standards.

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Upgrade Strategy

Emulation This allows access to a greater range of

applications that might not be available on the given hardware platform.

The use of an emulator allows data to be transferred between platforms.

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Software Strategy

Needs to take account of the issues: evaluating the software for use, using several key

criteria the user support for the software the training supplied for end users of the software the upgrade path of the software.

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Software Evaluation

Software evaluation should cover: Functionality – This refers not only to the number of

features an application program has but to the number of useable features it has. Also the tasks to be completed need to be evaluated against the features in the software.

Performance – The performance of software can be measured by several different criteria depending on the type of software.

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Criteria for Evaluation of Software

Speed Measured against

benchmarks. Usability

Look and feel, choices in menus, etc.

Compatibility With operating system.

Data Migration Translating from one

format to another.

Reliability Does the job it is supposed

to? Resource requirements

Has the computer enough RAM, big enough disks, etc?

Portability Will it work on different

systems? Support

Assistance from vendors or writers?

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Training in Using Software

On-the-job A new user needs to be introduced to the software. This means working through a tutorial to become familiar

with the functions of the software. It usually involves an online tutorial program or tutorial manual that teaches the user about the software.

In-house This is when small groups of staff, within the company,

receive a training course delivered by IT staff. External

This is offered by specialist training providers for popular application software, such as software created by Microsoft, Macromedia and Adobe.

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User Support

Manuals Installation guide – gives advice on how to install the

software and how to configure it to work with various hardware.

Tutorial guide – gives step-by-step instructions on how to use the software.

Reference manual – is an indexed guide detailing all the functions of the software.

On-line help Explains to the user what each feature of the software

does. It is a part of the program situated on the computer and is not on the Internet.

On-line tutorials Step-by-step instructions on the computer, not on the

Internet.

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User Support

Help desk Internal (end user) and external (software vendors).

Newsgroups A Newsgroup allows users of a piece of software to post e-

mail messages to the wider user community. FAQs

This stands for Frequently Asked Questions. It is usually a file that contains a list of commonly asked user queries about a piece of software.

Manufacturer’s web site Often the manufacturer has a web site which hosts FAQ and other

on-line (on the internet) support

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Issues Affecting Decisions to Upgrade Software

Lack of functionality Business changes, new technology outdates software.

Hardware incompatibility Upgraded computers do not support old software.

Software incompatibility New operating system will not run old software.

Perfecting the software Removing bugs and improving it – will existing data work

with it?

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Learning Objectives

Distributed databases data warehousing data mining

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Centralised Databases

All the data is held on a central computer mainframe or server.

Advantages mean it is far easier to manage and control if it

is only in one location. far easier to back up when it is

centralised.

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Distributed database

A database that is stored in more than one physical location on a network.

Different users can access it without interrupting one another.

The DBMS must synchronise the scattered databases to make sure they all have consistent data.

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Partitioning

Where the central database is split over different areas/locations

Each remote server has the necessary data to suit their location

Vertical - common data (accessed often) is mirrored to all locations with less common data held centrally

Horizontal - Data is split so that each region/area holds it’s own data

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Replication

Copies of the entire database are held at all locations

Data is processed and held locally The central database is then updated with the

changes at regular intervals.

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Data Warehousing

Historical data transactions are separated out from the ongoing business.

The data is re-organised in such a way as to allow it to be analysed; the newly structured data is then queried and the results of the query are reported.

Data warehousing could be used as a predictive tool, to indicate what should be done in the future.

The main use of data warehousing is as a review tool, to monitor the effects of previous operational decisions made in the course of a business.

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Data Mining

‘The nontrivial extraction of implicit, previously unknown, and potentially useful information from data.’

It uses machine learning, statistical and visualisation techniques to discover and present knowledge in a form that is easily comprehensible to humans.

Data mining is the analysis of data and the use of software techniques for finding patterns and regularities in sets of data. The computer is responsible for finding the patterns by identifying the underlying rules and features in the data.

The mining analogy is that large volumes of data are sifted in an attempt to find something worthwhile (in a mining operation large amounts of low-grade materials are sifted through in order to find something of value).

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Information Management Software

LI – to learn about and become skilled in using: Information Management Software Classes of software

Print media, on-line media, spreadsheet, project management, PIM

Word processing / DTP software Presentation / web authoring s/w Spreadsheet software Project management software Personal information management software Evaluation of software

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Information Management Software

Word processing Commonest application -

Word Spreadsheet

Financial and numerical analysis and record keeping - Excel

Database Store, select, sort data

Graphics design Create and manipulate

pictures Browsers

Surf the Net E-mail client

Compose, send and receive e-mails

Chat client Send and receive messages

interactively Desk-top publishing (DTP)

Layout text and graphics professionally

Presentation Create slide shows

Reference Encyclopaedias and

dictionaries Financial

Manage and control money Web authoring

Create web pages and sites.

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Classes of Software

There are five classes of software: Presenting information for print media Presenting information for on-line media Spreadsheet (data handling) Project management Personal information management

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Presenting Information for Print Media

Most applications are designed to produce printed output, except for graphics and web authoring which tend to be more visual.

Word Processing (WP) and Desk Top Publishing (DTP) are classed in this group.

Differences between WP and DTP: WP is used for generating text, while DTP tends to use

pre-prepared text. DTP manages to handle text and graphics far more

easily. WP can deal with multi-page documents but DTP

handles multi-page documents far better. DTP files tend to be very large, especially if real pictures

are used.

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Presenting Information for On-line Media

Presentations Large growth in the use of s/w to create presentations. Cost of data projectors has dropped. Presentation s/w allows the user to create a slide show. Slides can hold a variety of multimedia objects. Slides can be sequenced - jump to using hyperlinks. PowerPoint is most popular package.

Web authoring Software allows users easily to make up web pages. You can drag and drop objects onto the screen. Click on icons to link graphics and media files. Deal easily with hyper-linking. File written as HTML or XTML code.

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Data Handling – Spreadsheet

Education Record and analyse marks and results. Keeping track of budgets and financial information.

Home situation Keep track of household expenditure, track share values

and even keep track of contacts. Very good at formatting output, used for printing address

labels. Financial application

Cash flow forecast, statement of accounts, invoices, sales orders, purchase orders, etc.

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Data Handling - Spreadsheet

Modelling and simulation Predicting a new situation from existing one - “what-if?”

analysis. Statistical analysis

E.g. analysis of numerical information. Two examples are Descriptive Statistics and Goal Seeking.

Macro use A macro is a sequence of instructions that can be used to

automate complex or repetitive tasks.

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Project Management

A project can be any task which can be completed. Eg. Building a new school

Projects have a time limit, budget and scope Project management software is used to

plan and control a project

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Project Triangle

The budget is the estimated cost of a project

The schedule is the timing and sequence of taks within a project

The scope of a project defines what is to be achieved

budget

schedule

scope

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Project

Tasks are individual jobs that have to be completed

Milestones are tasks grouped together in logical blocks

Timelining is the process of allocating time and dates to project tasks and milestones

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Project Management Software

Simplifies the management of a project. It enables planning, monitoring and control of the

various tasks or resources that contribute to its success.

Activities scheduled to ensure efficiency. Plans output as PERT or Gantt chart.

Software packages Microsoft Project; CA SuperProject and Hoskyns Project

Managers Workbench.

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Timelining

Allocates time and dates to project tasks and milestones

Tasks are given names and duration and priority

Resources and costs for the task can also be assigned

Predecessor tasks are those which must be completed before another can begin

Concurrent tasks are ones which can run at the same time

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Resource Allocation

Each task must have a resource allocated to it. Eg, worker, equipment, tools, money

Software will allocate resources flexibly If a resource is needed elsewhere and moved

the software can adjust the schedule to suit and change the tasks accordingly

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Budget Control

Each resource is given a cost As resources are allocated to a project the

cost of the project can be calculated by the software

If the use of the resource changes eg. A sub-contractor works longer than originally planned, the costs of the project will change accordingly

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Project management charts

Graphically represent the project, its tasks and its progress

Gantt charts – project timelines Show the timeline at the top and a list of tasks

down the side Show dates of the start and end of tasks Show float – the amount of time a task may be

delayed before it affects the project finish date Network diagrams – PERT charts

Show task lists and resources using flow diagram graphics

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Optimisation

Projects can be optimised in three ways: To meet a time schedule

Tasks may be shortened Tasks may be overlapped

To meet a specific budget Use fewer tasks to reduce costs Shorten tasks that need resources

To meet the requirements of the project scope

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Critical path analysis

This is the process of identifying the critical path in a project plan – a series of tasks which begin when the project starts and finish when the project is completed.

These tasks must be completed on schedule It is necessary to identify this because any

delay in these tasks will cause a delay in the project

Modifying tasks that are not on the critical path may not affect the schedule

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Personal Information Management

Personal information management software (PIM) is a type of software application designed to help users organise random bits of information.

PIMs enable you to enter various kinds of textual notes such as reminders, lists and dates - and to link these bits of information together in useful ways.

Many PIMs also include calendar, scheduling, and calculator programs.

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Word Processing Software

Data objects characters, words paragraphs graphic objects.

Operations File menu – performed on whole files. Edit menu – cut, copy and paste. View menu – including headers and footers. Insert menu – page break, date/time, picture, etc. Tools menu – Mail merge, spelling and grammar, options and

customisation. Table menu – Insert table then table operations. Window and Help much as in other Windows applications.

Formatting Functions - Format menu – format text (an extensive menu).

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Desk Top Publishing

Standard File, Edit, View, Window, Help. Also Layout, Type, Element Utility.

most of the formatting functions here. Also a Toolbox.

Arrow and Text, basic drawing tools, and a colour palette.

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Desk Top Publishing

Advanced operations and functions Page Layout Headers and Footers Columns Multi-Page Layout Pagination Contents and Indexing Style Sheets Font Selection – Serif v San-Serif Colour use

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Desk Top Publishing

Inserting graphics Clip art Scanned pictures Digital camera

Formatting graphics How graphic behaves on

the page Square, tight, in front of,

behind.

A graphic formatted with Tight Layout means text flows around it.

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Web Authoring Software

Page structure Individual pages linked to form a site.

Incorporation of graphics Used to enhance appearance of the page. Graphics should be JPEG or GIF – size matters. Graphics linked to the page (not pasted in).

Presentation style Font selection limited, careful use of colour.

Navigation Pages linked together by Hyperlinks. Set Home Page, use arrows, bookmarks, history.

Templates Use style sheets to provide common fonts, colours, etc.

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Presentation Software

Page structure Individual slides follow a linear pattern, can be

hyperlinked. Incorporation of graphics

Used to enhance appearance of the page. Graphics inserted into slide, embedded in the page.

Presentation style Font selection vast, careful use of colour.

Navigation Move to next slide by click of mouse. Slides can be linked together by hyperlinks.

Templates Various pre-prepared templates available. Can make up own template as a slide master.

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Spreadsheet Software

Data Objects Cells and groups of cells Containing text, numbers, formulas.

Operations File menu – performed on whole files. Edit menu – cut, copy and paste. View menu – including headers and footers. Insert menu – rows, columns, worksheet, functions. Tools menu – spelling protection and macros. Data menu – Sort, filter and pivot tables. Window and Help much as in other Windows

applications. Foramtting Functions - Format menu – format cells

including numeric like currency as well as standard text formatting.

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Spreadsheet Software

Advanced functions Goal seeking

Automatically change values until desired result achieved. Forecasting

Calculates or predicts a future value by using existing values.

Look-up tables Can be used to insert text in a cell depending on a value. E.g. Grades or Pass/Fail from an exam mark.

Nested IF Using an IF function within an IF function.

Count Gets the number of entries in a range of cells (COUNTA for

text values). Macros

A sequence of instructions that can be used to automate a task.

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Project Management

Timelining Shows how and when a task needs to be completed

before the next one starts. Resource allocation

Software tools to help match up the materials, machines, people and money.

Maximising profits or achieving best quality. Gant and PERTT charts

Gant shows timings of each activity in a chart. PERTT shows relationship between activities.

Optimisation & Critical Path Analysis A mathematical process concerned with the optimisation

of time. Used for very complicated processes (managing a

production line).

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Personal Information Management (PIM)

Such as Microsoft Outlook: Contacts - can be thought of as a very comprehensive

address book.

Calendar - lets the user keep a diary of events, meetings, appointments and activities.

Task list - also called a “To-do list”. It keeps a list of all the tasks that require to be carried out and reminds the user when each task is due to be completed.

Communication – e-mail. Most PIM applications support sending, receiving and management of emails.

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Evaluation of Software

Range of Data Objects Are the objects appropriate to the software? e.g. graphics and audio files important for web design.

Range of Operations Appropriate to software – database should have good search

and sort and reporting. Formatting Functions

Look at fonts, style, graphics handling, paragraphing, text wrap, numerical formats, etc.

HCI Use of keyboard commands, menus, toolbars and icons.

Help and Tutorials Most packages have on-line help and tutorials. Often displayed as web pages but are NOT on the Internet.

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Example using Word Processing

Objects: characters, words, sentences,

paragraphs, document, section, footnote, column

header footer, line page text box, graphic, chart table, table of contents, index

Operations: create, insert, delete, search,

format align, search and replace,

spellcheck cut, copy, paste page numbering

Formatting Functions: change size, colour, font, style of

text line spacing, margins number of columns size of cells in table shading of cells

HCI: familiar toolbar shortcuts, eg ctrl P customize toolbars customize menu on-line help

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Implications of ICT

LI – you will learn about:

Social implications Legal implications Economic implications Ethical implications

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Social Implications

Ease of access and availability Information rich / poor Impact of IS on social structures Educational qualifications and ICT Knowledge workers Online retail Globalisation The impact on business of an IS-driven business model Identities and personas Privacy

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Globalisation

Technological changes Removal of trade barriers E-commerce advantages Customer services

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Ease of Access and Availability

Access to Internet at work and home. Digital satellite TV with all its services. Access to magazines, books & newspapers. Access in social lives – libraries and Internet

cafes. We expect Internet access on holiday and in

hotel rooms. Fact – There are more telephones in the city

of New York than the continent of Africa (and telephones give access to information).

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Information rich/Information poor

Information rich – They will: Have easy access to computers and electronic

communications. Get information and news from the Internet Buy the latest products through on-line shopping. Follow computer-based learning and skills training courses at

home. Look for jobs that are advertised solely on the Internet. Find it easier to get well-paid jobs and will enjoy a more

comfortable and secure life-style. Information poor – They will not:

Have easy access to computers. Have the IT skills and confidence to take part in teleshopping,

telebanking, Internet chat and news groups.

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Impact of IS on Social Structures

Families Feel more secure with two wages coming into the family. More mothers have careers and they may not have any

children till they are 30 or older. Is this change in family patterns partly caused by

computerisation? Are there any risks to the family and to society as a whole

from this development? Banks

Used to be paper based and only for middle and upper classes – for reasons of wealth and trust.

Use of IT means anyone can have a bank account – transaction processing and high levels of security.

Now widespread use of plastic money – credit and debit cards.

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Educational Qualifications and ICT

Educational qualifications Qualifications in Computing since the early 1960s, but

these were solely in universities and colleges. By mid-1980s computing was available in schools. By 1999 the two strands of software and hardware

divided into Computing and Information Systems. Now there are very many different courses offered at

degree and NC level, all related to ICT.

Need for ICT awareness ICT lets people vote by text on game shows, shop on the

Internet, use digital TV to order goods. Families send digital photos round the world. Almost all office jobs and professionals need to use ICT.

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Knowledge Workers

Knowledge worker A person who adds value by processing existing information to

create new information that could be used to define and solve problems.

Examples of knowledge workers Lawyers, doctors, diplomats, law-makers, software developers,

managers and bankers. People who use their intellect to convert their ideas into

products, services, or processes. Problem solvers rather than production workers. Use intellectual rather than manual skills to earn a living.

Core knowledge workers Those in specific ‘knowledge management’ roles. Knowledge managers, librarians, content managers, information

officers, knowledge analysts, etc. Everyone else

All the other knowledge workers – everyone engaged in some form of ‘knowledge work’.

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Online Retail

Internet shopping – the here and now. Young people much more likely to shop online than

older people. Young people spend on low-value goods (CDs,

DVDs, books and hair straighteners). Older people spend on high-value items like holidays

and make repeat grocery orders. Why Internet shop?

Goods can be difficult to buy locally. Goods are often much cheaper. National chains carry the same goods – the Internet

gives wider choice.

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Advantages and Disadvantages of Online Shopping

Consumer advantages More choice of goods online. Cheaper prices. Home delivery – Grocery shopping on-line very useful for

young families. Consumer disadvantages

Often long delivery times. Temptation to spend more money than intended. Social isolation (supermarkets are the new social scene).

On-line Retailer advantages Can reach a far wider audience. Doesn’t need expensive showrooms. Doesn’t need to employ trained sales staff.

On-line Retailer disadvantages Must spend money on a website with secure payment system. Must accept a high rate of returns. Never meets customers.

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The Changing Relationships between Retailer and Customer Shoppers are:

Becoming intolerant of goods being unavailable or out of stock. Very wary of over-pricing and long delivery times.

Consumers are: More willing to go online and order from different retailers. Willing to use a credit card to buy online Aware of the stress of waiting for goods bought when presents

don’t turn up on time. We still maintain relationships:

With local specialist shops. Customers who buy their groceries on-line and have the same

delivery driver every week often build up a good relationship with the driver.

In general: The two types of shopping can complement each other, opening

up new markets to specialist retailers and giving more choice to customers.

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Globalisation Globalisation

Is the growing integration of economies and societies around the world.

Has been a hotly debated topic in economics.

Positive aspects Rapid growth and poverty reduction in China, India, and

other countries that were poor 20 years ago.

Negative aspects It has increased inequality. It contributes to environmental degradation. It is most conspicuous in huge companies producing

products as diverse as oil, Cola and burgers.

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Impact of IS on Business and Societies

Multinational companies As diverse as Cola and Oil technology. Achieved globalisation through the use of information

systems. Originally a few large companies with mainframe

computers. Confined to major US networks and European cities.

Present-day examples of globalisation Smaller companies have global presence. Communicate via dedicated worldwide intranet. Publish reports, memos, etc & e-mail round the

world. Don’t need mainframe systems. Use web and mail servers to communicate.

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The Impact on Business of an IS-Driven

Business Model

Traditional businesses Have embraced IT with open arms. Have had IT forced upon them and adapted.

Modern IS-driven businesses Companies without High Street branches. Call centre based companies. Advertise heavily on TV. Much lower overheads than maintaining a network of

branches. Call centres can bring employment to smaller towns

rather than cities.

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Identities & Personas

Using the Internet as a medium of communication Change is having a dramatic impact on people’s lives. Ability to communicate with anyone regardless of age, sex,

location, background, etc. The Internet allows people to develop different identities and

personas when communicating. Can join chat rooms and newsgroups and offer an expert

opinion even when not an expert. Disadvantages

Criminal offence of “grooming” via the Internet. Parents wary of letting teenagers have use of the Internet. Fear of the Internet among certain groups in society.

Read about Jonathan Lebed and Marcus Arnold (either online or in the

notes).

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Privacy

Private communications across the Internet Should be secure and safe. We feel we have a right to this privacy. Websites we visit should be our business.

National security or criminal actions Terrorists use e-mail, mobile phones and the Internet to

communicate amongst themselves. Criminals use the Internet to host websites.

What about our privacy? Security organisations can scan all e-mail and mobile

phone messages looking for tell-tale phrases. FBI caught thousands of paedophiles across USA and

Europe via their IP address and phone number.

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Learning Intentions

Know about the different Acts of Parliament which affect ICT

Know the main principles of each Act Know when an Act should be applied

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I am looking for…

A PowerPoint presentation which: correctly describes the purpose of an Act of

Parliament affecting ICT Gives the main points or principles of the Act Details the rights of each party Details exemptions to the Act (if applicable) Details of penalties Describes situations when the Act might be

applied

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Legal Implications of Information Systems

The Data Protection Act 1998 Computer Misuse Act 1990 Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 The Regulation of Investigatory Powers

Act 2000 The Freedom of Information Act

(Scotland) 2002 Health and safety regulations Fair Use Policy (not legislation)

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The 1998 Data Protection Act

The 8 data protection principles Personal data shall be processed fairly and lawfully. Personal data shall be obtained only for lawful purposes. Personal data shall be adequate, relevant and not excessive. Personal data shall be accurate and kept up to date. Personal data shall not be kept for longer than is necessary. Personal data shall be processed in accordance with the rights

of data subjects. Appropriate measures shall be taken against unauthorised or

unlawful processing of data. Personal data shall not be transferred to a country outside

Europe.

In the UK, data must be registered with the Data Commissioner.

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Unconditional exemptions: Data related to national security. Data which by law has to be made public (e.g. the voters’

roll). Data held by the Police and National Health Service.

Conditional exemptions: Mailing lists (names and addresses). Data used for calculating and paying wages. Information used for club memberships. Data used by a data subject at home.

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Rights of data subjects: To see any personal data stored either electronically or

manually about them. The data controller may ask that a small fee be paid to cover

their costs in providing the data. To have their data corrected if it is inaccurate. To prevent their data being used by companies to send them

junk mail. Responsibilities of data users:

Have to register with the Data Protection Registrar if they wish to hold personal information about data subjects.

They must be willing to let data subjects see data held about them, and must amend any false data without charge.

Data users must also be willing to remove subjects’ names and addresses from mailing lists if asked to.

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Changes from the 1984 Act: The 1984 DPA had certain shortcomings:

It only covered data in electronic form. Companies could circumvent certain provisions. It had no European or worldwide dimension. There was no obligation on data users to tell the data

subjects that they held any data about them. The 1998 Act:

Covers the transmission of data in electronic form, which was not really an issue in 1984.

Harmonised the European Union Data Protection legislation.

It also made it a requirement of the Act to ask for the prior consent of data subjects to have data held about them, and it included paper-based records.

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Computer Misuse Act The Act contains three sections covering:

Unauthorised access to computer material Basic hacking – e.g. breaking into the school network,

locking a user out of the system, etc. Unauthorised access with intent to commit or

facilitate commission of further offences Where a computer system is used to help commit a crime.

Unauthorised modification of computer material Expert hacking – modification of data without permission. Also covers the transmission of viruses.

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Copyright, Designs & Patents Act

Software licencing Software can be legally installed on as many computers as

the licence allows. Shareware can be used legally for 30 days then either

paid for or deleted. Freeware can be downloaded and used free of charge.

Computer applications Databases can store vast amounts of copyright data. Act covers extracts from computer databases. Plagiarism to copy work directly from the Web. Music downloads must be paid for and copyright checked. Software piracy a crime - FAST.

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The Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000

Gives powers to: Police, Special Branch, GCHQ and MI5. Organisations are allowed to monitor employees, e-mail and

Web usage. It also provides powers to help combat the threat posed by rising

criminal use of strong encryption to try to break into electronic transactions.

The Act contains 5 parts It allows the authorities to monitor our personal e-mail and

Internet usage. So businesses, local authorities and government departments can and do monitor internal e-mails. They can also monitor Internet usage of staff, students and pupils.

It sounds very “Big Brother”. May enrage and disturb many people to realise this. But when terrorists can be anywhere in our society it may be a

relief to know that the authorities are taking active steps to catch them.

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The Freedom of Information Act (Scotland) 2002

From 1 January 2005 General right of public access to all types of 'recorded'

information held by public authorities. Sets out exemptions from that general right. Places a number of obligations on public authorities. The Act applies only to 'public authorities' and not to private

entities. Public authorities include Government departments, local

authorities and many other public bodies, and also schools, colleges and universities.

The Act is enforced by the Scottish Information Commissioner. Responsibilities of public authorities

Required to adopt and maintain a Publication Scheme. This sets out the classes of information available (e.g.

prospectuses, almanacs and websites); the manner in which they intend to publish the information; and whether a charge will be made for the information.

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Health and Safety Regulations

Covers physical aspects of work Seating: Is the seating comfortable and not causing strain? Lighting: Is the lighting adequate for the work?

Employee injuries, etc. Repetitive Strain Injury (RSI): Caused by doing the same

repetitive task too long (e.g. typing numbers all day on the number pad).

Radiation: Not so much of a problem now but the big old monitors emitted a lot of radiation and were very dangerous.

Eye Strain: Caused by spending too much time looking at the screen.

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Health and Safety Regulations (relating to Computer Equipment)

Requirements on employers:

To carry out a risk assessment. Employers with five or more employees need to record the

significant findings of the risk assessment. Risk assessment should be straightforward in a simple

workplace such as a typical office. To provide a safe and secure working environment.

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Economic Implications of ICT

The effect of new ICT on business Business and ICT Business costs Type of jobs and costs in ICT

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The Effect of New ICT on Business

Costs Investing in a new computerised system is very expensive. Staff training is a major cost.

Benefits Increased productivity (fewer staff). Increased functionality. Reports from the computerised system can save the

expense of professionals.

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Business and ICT

Competitive advantage Businesses want advantage over their competitors in the

same area of business who have not made a similar investment.

How to gain competitive advantage Employ a systems analyst. Complete a feasibility study covering technical aspects

and legal and economic feasibility. Huge leap of faith?

First paper-based mail order company had: to move over to a call centre and telephone ordering. to tie in with an “intelligent warehouse”. to do an exhaustive economic feasibility study to see if they

would gain a competitive advantage over their rivals.

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Business Costs

Initial costs Huge costs to set up a production line, just-in-time ordering,

or a call centre. Computers, software, robots, etc.

Running costs Staff required. Paper, ink cartridges, back-up media. Software licences. Maintenance contracts.

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Jobs in ICT

Starting positions

Programmer / analyst: Responsible for program development and modification.

Web administrator: Responsible for developing, managing and co-ordinating the posting of company material from departments onto the company website.

Network administrator: Responsible for the day-to-day management and maintenance of the network.

Salaries: In the region of £20,000 to £30,000 depending on the level of responsibility.

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Jobs in ICT

Advanced development positions Database manager: Responsible for identifying needs and

developing software accordingly. There is an increasing role for data mining and data warehousing experts in this field.

Project leader and senior analyst: Sometimes separate posts, sometimes a joint post the project leader will liaise with directors and top managers and translate ideas into computer related documentation.

IT manager: Generally in charge of the entire IT operation, staff and equipment.

Salaries: These senior posts can carry very high salaries with fringe benefits such as company cars.

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Ethical Implications of ICT

Netiquette Intellectual property rights (IPR) Censorship Regulating the content of the Internet Privacy and encryption Global citizenship

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Netiquette General points

Treat others the way you expect to be treated. Act within the law. Act responsibly and ethically.

Advice Do not type e-mails in capitals – shouting. Always fill in the subject field. Don’t abuse people – flaming. Always minimise or compress large files. Do not forward stupid jokes and chain letters. Do not forward hoax virus warnings.

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Intellectual Property Rights

Written work Knowledge is the principal source of competitive advantage. All original work published on the Internet has IPR. IPR applies also to software.

Music, etc IPR relates to the Internet sites where music can be

downloaded. Copyright material must usually be paid for as the publishers

of the music own the IPRs.

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Censorship On the Internet

Current UK censorship laws may not be adequate. Operators of questionable sites can host sites in

countries without such laws. Controls can hinder freedom of speech. Now if you visit an illegal site (even if it is legal in its

host country) you can be prosecuted. Should “spam” be illegal – freedom of speech? Visiting an illegal site by accident can be a valid

defence (e.g. if its description bears no resemblance to the actual contents).

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Regulating the content of the Internet Dubious material on the Internet

Conscious access needs to be made before ‘offensive’ or ‘unacceptable’ material is displayed.

Software can be installed that will monitor what accesses are made from which terminals, when and by whom.

Internal organisational procedures should deal with this type of situation.

Contravening legislation on the Internet Internet is no different from other media – it too can contravene

legislation on sensitive matters. Successful libel cases have been taken out against bulletin-

board operators for the materials published on their boards. Is current legislation enough? Presumably only time will tell. Future governments and public opinion will influence new

legislation.

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Privacy and Encryption

Privacy Text messages, mobile calls, e-mail and Internet usage can all

be monitored by security organisations. Criminals are using technology to try and intercept and read

personal information. If we are to trust online shopping, then the online vendors must

apply security to their site. Encryption

Ensures that a card number is encrypted when it leaves the shopper’s computer until it arrives safely at the vendor’s website.

PGP (Pretty Good Privacy) uses a 32-bit encryption procedure. PGP is unbreakable and is used by good online retailers who

will usually advertise the fact. They may also subscribe to a code of practice (like the Which?

Code for Internet Shopping) based on PGP and 32-bit encryption.

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ICT and Global Citizenship Study of citizenship

Gives students the knowledge, skills and understanding to play an effective role in society at local, national and international levels.

Global citizenship is generally thought of as being aware of global issues such as environment, commerce, politics and society in general.

Use of ICT in citizenship If a student is studying citizenship then the use of the

Internet means that information and discussion papers can be found and studied very easily.

Newsgroups exist on a wide range of citizenship topics – informed and serious discussions.

E-mail links with schools in foreign countries.

Using information

Technology

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