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Information SystemsInformation Systems

Using InformationUsing Information(Higher)(Higher)

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IntroductionIntroduction Data and informationData and information Organisational Information SystemsOrganisational Information Systems Information Management SoftwareInformation Management Software The implications of ICTThe implications of ICT

Outcome 1 Content Outcome 1 Content

Lesson 1 Lesson 1

Introduction to the course – 3 units, Introduction to the course – 3 units, coursework worth 30%.coursework worth 30%.

Learning intentionsLearning intentions Data, Information and Knowledge.Data, Information and Knowledge. Metadata.Metadata. Information Rich & Information PoorInformation Rich & Information Poor Categories of Information.Categories of Information.

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IntroductionIntroduction Information and knowledge are so important that society Information and knowledge are so important that society

can be divided up into two groups.can be divided up into two groups. Information richInformation rich - you have access to:-. - you have access to:-.

• many TV and radio channels.many TV and radio channels.• books, newspapers and journals.books, newspapers and journals.• computers and the World Wide Web.computers and the World Wide Web.

Information poor.Information poor.• tend to not have access to the Web and probably tend to not have access to the Web and probably

find it difficult to access relevant books and find it difficult to access relevant books and journals.journals.

If you are following this course you will probably be If you are following this course you will probably be information rich.information rich.

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Data and InformationData and Information The Differences Between Data and The Differences Between Data and

InformationInformation MetadataMetadata Categorisation of InformationCategorisation of Information Characteristics Which Affect the Quality Characteristics Which Affect the Quality

of Informationof Information

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Data and InformationData and Information DataData is raw unprocessed facts is raw unprocessed facts

and figures that have no context and figures that have no context or purposeful meaning.or purposeful meaning.

InformationInformation is processed data is processed data that has meaning and a context. that has meaning and a context.

Data

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Binary patterns on a disc

Information

£36.41 – bill for DVD’s

Processed Data – e.g. display on screen, Icons etc.

Quiz questionsQuiz questions

1.1. Using an example please explain the Using an example please explain the difference between data, information and difference between data, information and knowledge? (3)knowledge? (3)

2.2. Explain the difference between Explain the difference between information rich and information poor in information rich and information poor in terms of education and job opportunities. terms of education and job opportunities. (4) (4)

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KnowledgeKnowledge

Knowledge is gained from InformationKnowledge is gained from Information.. We gain knowledge from information and we We gain knowledge from information and we

use that information to make decisions.use that information to make decisions.

Explicit knowledgeExplicit knowledge is rules or process or is rules or process or decisions that can be recorded either on decisions that can be recorded either on paper or in an information system.paper or in an information system.

Tacit knowledgeTacit knowledge exists inside the minds of exists inside the minds of humans and is harder to record. It tends to be humans and is harder to record. It tends to be created from someone’s experiences, again a created from someone’s experiences, again a set of rules or experiences.set of rules or experiences.

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MetadataMetadata Metadata Metadata can be thought of as data that can be thought of as data that

describes data.describes data. Examples.Examples.

a data dictionary.a data dictionary. the card index system used by libraries pre the card index system used by libraries pre

computerisation, where each card told you the computerisation, where each card told you the author, title and where to find the book.author, title and where to find the book.

data about documents or files stored on the data about documents or files stored on the computer. The computer keeps a file on its hard computer. The computer keeps a file on its hard disk where it records information about each disk where it records information about each and every file on the computer. This includes and every file on the computer. This includes information such as when the file was created information such as when the file was created or modified; who created it; the size of the file; or modified; who created it; the size of the file; the file type it is. This master or directory file is the file type it is. This master or directory file is an example of metadata.an example of metadata.

KeywordsKeywords Data Information Knowledge Metadata Primary data Secondary data Internal sources External sources

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Formal Info Informal Info Quantitative Info Qualitative Info Strategic Level Tactical Operational

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Categorisation of InformationCategorisation of Information Information can be categorised under Information can be categorised under

several headings that allow us to several headings that allow us to determine the overall usefulness of it.determine the overall usefulness of it. MMain categoriesain categories

• Source – Primary, Secondary, Internal, Source – Primary, Secondary, Internal, External External

• Nature – Formal, InformalNature – Formal, Informal• Level – Strategic, Tactical, OperationalLevel – Strategic, Tactical, Operational• Time – Historic, Present & Future.Time – Historic, Present & Future.• Frequency – Continuous, periodicFrequency – Continuous, periodic• Use – Decision Making, PlanningUse – Decision Making, Planning• Form – Written, Aural and VisualForm – Written, Aural and Visual• Type - Detailed, sampled, aggregated.Type - Detailed, sampled, aggregated.

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List them allList them all

S-4S-4 N-2N-2 L-3L-3 T-3T-3 F-2F-2 U-2U-2 F-3F-3 T-3T-3

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Source – Primary or Source – Primary or SecondarySecondary

A primary sourceA primary source provides the data to an provides the data to an information system from an information system from an originaloriginal source source document. document.

• E.gE.g an invoice sent to a business or a cheque received. an invoice sent to a business or a cheque received. • sales figures for a range of goods for a tinned food sales figures for a range of goods for a tinned food

manufacturer for one week or manufacturer for one week or sseveral weeks and everal weeks and several locations.  several locations.  

A secondary sourceA secondary source of information is one that of information is one that provides information from a source other than the provides information from a source other than the original.original.

• E.g. an accounts book detailing invoices received, a E.g. an accounts book detailing invoices received, a bank statement that shows details of cheques paid in. bank statement that shows details of cheques paid in.

Where statistical information is gathered, such as in Where statistical information is gathered, such as in surveys or polls, the survey data or polling data is the surveys or polls, the survey data or polling data is the primary source and the conclusions reached from the primary source and the conclusions reached from the survey or the results of the poll are secondary sourcessurvey or the results of the poll are secondary sources

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Source – InternalSource – Internal InternalInternal - - All organisations generate a All organisations generate a

substantial amount of internal information substantial amount of internal information relating to their operation. relating to their operation. Examples of Internal sourcesExamples of Internal sources

• Marketing and sales information on Marketing and sales information on performance, revenues, markets shares, performance, revenues, markets shares, distribution channels etc.distribution channels etc.

• Production and operational information on Production and operational information on assets, quality, standards etc.assets, quality, standards etc.

• Financial information on profits, costs, Financial information on profits, costs, margins, cash flows, investments etc.margins, cash flows, investments etc.

• Internal documentation such as order forms, Internal documentation such as order forms, invoices, credit notes, procedural manuals.invoices, credit notes, procedural manuals.

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Source – ExternalSource – External ExternalExternal - - An external source of An external source of

information is concerned with what is information is concerned with what is happening beyond the boundaries of the happening beyond the boundaries of the organisation. organisation.

•census figures

•judgments on court cases

•legislation, for example the Data Protection Act

•trade journals

•professional publications

•industry standards

•Telephone directories

•computer users’ yearbook

•gallup & national opinion polls

•ordinance survey maps

•Financial services agencies such as Dunn and Bradstreet

•the Internet

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Source - NatureSource - Nature Formal CommunicationFormal Communication

information information presented presented in a structured and in a structured and consistent manner. consistent manner.

main methods main methods • the formal letter, properly structured reports, writing the formal letter, properly structured reports, writing

of training materials etc. in cogent, coherent, well-of training materials etc. in cogent, coherent, well-structured language. structured language. 

Informal CommunicationInformal Communication less well-structured information less well-structured information

• transmitted within an organization or between transmitted within an organization or between individuals usually who know each other. individuals usually who know each other.

Quantitative InformationQuantitative Information information information thatthat is represented numerically.   is represented numerically.  

Qualitative InformationQualitative Information information that is represented using words. information that is represented using words.

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Levels of InformationLevels of Information

STRATEGIC

TACTICAL

OPERATIONAL

Long-term decisions - both internal & external sources

Top level of management

Medium-term decisions - mostly internal but some external sources

Middle management

Day-to-day decisions - largely internal sources

Lowest level of staff

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TimeTime

HistoricHistoric IInformation gathered and stored over a period of time. nformation gathered and stored over a period of time. It allows decision makers to draw comparison between It allows decision makers to draw comparison between

previous and present activities. previous and present activities. Historic information can be used to identify trends over a Historic information can be used to identify trends over a

period of time.period of time. PresentPresent

IInformation created nformation created fromfrom activities during the current activities during the current work-window (day, week or month). work-window (day, week or month).

In real-time systems this information would be created In real-time systems this information would be created instantly from the data gathered (the temperature in a instantly from the data gathered (the temperature in a nuclear power plant turbine) giving accurate and up-to-nuclear power plant turbine) giving accurate and up-to-date information.date information.

FutureFuture IInformation that is created using present and historic nformation that is created using present and historic

information to try to predict the future activities and information to try to predict the future activities and events relating to the operation of an organisation. events relating to the operation of an organisation.

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Frequency of InformationFrequency of Information ContinuousContinuous

This is information created from data gathered several This is information created from data gathered several times a second. It is the type of information created by a times a second. It is the type of information created by a real-time system.  real-time system.  

PeriodicPeriodic IInformation created at regular time intervals (hourly, daily, nformation created at regular time intervals (hourly, daily,

monthly, annually).monthly, annually). AnnuallyAnnually - On an annual basis a company must - On an annual basis a company must submit its report and accounts to the shareholders.submit its report and accounts to the shareholders.

• MonthlyMonthly – Banks and credit card companies produce – Banks and credit card companies produce monthly statements for the majority of its customers.monthly statements for the majority of its customers.

• DailyDaily – A supermarket will make daily summaries of – A supermarket will make daily summaries of its sales and use the product information to update its its sales and use the product information to update its stock levels and reorder stock automatically.stock levels and reorder stock automatically.

• HourlyHourly – A busy call centre will often update totals for – A busy call centre will often update totals for each operator on an hourly basis and give the top each operator on an hourly basis and give the top employee for the hour some reward. employee for the hour some reward. 

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Uses of Information within Uses of Information within OrganisationsOrganisations

Planning Planning is the process of deciding, in is the process of deciding, in advance, what has to be done and how it is advance, what has to be done and how it is to be done. to be done. planning means decisions by management planning means decisions by management

about:about:• What is to be done in the futureWhat is to be done in the future• How to do itHow to do it• When to do itWhen to do it• Who is to do itWho is to do it

An An objectiveobjective is something that needs to be is something that needs to be achieved achieved

A A planplan contains the contains the activitiesactivities or or actionsactions required to achieve the required to achieve the objectiveobjective

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Uses of Information within Uses of Information within OrganisationsOrganisations

ControlControl is the monitoring and evaluation is the monitoring and evaluation of current progress against the steps of of current progress against the steps of a predefined plan or standard. a predefined plan or standard.

Operational levelOperational level the manager ‘s time will be spent on control the manager ‘s time will be spent on control

activities activities At higher levelsAt higher levels

planning and control are more closely linked, planning and control are more closely linked, with management being concerned with the with management being concerned with the monitoring of progress against the plan, monitoring of progress against the plan, assessing the suitability of the plan itself and assessing the suitability of the plan itself and predicting future conditions. predicting future conditions.

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Uses of Information within Uses of Information within OrganisationsOrganisations

Decision-makingDecision-making – – selecting an action or actions from those selecting an action or actions from those

possible based on the information available. possible based on the information available. involves determining and examining the involves determining and examining the

available actions and then selecting the available actions and then selecting the most appropriate actions in order to achieve most appropriate actions in order to achieve the required results.the required results.

an essential part of management and is an essential part of management and is carried out at all levels of management for carried out at all levels of management for all tasks.  all tasks.  

made up of four phases:made up of four phases:                 Finding occasions for decision makingFinding occasions for decision making                 Find possible courses of action Find possible courses of action                 Choosing among these courses of actionChoosing among these courses of action                 Evaluating past choicesEvaluating past choices

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Forms of InformationForms of Information WrittenWritten..

hand-written, word-processed, e-mails.hand-written, word-processed, e-mails. reports from different classes of software.reports from different classes of software. reports, memos and tables, receipts, invoices, statements, reports, memos and tables, receipts, invoices, statements,

summary accounting information.summary accounting information. AuralAural..

SpeechSpeech, , formal meetingsformal meetings, , informal meetings, talking on the informal meetings, talking on the phone and voice-mail messages.phone and voice-mail messages.

Employee Employee presentationpresentationss to a group where there may be use to a group where there may be use made of music and sound effects as well as speech.made of music and sound effects as well as speech.

VisualVisual.. pictures, charts and graphs.pictures, charts and graphs. Presentations via data projects, DVD’s etc.Presentations via data projects, DVD’s etc.

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Types of InformationTypes of Information

DetailedDetailed an inventory list showing stock levelsan inventory list showing stock levels actual costs to the penny of goodsactual costs to the penny of goods detailed operating instructions detailed operating instructions most often used at operational levelmost often used at operational level  

SampledSampled SSelected records from a databaseelected records from a database PProduct and sales summaries roduct and sales summaries in a supermarketin a supermarket often used at a tactical leveloften used at a tactical level (maybe strategic) (maybe strategic)  

AggregatedAggregated totals created when detailed information is summed totals created when detailed information is summed

together. together. details of purchases made by customers totaled details of purchases made by customers totaled

each montheach month

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Characteristics of InformationCharacteristics of Information

Availability / AccessibilityAvailability / Accessibility Information should be easy to obtain or Information should be easy to obtain or

accessaccess

AccuracyAccuracy Information needs to be accurate enough for Information needs to be accurate enough for

the use it is going to be put. the use it is going to be put.

Reliability or ObjectivityReliability or Objectivity Reliability deals with the truth of information Reliability deals with the truth of information

or the objectivity with which it is presented. or the objectivity with which it is presented.

Relevance / AppropriatenessRelevance / Appropriateness Information should be relevant to the purpose Information should be relevant to the purpose

for which it is required. It must be suitable.for which it is required. It must be suitable.

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Characteristics of InformationCharacteristics of Information Completeness.Completeness.

Information should contain all details required Information should contain all details required by the user.by the user.

Level of Detail / Conciseness.Level of Detail / Conciseness. Information should be in a form that is short Information should be in a form that is short

enough to allow for its examination and use. enough to allow for its examination and use. There should be no extraneous information.There should be no extraneous information.

Presentation.Presentation. Information can be more easily assimilated if it Information can be more easily assimilated if it

is is aestheticallyaesthetically pleasing. pleasing. Timing.Timing.

Information must be on time for the purpose for Information must be on time for the purpose for which it is required. Information received too which it is required. Information received too late will be irrelevant.late will be irrelevant.

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Characteristics – Value and Characteristics – Value and CostCost

Value.Value. The relative importance of information for decision-The relative importance of information for decision-

making can increase or decrease its value to an making can increase or decrease its value to an organisationorganisation..

CostCost.. Information should be available within set cost levels Information should be available within set cost levels

that may vary dependent on situation.that may vary dependent on situation. The Difference Between Value and Cost.The Difference Between Value and Cost.

Valuable information need not cost much.Valuable information need not cost much. Information costly to obtain may not have much value.Information costly to obtain may not have much value.

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Organisational Information SystemsOrganisational Information Systems

Categories of Information SystemsCategories of Information Systems Organisational Management SystemsOrganisational Management Systems

Concepts, functions & strategiesConcepts, functions & strategies Centralised databaseCentralised database Network StrategyNetwork Strategy Security StrategySecurity Strategy Backup StrategyBackup Strategy Upgrade StrategyUpgrade Strategy Software StrategySoftware Strategy Distributed databases, data Distributed databases, data

warehousing & data miningwarehousing & data mining

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Categories of Information Categories of Information SystemsSystems

Data Processing Systems (DPS) - Data Processing Systems (DPS) - OperationalOperational

Management Information Systems (MIS) - Management Information Systems (MIS) - TacticalTactical

Decision Support Systems (DSS) - Decision Support Systems (DSS) - TacticalTactical

Executive Information System (EIS) - Executive Information System (EIS) - StrategicStrategic

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Data Processing SystemsData Processing Systems

Transactional Processing SystemTransactional Processing System Deals with day to day transactionsDeals with day to day transactions Accountancy, Invoicing, Stock ControlAccountancy, Invoicing, Stock Control Items scanned by bar code readerItems scanned by bar code reader

DPS are the tools used at the Operational DPS are the tools used at the Operational level of an organisation.level of an organisation.

DPS involves use of a computerDPS involves use of a computer

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Management Information Management Information SystemsSystems

MIS converts data from internal and external MIS converts data from internal and external sources into information for managers.sources into information for managers.

The source of data for a MIS usually comes The source of data for a MIS usually comes from numerous databases. These databases from numerous databases. These databases are usually the data storage for Data are usually the data storage for Data Processing Systems.Processing Systems.

MIS summarise and report on the MIS summarise and report on the organisations basic operations.  .organisations basic operations.  .

MIS produce reports for managers MIS produce reports for managers interested in historic trends on a regular interested in historic trends on a regular basis.basis.

MIS operate at the tactical level.MIS operate at the tactical level.

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Decision Support SystemsDecision Support Systems A DSS provides information and models in a form to A DSS provides information and models in a form to

help tactical and strategic decision-making.help tactical and strategic decision-making. They support management decision-making by They support management decision-making by

integrating:integrating: Company performance data;Company performance data; Business rules in a decision table;Business rules in a decision table; Analytical tools and models for forecasting and Analytical tools and models for forecasting and

planning;planning; A simple user interface to query the system. .A simple user interface to query the system. .

DSS are useful when making ad-hoc, one off DSS are useful when making ad-hoc, one off decisions. decisions.

The source of data for a DSS tends to be a The source of data for a DSS tends to be a combination of summary information gathered from combination of summary information gathered from lower level DPS and MIS.lower level DPS and MIS.

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Executive Information SystemExecutive Information System An EIS provides senior managers with a system to assist in An EIS provides senior managers with a system to assist in

taking taking strategicstrategic and and tacticaltactical decisions. decisions. purpose - analyse, compare and identify trends to help the purpose - analyse, compare and identify trends to help the

strategic direction of the organisation.strategic direction of the organisation. EIS incorporate data about external events.EIS incorporate data about external events.

draw summarised information from internal MIS and DSS.draw summarised information from internal MIS and DSS. Systems filter, compress, and track critical data.Systems filter, compress, and track critical data. reduce time and effort required to obtain information useful reduce time and effort required to obtain information useful

to strategic management.to strategic management. employ advanced graphics software to provide highly employ advanced graphics software to provide highly

visual and easy-to-use representations of complex visual and easy-to-use representations of complex information and current trends.information and current trends.

they do not provide analytical models.they do not provide analytical models. EIS allow the user to look at specific data that has been EIS allow the user to look at specific data that has been

summarised from lower levels within the organisation and then summarised from lower levels within the organisation and then drill downdrill down to increase the level of detail - data warehouse to increase the level of detail - data warehouse analysis.analysis.

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Expert SystemsExpert Systems An expert system is a computer program that tries to emulate An expert system is a computer program that tries to emulate

human reasoning. It does this by combining the knowledge of human reasoning. It does this by combining the knowledge of human experts and then, following a set of rules, draws human experts and then, following a set of rules, draws inferences. .inferences. .

An expert system is made up of three parts.An expert system is made up of three parts. a a knowledge baseknowledge base stores all of the facts, rules and information stores all of the facts, rules and information

needed to represent the knowledge of the expert.needed to represent the knowledge of the expert. an an inference engineinference engine interprets the rules and facts to find interprets the rules and facts to find

solutions to user queries.solutions to user queries. a a user interfaceuser interface allows new knowledge to be entered and the allows new knowledge to be entered and the

system queried.system queried. Reasons for Expert Systems.Reasons for Expert Systems.

To store information in an active form as organisational To store information in an active form as organisational memory.memory.

To create a mechanism that is not subject to human feelings, To create a mechanism that is not subject to human feelings, such as fatigue and worry.such as fatigue and worry.

To generate solutions to specific problems that are too To generate solutions to specific problems that are too substantial and complex to be analysed by human beings in a substantial and complex to be analysed by human beings in a short period of time.short period of time.

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Interrelationships Between Interrelationships Between Information SystemsInformation Systems

EIS

MIS DSS

DPS

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Organisational Information System Organisational Information System

Management StrategiesManagement Strategies Network Strategy.Network Strategy.

Addresses Data Transfer, Distribution, Access & Addresses Data Transfer, Distribution, Access & Security, Facilities, Storage.Security, Facilities, Storage.

Security Strategy.Security Strategy. Deals with access to the network and keeping Deals with access to the network and keeping

unauthorised people out.unauthorised people out. Backup & Recovery Strategy.Backup & Recovery Strategy.

To ensure data is not accidentally erased and can be To ensure data is not accidentally erased and can be recovered once backed up.recovered once backed up.

Upgrade Strategy.Upgrade Strategy. To plan new hardware and software and ensure To plan new hardware and software and ensure

everything new will work properly.everything new will work properly. Software Strategy.Software Strategy.

Choose between bespoke and standard packages.Choose between bespoke and standard packages.

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Centralised DatabaseCentralised Database A very large and powerful databaseA very large and powerful database - at the heart - at the heart

of an organisationof an organisation.. Database program is called the database engine Database program is called the database engine

and it saves and indexes files in tables and and it saves and indexes files in tables and manages the relationships between the tables.manages the relationships between the tables.

information can be found fairly easily by querying information can be found fairly easily by querying the centralised database.the centralised database.

Usually a multi-user or network system is used Usually a multi-user or network system is used which means that any user on the system can which means that any user on the system can have access to the database.have access to the database.

Advantages to the database being centralisedAdvantages to the database being centralised.. much easier to organise, edit, update and back-much easier to organise, edit, update and back-

up the data.up the data. Communications are easier.Communications are easier. no real disadvantages to a centralised database.no real disadvantages to a centralised database.

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Network StrategyNetwork StrategyNetworks.Networks.

LANLAN (Local Area Network) – in one building. (Local Area Network) – in one building.• Device Sharing.Device Sharing.• Software Sharing.Software Sharing.• Data Sharing.Data Sharing.• Communication.Communication.

WANWAN (Wide Area Network) – over a city, (Wide Area Network) – over a city, country or the wide world.country or the wide world.• Uses telecommunications.Uses telecommunications.

Distributed Networks.Distributed Networks.• LAN with several servers, data accessible from LAN with several servers, data accessible from

all over the network.all over the network.

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Network HardwareNetwork HardwareClient-Server NetworkClient-Server Network..

Central server stores data files and Central server stores data files and log-in details.log-in details.

Peer to Peer networkPeer to Peer network..No central server, all stations equal.No central server, all stations equal.

Cheaper, data less secure.Cheaper, data less secure.

workstation

workstation

workstation

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Network HardwareNetwork Hardware

Network Adapter Card.Network Adapter Card. Built-in to the computer.Built-in to the computer. Allows the computer to send and receive data around Allows the computer to send and receive data around

the network.the network.

Structured CablingStructured Cabling.. Cables made from copper wire, co-axial cable, fibre Cables made from copper wire, co-axial cable, fibre

optic cable and twisted pairs.optic cable and twisted pairs. Twisted pair Ethernet most Common.Twisted pair Ethernet most Common. Fibre Optic used to link over longer distances and to Fibre Optic used to link over longer distances and to

carry a very high bandwidth.carry a very high bandwidth.

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Network SoftwareNetwork Software Network Operating System. – 2 partsNetwork Operating System. – 2 parts

the version that runs on the server.the version that runs on the server.• needed to control which users and needed to control which users and

workstations can access the server,keep workstations can access the server,keep each user’s data secure. control the flow of each user’s data secure. control the flow of information around the network.information around the network.

• It is also responsible for file and data It is also responsible for file and data sharing, communications between users and sharing, communications between users and hardware and peripheral sharing.hardware and peripheral sharing.

the version that runs on the personal the version that runs on the personal computers to turn them into network stations.computers to turn them into network stations.• Each workstation (computer) connected to Each workstation (computer) connected to

the network needs the Network Operating the network needs the Network Operating System installed before it can connect System installed before it can connect successfully to the network facilities.successfully to the network facilities.

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Network SoftwareNetwork Software

Network Auditing and Monitoring Network Auditing and Monitoring Software.Software. This software keeps a track of network This software keeps a track of network

activity.activity. It records user activity and workstation It records user activity and workstation

activity.activity. In a commercial organisation this sort of In a commercial organisation this sort of

auditing and monitoring can be used to detect auditing and monitoring can be used to detect fraud and suspicious activity.fraud and suspicious activity.

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Security StrategySecurity Strategy

Security, Integrity and Privacy of Security, Integrity and Privacy of Data.Data.

Data SecurityData Security means keeping data means keeping data safe from physical loss.safe from physical loss.

Data IntegrityData Integrity means the correctness means the correctness of the stored data.of the stored data.

Data PrivacyData Privacy means keeping data means keeping data secret so that unauthorised users secret so that unauthorised users cannot access it.cannot access it.

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The Security Risks to Information The Security Risks to Information SystemsSystems

A A virusvirus piece of programming code that causes some piece of programming code that causes some

unexpected and usually undesirable event in a unexpected and usually undesirable event in a computer system. computer system.

Viruses can be transmittedViruses can be transmitted• as attachments to an e-mail as attachments to an e-mail • as a download, as a download, • on a disk being used for something else. on a disk being used for something else.

Some viruses take effect as soon as their code Some viruses take effect as soon as their code takes residence in a system takes residence in a system

others lie dormant until something triggers their others lie dormant until something triggers their code to be executed by the computer. code to be executed by the computer.

Viruses can be extremely harmful and may erase Viruses can be extremely harmful and may erase data or require the reformatting of a hard disk data or require the reformatting of a hard disk once they have been removedonce they have been removed

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The Security Risks to Information The Security Risks to Information SystemsSystems

HackingHacking is gaining unauthorised access to a computer is gaining unauthorised access to a computer

information system.information system. the offence is maliciously altering data or the offence is maliciously altering data or

stealing information.stealing information. Denial of serviceDenial of service

This involves flooding an organisation’s Internet This involves flooding an organisation’s Internet server with a surprisingly large amount of server with a surprisingly large amount of requests for information (traffic). requests for information (traffic).

This increase in traffic overloads the server, This increase in traffic overloads the server, which is incapable of dealing with the backlog which is incapable of dealing with the backlog of requests, results in the server crashing or of requests, results in the server crashing or needing to be taken offline to resolve the needing to be taken offline to resolve the problem.problem.

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Policies and Procedures for Policies and Procedures for Implementing Data SecurityImplementing Data Security

Codes of conductCodes of conduct apply to users of an information system. apply to users of an information system. Most organisations insist that users follow a set of Most organisations insist that users follow a set of

rules for using their system. rules for using their system. Employees have to sign a code of conduct as part of Employees have to sign a code of conduct as part of

their conditions of employment. their conditions of employment. A code of conduct can cover basic professional A code of conduct can cover basic professional

competences as well as obvious statements like competences as well as obvious statements like “Never disclose your password to anybody else and “Never disclose your password to anybody else and change your password every week.”change your password every week.”

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Policies and Procedures for Policies and Procedures for Implementing Data SecurityImplementing Data Security

BCS Code of EthicsBCS Code of Ethics Covers:- Covers:- Professional conduct Professional conduct Professional integrity Professional integrity Public interest Public interest Fidelity Fidelity Technical competenceTechnical competence

Password guidelinesPassword guidelines Minimum length of 5 charactersMinimum length of 5 characters Must consist of letters and numbersMust consist of letters and numbers Must not contain any wordsMust not contain any words Cannot be the same as the previous Cannot be the same as the previous

passwordpassword Cannot use easily guessed strings of letters Cannot use easily guessed strings of letters

or numbers (e.g. 123456 and abcdef)or numbers (e.g. 123456 and abcdef)

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Implementing Data SecurityImplementing Data Security Virus Protection.Virus Protection.

Prevention.Prevention.• Prevent users from using floppy disks.Prevent users from using floppy disks.• Scan incoming e-mails for viruses.Scan incoming e-mails for viruses.• Do not open mail or attachments from Do not open mail or attachments from

someone you don’t recognise.someone you don’t recognise. DetectionDetection..

• Install Anti-virus software.Install Anti-virus software.• Update it regularly to detect new viruses.Update it regularly to detect new viruses.

Repair.Repair.• Anti-virus s/w can quarantine a virus.Anti-virus s/w can quarantine a virus.• Can delete the virus code from an infected Can delete the virus code from an infected

file.file.

4949

Implementing Data SecurityImplementing Data Security Firewalls.Firewalls.

Device or software used to prevent Device or software used to prevent unauthorised access to a network.unauthorised access to a network.

Placed between the server and the Internet Placed between the server and the Internet connection (router).connection (router).

Can block sections of the network.Can block sections of the network. Only allows authorised users to join the Only allows authorised users to join the

network (dial-in).network (dial-in). Encryption.Encryption.

Used by on-line retailers to keep card Used by on-line retailers to keep card details secure.details secure.

Need it to gain trust of purchasers.Need it to gain trust of purchasers. 32 bit encryption almost impossible to crack.32 bit encryption almost impossible to crack.

5050

Implementing Data SecurityImplementing Data Security

Access RightsAccess Rights.. ReadRead – allows users to read files. – allows users to read files.

• Allows files to be made read only.Allows files to be made read only. WriteWrite – allows users to write (save) files. – allows users to write (save) files. CreateCreate – allows users to create new files. – allows users to create new files. EraseErase – allows users to erase files. – allows users to erase files. ModifyModify – allows users to modify files. – allows users to modify files. Groups of users may haveGroups of users may have..

• Read/write/create/erase on home drive.Read/write/create/erase on home drive.• Read only on shared areas.Read only on shared areas.

5151

Backup StrategyBackup Strategy

Every computer user should have a strategy in Every computer user should have a strategy in place to backup their data.place to backup their data.

Backing up is the process of making a copy of data Backing up is the process of making a copy of data stored on fixed hard disks to some other media.stored on fixed hard disks to some other media.

This can be tape, external portable hard disks, This can be tape, external portable hard disks, writeable CD-ROM or DVD.writeable CD-ROM or DVD.

The purpose of backing up data is to ensure that The purpose of backing up data is to ensure that the most recent copy of the data can be recovered the most recent copy of the data can be recovered and restored in the event of data loss.and restored in the event of data loss.

Reasons for loss.Reasons for loss. electronic disasters such as a disk head.electronic disasters such as a disk head. files being accidentally erased,files being accidentally erased, the disk being attacked by a virus.the disk being attacked by a virus.

5252

Archive, Recovery and Storage Archive, Recovery and Storage

MethodsMethods ArchiveArchive..

The process of copying data from hard disk The process of copying data from hard disk drives to tape or other media for long-term drives to tape or other media for long-term storage.storage.

Data verification.Data verification. it is important to check that the data stored on it is important to check that the data stored on

the backup media can be recovered.the backup media can be recovered. Storage Methods.Storage Methods.

DAT tape on built in drives on servers.DAT tape on built in drives on servers. USB removable hard drives.USB removable hard drives.

Frequency and Version ControlFrequency and Version Control.. Full backup (weekly) and incremental daily.Full backup (weekly) and incremental daily. Grandfather, father, son method.Grandfather, father, son method.

5353

Upgrade StrategyUpgrade Strategy

Future Proofing.Future Proofing. making sure that a system has a reasonable making sure that a system has a reasonable

life and does not need to be totally replaced life and does not need to be totally replaced too soontoo soon..

Hardware & software compatibilityHardware & software compatibility• will older s/w work with new operating systems etc. will older s/w work with new operating systems etc. • will older h/w work with newer equipment (e.g. will older h/w work with newer equipment (e.g.

printers with computers).printers with computers).

5454

Upgrade StrategyUpgrade Strategy Integration Testing.Integration Testing.

Are the peripheral devices compatible with the hardware and Are the peripheral devices compatible with the hardware and operating system?operating system?

Does the network software support the hardware and operating Does the network software support the hardware and operating system?system?

Is the application software compatible with the operating Is the application software compatible with the operating system and computer?system and computer?

Is the hardware compatible with the operating system?Is the hardware compatible with the operating system? Legacy Systems.Legacy Systems.

Old information systems running on out of date hardware and Old information systems running on out of date hardware and operating systems are often referred to as legacy systems.operating systems are often referred to as legacy systems.

problems with legacy systems lead to many computer problems with legacy systems lead to many computer companies developing software that conformed to Open companies developing software that conformed to Open Standards.Standards.

Emulation.Emulation. allows access to greater range of applications that might not be allows access to greater range of applications that might not be

available on the given hardware platform.available on the given hardware platform. The use of an emulator allows data to be transferred between The use of an emulator allows data to be transferred between

platforms.platforms.

5555

Software StrategySoftware Strategy

Needs to take account of the issues :-Needs to take account of the issues :- evaluating the software for use, using several evaluating the software for use, using several

key criteriakey criteria the user support for the softwarethe user support for the software the training supplied for end users of the the training supplied for end users of the

softwaresoftware the upgrade path of the softwarethe upgrade path of the software

5656

Software EvaluationSoftware Evaluation

Software EvaluationSoftware Evaluation should cover. should cover. FunctionalityFunctionality - This refers not only to the number of - This refers not only to the number of

features an application program has but the number features an application program has but the number of useable features it has. Also the tasks to be of useable features it has. Also the tasks to be completed need to be evaluated against the features completed need to be evaluated against the features in the software.in the software.

PerformancePerformance – The performance of software can be – The performance of software can be measured by several different criteria depending on measured by several different criteria depending on the type of software.the type of software.

5757

Criteria for Evaluation of SoftwareCriteria for Evaluation of Software SpeedSpeed..

Measured against Measured against benchmarks.benchmarks.

Usability.Usability. Look and feel, Look and feel,

choices in menus choices in menus etc.etc.

Compatibility.Compatibility. With operating With operating

system.system. Data Migration.Data Migration.

Translating from one Translating from one format to another.format to another.

ReliabilityReliability.. Does the job it is Does the job it is

supposed to.supposed to. Resource Resource

Requirements.Requirements. Has the computer Has the computer

enough RAM, big enough RAM, big enough disks etc.enough disks etc.

Portability.Portability. Will it work on Will it work on

different systems.different systems. Support.Support.

Assistance from Assistance from vendors or writers.vendors or writers.

5858

Training in Using SoftwareTraining in Using Software On-the-job.On-the-job.

A new user needs to be introduced to the software.A new user needs to be introduced to the software. working through a tutorial to become familiar with the working through a tutorial to become familiar with the

functions of the software.functions of the software. online tutorial program or tutorial manual that teaches the online tutorial program or tutorial manual that teaches the

user about the software.user about the software. In House.In House.

This is when small groups of staff, within the company This is when small groups of staff, within the company receive a training course delivered by IT staff.receive a training course delivered by IT staff.

  External.External. Offered by specialist training providers for popular Offered by specialist training providers for popular

application software, such as software created by application software, such as software created by Microsoft, Macromedia and Adobe.Microsoft, Macromedia and Adobe.

5959

OISOIS

DPSDPS DSSDSS MISMIS EISEIS

6060

User SupportUser Support ManualsManuals..

Installation GuideInstallation Guide – gives advice on how to install – gives advice on how to install the software and how to configure it to work with the software and how to configure it to work with various hardware.various hardware.

Tutorial GuideTutorial Guide – gives step-by-step instructions on – gives step-by-step instructions on how to use the software.how to use the software.

Reference ManualReference Manual – Is an indexed guide detailing all – Is an indexed guide detailing all the functions of the software.the functions of the software.

On-line Help.On-line Help. Explains to the user what each feature of the software Explains to the user what each feature of the software

does. It is a part of the program situated on the does. It is a part of the program situated on the computer and is computer and is notnot on the Internet. on the Internet.

On-line Tutorials.On-line Tutorials. Step by step instructions on the computer Step by step instructions on the computer notnot on the on the

Internet.Internet.

6161

Explain the FollowingExplain the Following

1.1. Issues Affecting Decisions to Upgrade Issues Affecting Decisions to Upgrade SoftwareSoftware

2.2. User SupportUser Support

3.3. Criteria for Evaluation of SoftwareCriteria for Evaluation of Software

4.4. Training in Using SoftwareTraining in Using Software

5.5. Explain the 4 Organisational Information Explain the 4 Organisational Information SystemsSystems

6262

User SupportUser Support

Help Desk.Help Desk. Internal (end user) and external (software vendors).Internal (end user) and external (software vendors).

NewsgroupsNewsgroups.. A Newsgroup allows users of a piece of software to A Newsgroup allows users of a piece of software to

post email messages to the wider user community.post email messages to the wider user community. FAQs.FAQs.

This stands for Frequently Asked Questions. It is This stands for Frequently Asked Questions. It is usually a file that contains a list of commonly asked usually a file that contains a list of commonly asked user queries about a piece of software.user queries about a piece of software.

6363

Issues Affecting Decisions to Upgrade Issues Affecting Decisions to Upgrade SoftwareSoftware

Lack of functionalityLack of functionality.. Business changes, new technology outdates Business changes, new technology outdates

software.software. Hardware Incompatibility.Hardware Incompatibility.

Upgraded computers do not support old software.Upgraded computers do not support old software. Software IncompatibilitySoftware Incompatibility..

New operating system will not run old software.New operating system will not run old software. Perfecting the Software.Perfecting the Software.

Removing bugs and improving it – will existing data Removing bugs and improving it – will existing data work with it.work with it.

6464

Centralised and Distributed DatabasesCentralised and Distributed Databases Centralised database.Centralised database.

All the data is held on a central computer- All the data is held on a central computer- mainframe or server.mainframe or server.

Advantages.Advantages.• far easier to manage and control if it is only far easier to manage and control if it is only

in one location.in one location.• far easier to back up when it is centralised.far easier to back up when it is centralised.

Distributed Database.Distributed Database. Consists of two or more files located at different Consists of two or more files located at different

sites on a computer network.sites on a computer network. different users can access it without interfering different users can access it without interfering

with one another. with one another. The DBMS must synchronise the scattered The DBMS must synchronise the scattered

databases to make sure they all have consistent databases to make sure they all have consistent data.data.

6565

Data WarehousingData Warehousing Data warehousing.Data warehousing.

Historical data transactions are separated Historical data transactions are separated out from the business.out from the business.

The data is re-organised in such a way as to The data is re-organised in such a way as to allow it to be analysed, the newly structured allow it to be analysed, the newly structured data is then queried and the results of the data is then queried and the results of the query are reported.query are reported.

Data warehousing could be used as a Data warehousing could be used as a predictive tool, to indicate what should be predictive tool, to indicate what should be done in the future.done in the future.

The main use of data warehousing is as a The main use of data warehousing is as a review tool, to monitor the effects of review tool, to monitor the effects of previous operational decisions made in the previous operational decisions made in the course of a business.course of a business.

6666

Data MiningData Mining Data mining.Data mining.

"The nontrivial extraction of implicit, previously "The nontrivial extraction of implicit, previously unknown, and potentially useful information from unknown, and potentially useful information from data".data".

It uses machine learning, statistical and It uses machine learning, statistical and visualisation techniques to discover and present visualisation techniques to discover and present knowledge in a form, which is easily knowledge in a form, which is easily comprehensible to humans.comprehensible to humans.

Data mining is the analysis of data and the use of Data mining is the analysis of data and the use of software techniques for finding patterns and software techniques for finding patterns and regularities in sets of data. The computer is regularities in sets of data. The computer is responsible for finding the patterns by identifying responsible for finding the patterns by identifying the underlying rules and features in the data.the underlying rules and features in the data.

The mining analogy is that large volumes of data The mining analogy is that large volumes of data are sifted in an attempt to find something are sifted in an attempt to find something worthwhile (in a mining operation large amounts of worthwhile (in a mining operation large amounts of low grade materials are sifted through in order to low grade materials are sifted through in order to find something of value.)find something of value.)

6767

Information Management SoftwareInformation Management Software

Classes of SoftwareClasses of Software Print Media, On-line Media, Spreadsheet, Project Print Media, On-line Media, Spreadsheet, Project

Management, PIMManagement, PIM

Word processing / DTP softwareWord processing / DTP software Presentation / Web Authoring s/wPresentation / Web Authoring s/w Spreadsheet softwareSpreadsheet software Project Management SoftwareProject Management Software Personal Information Management SoftwarePersonal Information Management Software Evaluation of SoftwareEvaluation of Software

6868

Classes of SoftwareClasses of Software

There are There are five classes of softwarefive classes of software:-:- Presenting Information for Print mediaPresenting Information for Print media Presenting Information for On-Line MediaPresenting Information for On-Line Media Spreadsheet (data handling)Spreadsheet (data handling) Project ManagementProject Management Personal Information ManagementPersonal Information Management

6969

Presenting Information for Print MediaPresenting Information for Print Media MostMost applications are designed to produce applications are designed to produce

printed output except for graphics and web printed output except for graphics and web authoring which tend to be more visual.authoring which tend to be more visual.

OOnly Word Processing (WP) and Desk Top nly Word Processing (WP) and Desk Top Publishing are classed in this group.Publishing are classed in this group.

DDifferences between WP ifferences between WP and DTP.and DTP. WP isWP is used for generating text, while DTP used for generating text, while DTP

tends to use pre-prepared text.tends to use pre-prepared text. DTP manages to handle text and graphics far DTP manages to handle text and graphics far

more easily.more easily. WP can deal with multi-page documents but WP can deal with multi-page documents but

DTP handles multi-page documents far better.DTP handles multi-page documents far better. DTP files tend to be very large especially if real DTP files tend to be very large especially if real

pictures are used.pictures are used.

7070

Presenting Information for On-line MediaPresenting Information for On-line Media

Presentations.Presentations. large growth in the use of large growth in the use of s/ws/w to create presentations. to create presentations. cost of data projectorscost of data projectors has has droppeddropped.. Presentation Presentation s/ws/w allow allowss the user to create a slide the user to create a slide

showshow.. Slides can hold a variety of multimedia objects,Slides can hold a variety of multimedia objects, Slides can be sequenced Slides can be sequenced - - jump to using hyperlinks.jump to using hyperlinks. PowerPoint most popular package.PowerPoint most popular package.

Web AuthoringWeb Authoring.. software allows users to easily make up web pages.software allows users to easily make up web pages. drag and drop objects onto the screen.drag and drop objects onto the screen. ClickClick on icons to link graphics and media files.on icons to link graphics and media files. deal easily with deal easily with hyper-hyper-linking.linking. FileFile written written as HTML or XTML code. as HTML or XTML code.

7171

Data Handling – SpreadsheetData Handling – Spreadsheet EducationEducation..

record and analyse marks and resultsrecord and analyse marks and results keeping track of budgets and financial information,keeping track of budgets and financial information,

Home situation.Home situation. keep track of household expenditure, track share values and keep track of household expenditure, track share values and

even keep track of contacts.even keep track of contacts. very good at formatting output, used for printing address very good at formatting output, used for printing address

labels.labels. Financial ApplicationFinancial Application..

cash flow forecast, statement of accounts, invoices, sales cash flow forecast, statement of accounts, invoices, sales orders, purchase orders etc.orders, purchase orders etc.

Modelling and SimulationModelling and Simulation.. predicting a new situation from existing one - “what-if? predicting a new situation from existing one - “what-if?

analysis.”analysis.” Statistical Analysis.Statistical Analysis.

E.g. analysis of numerical information. Two examples are E.g. analysis of numerical information. Two examples are Descriptive Statistics and Goal Seeking.Descriptive Statistics and Goal Seeking.

Macro Use.Macro Use. A Macro is a sequence of instructions that can be used to A Macro is a sequence of instructions that can be used to

automate complex or repetitive tasks.automate complex or repetitive tasks.

7272

Project ManagementProject Management TheThe software software..

used to help manage a project.used to help manage a project. planning, monitoring and control of the various planning, monitoring and control of the various

activities or resources that contribute to its activities or resources that contribute to its success.success.

Project management.Project management. identifying the activities that need to be carried out identifying the activities that need to be carried out

to complete the project.to complete the project. For each activity - duration; cost; resources; For each activity - duration; cost; resources;

employees; inter-relationships - all need to be employees; inter-relationships - all need to be assignedassigned..

Activities scheduled to ensure efficiency.Activities scheduled to ensure efficiency. Plan output as PERT or Gantt chart.Plan output as PERT or Gantt chart.

Software Packages.Software Packages. Microsoft Project; CA SuperProject and Hoskyns Microsoft Project; CA SuperProject and Hoskyns

Project Managers Workbench.Project Managers Workbench.

7373

Personal Information ManagementPersonal Information Management

Personal information management software Personal information management software (PIM)(PIM) type of software application designed to help users type of software application designed to help users

organise random bits of information. organise random bits of information.

PIMs enable you to enter various kinds of textual PIMs enable you to enter various kinds of textual notesnotes reminders, lists, and dates - and to link these bits of reminders, lists, and dates - and to link these bits of

information together in useful ways. information together in useful ways. Many PIMs also include calendar, scheduling, and Many PIMs also include calendar, scheduling, and

calculator programs.calculator programs.

7474

Word Processing SoftwareWord Processing Software Data Objects.Data Objects. characters, wordscharacters, words paragraphsparagraphs , graphic objects., graphic objects.

Operations.Operations.• File MenuFile Menu – performed on whole files. – performed on whole files.• Edit MenuEdit Menu – cut, copy and paste. – cut, copy and paste.• View MenuView Menu – including headers and footers. – including headers and footers.• Insert MenuInsert Menu – Page break, date/time, picture etc. – Page break, date/time, picture etc.• Format MenuFormat Menu – format text (an extensive menu). – format text (an extensive menu).• Tools MenuTools Menu – Mail merge, spelling and grammar, – Mail merge, spelling and grammar,

options and customisation.options and customisation.• Table MenuTable Menu – Insert table then table operations. – Insert table then table operations.• WindowWindow and and HelpHelp much as in other Windows much as in other Windows

applications.applications.• Formatting functions are found mostly in the format Formatting functions are found mostly in the format

menu and also on the icons on the menu line with menu and also on the icons on the menu line with B B II UU on it.on it.

7575

Desk Top PublishingDesk Top Publishing

Standard File, Edit, View, Window, Help.Standard File, Edit, View, Window, Help. Also Layout, Type, Element Utility.Also Layout, Type, Element Utility.

most of the formatting functions here.most of the formatting functions here. Also a Toolbox.Also a Toolbox.

Arrow and Text , basic drawing tools, and a Arrow and Text , basic drawing tools, and a colour palette.colour palette.

7676

Desk Top PublishingDesk Top Publishing

Advanced operations and functionsAdvanced operations and functions Page LayoutPage Layout Headers and Footers Headers and Footers Columns Columns Multi-Page Layout Multi-Page Layout Pagination Pagination Contents and Indexing Contents and Indexing Style SheetsStyle Sheets Font Selection – Serif v San-SerifFont Selection – Serif v San-Serif Colour useColour use

7777

Desk Top PublishingDesk Top Publishing

Inserting Graphics.Inserting Graphics. Clip Art.Clip Art. Scanned pictures.Scanned pictures. Digital Camera.Digital Camera.

Formatting Graphics.Formatting Graphics. How graphic behaves How graphic behaves

on the page.on the page. Square, Tight, in front Square, Tight, in front

of, behind.of, behind.A graphic formatted with Tight Layout means text flows around it.

7878

Web Authoring SoftwareWeb Authoring Software Page Structure.Page Structure.

Individual pages linked to form a site.Individual pages linked to form a site. Incorporation of GraphicsIncorporation of Graphics..

Used to enhance appearance of the page.Used to enhance appearance of the page. Graphics should be JPEG or GIF – size matters.Graphics should be JPEG or GIF – size matters. Graphics linked to the page (not pasted in).Graphics linked to the page (not pasted in).

Presentation StylePresentation Style.. Font selection limited, careful use of colour.Font selection limited, careful use of colour.

Navigation.Navigation. Pages linked together by Hyperlinks.Pages linked together by Hyperlinks. Set Home Page, use arrows, bookmarks, history.Set Home Page, use arrows, bookmarks, history.

Templates.Templates. Use style sheets to provide common fonts, colours Use style sheets to provide common fonts, colours

etc.etc.

7979

Presentation SoftwarePresentation Software Page Structure.Page Structure.

Individual slides follow a linear pattern, can be Individual slides follow a linear pattern, can be hyperlinked.hyperlinked.

Incorporation of Graphics.Incorporation of Graphics. Used to enhance appearance of the page.Used to enhance appearance of the page. Graphics inserted into slide, embedded in the Graphics inserted into slide, embedded in the

page.page. Presentation Style.Presentation Style.

Font selection vast, careful use of colour Font selection vast, careful use of colour Navigation.Navigation.

Move to next slide by click of mouse.Move to next slide by click of mouse. Slides can be linked together by Hyperlinks.Slides can be linked together by Hyperlinks.

Templates.Templates. Various pre-prepared templates available.Various pre-prepared templates available. Can make up own template as a slide master.Can make up own template as a slide master.

8080

Spreadsheet SoftwareSpreadsheet Software Data ObjectsData Objects..

Cells and groups of cells Cells and groups of cells containing text, numbers, formulas.containing text, numbers, formulas.

Operations.Operations.• File MenuFile Menu – performed on whole files. – performed on whole files.• Edit MenuEdit Menu – cut, copy and paste. – cut, copy and paste.• View MenuView Menu – including headers and footers. – including headers and footers.• Insert MenuInsert Menu – rows, columns, worksheet, functions. – rows, columns, worksheet, functions.• Format MenuFormat Menu – format cells including numeric like – format cells including numeric like

currency as well as standard text formatting.currency as well as standard text formatting.• Tools MenuTools Menu – spelling protection and macros. – spelling protection and macros.• Data MenuData Menu – Sort, filter and pivot tables. – Sort, filter and pivot tables.• WindowWindow and and HelpHelp much as in other Windows much as in other Windows

applications.applications.• Formatting functions are found mostly in the format menu Formatting functions are found mostly in the format menu

and also on the icons on the menu line with and also on the icons on the menu line with B B II UU on it. on it.

8181

Spreadsheet SoftwareSpreadsheet Software Advanced Functions.Advanced Functions.

Goal Seeking.Goal Seeking.• Automatically change values until desired result Automatically change values until desired result

achieved.achieved. Forecasting.Forecasting.

• Calculates or predicts a future value by using existing Calculates or predicts a future value by using existing values.values.

Look-up Tables.Look-up Tables.• Can be used to insert text in a cell depending on a value.Can be used to insert text in a cell depending on a value.• E.g. Grades or Pass/Fail from an exam mark.E.g. Grades or Pass/Fail from an exam mark.

Nested If.Nested If.• Using an IF function within an If function.Using an IF function within an If function.

Count.Count.• Gets the number of entries in a range of cells (COUNTA Gets the number of entries in a range of cells (COUNTA

for text values).for text values). Macros.Macros.

• A sequence of instructions that can be used to automate A sequence of instructions that can be used to automate a task.a task.

8282

Project ManagementProject Management

TimeliningTimelining.. Shows how and when a task needs to be completed Shows how and when a task needs to be completed

before the next one starts.before the next one starts. Resource Allocation.Resource Allocation.

Software tools to help match up the materials, machine, Software tools to help match up the materials, machine, people and money.people and money.

Maximising profits or achieve best quality.Maximising profits or achieve best quality. Gant and PERTT chartsGant and PERTT charts..

Gant shows timings of each activity in a chart.Gant shows timings of each activity in a chart. PERTT shows relationship between activities.PERTT shows relationship between activities.

Optimisation & Critical Path Analysis.Optimisation & Critical Path Analysis. A mathematical process concerned with the optimisation A mathematical process concerned with the optimisation

of time.of time. Used for very complicated processes (managing a Used for very complicated processes (managing a

production line).production line).

8383

Personal Information Management (PIM)Personal Information Management (PIM)

Such as Microsoft Outlook.Such as Microsoft Outlook. ContactsContacts - can be thought of as a very - can be thought of as a very

comprehensive address book.comprehensive address book. CalendarCalendar - lets the user keep a diary of - lets the user keep a diary of

events, meetings, appointments and activities.events, meetings, appointments and activities. Task ListTask List - This is also called a “To-do list”. It - This is also called a “To-do list”. It

keeps a list of all the tasks that require to be keeps a list of all the tasks that require to be carried out and reminds the user when each carried out and reminds the user when each task is due to be completed.task is due to be completed.

CommunicationCommunication - email; Most PIM - email; Most PIM applications support sending, receiving and applications support sending, receiving and management of emails.management of emails.

8484

Implications of ICTImplications of ICT

Social ImplicationsSocial Implications Legal ImplicationsLegal Implications Economic ImplicationsEconomic Implications Ethical ImplicationsEthical Implications

8585

Social ImplicationsSocial Implications

Globalisation and Impact of IS on Social Globalisation and Impact of IS on Social StructuresStructures

Online retailOnline retail GlobalisationGlobalisation The Impact on Business of an IS Driven The Impact on Business of an IS Driven

Business ModelBusiness Model Identities and PersonasIdentities and Personas PrivacyPrivacy

8686

Social ImplicationsSocial Implications

Ease of access and availability of Ease of access and availability of informationinformation

Explosion of the internet had lead to any Explosion of the internet had lead to any piece of information being available piece of information being available anywhereanywhere

8787

Information Rich / PoorInformation Rich / Poor

Developed or developing countriesDeveloped or developing countries Access to the internet and the skills to use Access to the internet and the skills to use

it.it. A well educated, information rich A well educated, information rich

population will help grow the economy.population will help grow the economy.

8888

Family and social lifeFamily and social life

Easily keep in touch with friends/family Easily keep in touch with friends/family who could live anywhere.who could live anywhere.

Less face to face contactLess face to face contact Children vulnerable onlineChildren vulnerable online Privacy – difficult to keep info private.Privacy – difficult to keep info private. Playing games – could be addictive. Playing games – could be addictive.

8989

QualificationsQualifications

Thousands of coursesThousands of courses Many IT related jobsMany IT related jobs Business ComputingBusiness Computing Software EngineeringSoftware Engineering Game DesignGame Design

9090

Knowledge WorkersKnowledge Workers

Someone who uses information in their Someone who uses information in their daily tasks in their job, adding and creating daily tasks in their job, adding and creating new information.new information.

Lawyer, Doctor, Managers, Journalist, Lawyer, Doctor, Managers, Journalist, TeacherTeacher

9191

Adv of Online retailAdv of Online retail

Company does not need to pay for rent etc Company does not need to pay for rent etc of their stores.of their stores.

Shop from homeShop from home Greater choice onlineGreater choice online Comparisons EasyComparisons Easy Save on staff costsSave on staff costs Wider range of customers, sell 24/7Wider range of customers, sell 24/7

9292

Disadv of online retailDisadv of online retail

No face to face contactNo face to face contact Pay for domain namePay for domain name Pay for deliveryPay for delivery Take what you get for foodTake what you get for food Don’t see/touch/try on the productDon’t see/touch/try on the product

9393

GlobalisationGlobalisation

Increased trade means a wider choice of Increased trade means a wider choice of productsproducts

Big brands dominate offering the same Big brands dominate offering the same products worldwideproducts worldwide

9494

Identities, Personas, AvatarsIdentities, Personas, Avatars

People can hide their true identityPeople can hide their true identity Avatar – cartoon picture of a personAvatar – cartoon picture of a person

9595

Personal PrivacyPersonal Privacy

Far less private Far less private It’s easy to find out information about It’s easy to find out information about

anyoneanyone Social Network sites.Social Network sites.

9696

The Changing Relationships between The Changing Relationships between

Retailer and CustomerRetailer and Customer Shoppers are:-.Shoppers are:-.

Becoming intolerant of goods being unavailable or out of Becoming intolerant of goods being unavailable or out of stock.stock.

Very wary of over-pricing and long delivery times.Very wary of over-pricing and long delivery times. Consumers are:-.Consumers are:-.

More willing to go on-line and order from different retailers.More willing to go on-line and order from different retailers. Need a credit card to buy on-line.Need a credit card to buy on-line. Stress of waiting for goods bought as presents not turning up.Stress of waiting for goods bought as presents not turning up.

We still maintain relationships:We still maintain relationships: With local specialist shops.With local specialist shops. Customers who buy their groceries on-line and have the same Customers who buy their groceries on-line and have the same

delivery driver every week often build up a good relationship delivery driver every week often build up a good relationship with the driver.with the driver.

In General.In General. The two types of shopping can complement each other, The two types of shopping can complement each other,

opening up new markets to specialist retailers and giving more opening up new markets to specialist retailers and giving more choice to customers.choice to customers.

9797

GlobalisationGlobalisation

Globalisation.Globalisation. The growing integration of economies and societies The growing integration of economies and societies

around the world.around the world. Has been hotly debated topic in economics.Has been hotly debated topic in economics. Positive Aspects of Globalisation.Positive Aspects of Globalisation.

• Rapid growth and poverty reduction in China, India, Rapid growth and poverty reduction in China, India, and other countries that were poor 20 years ago.and other countries that were poor 20 years ago.

Negative Aspects of Globalisation.Negative Aspects of Globalisation.• It has increased inequality.It has increased inequality.• Contributed to environmental degradation.Contributed to environmental degradation.• Confined to huge companies as divers as Oil, Cola. Confined to huge companies as divers as Oil, Cola.

And burgers.And burgers.

9898

Impact of IS on Business and SocietiesImpact of IS on Business and Societies

Impact of IS on Business and Societies.Impact of IS on Business and Societies. Multinational companies.Multinational companies.

• As diverse as Cola and Oil technology.As diverse as Cola and Oil technology.• achieved globalisation through the use of information achieved globalisation through the use of information

systems.systems.• Originally a few large companies with mainframe Originally a few large companies with mainframe

computers.computers.• Confined to major USA and European cities.Confined to major USA and European cities.

Present day examples of Globalisation.Present day examples of Globalisation.• Smaller companies have global presence.Smaller companies have global presence.• Communicate via dedicated worldwide intranet.Communicate via dedicated worldwide intranet.• Publish reports, memos etc & e:mail round the world.Publish reports, memos etc & e:mail round the world.• Don’t need mainframe systems.Don’t need mainframe systems.• Use web and mail servers to communicate.Use web and mail servers to communicate.

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The Impact on Business of an IS The Impact on Business of an IS

Driven Business ModelDriven Business Model Traditional Businesses.Traditional Businesses.

Have embraced IT with open arms.Have embraced IT with open arms. Have had IT forced upon them and adapted.Have had IT forced upon them and adapted.

Modern IS driven businesses.Modern IS driven businesses. Companies without High Street branches.Companies without High Street branches. Call centre based companies.Call centre based companies. Advertise heavily on TV.Advertise heavily on TV. Much cheaper than running a network of branches.Much cheaper than running a network of branches. Call centres can bring employment to towns rather Call centres can bring employment to towns rather

than cities.than cities.

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Identities & PersonasIdentities & Personas

Using the Internet as a medium of Using the Internet as a medium of communication.communication.

Change is having a dramatic impact on people’s lives.Change is having a dramatic impact on people’s lives. Ability to communicate with anyone regardless of age, sex, Ability to communicate with anyone regardless of age, sex,

location, background etc.location, background etc. The Internet allows people to develop different identities The Internet allows people to develop different identities

and personas when communicating.and personas when communicating. Can join chat rooms and newsgroups and offer an expert Can join chat rooms and newsgroups and offer an expert

opinion even when not an expert.opinion even when not an expert. Disadvantages.Disadvantages.

Criminal offence of “grooming” via the Internet.Criminal offence of “grooming” via the Internet. Parents wary of letting teenagers have use of the Internet.Parents wary of letting teenagers have use of the Internet. Fear of the Internet among certain groups in society.Fear of the Internet among certain groups in society.

Read about.Read about. Jonathan Lebed and Marcus Arnold either online or in the Jonathan Lebed and Marcus Arnold either online or in the

notes.notes.

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PrivacyPrivacy

Private Communications across the Private Communications across the Internet.Internet.

Should be secure and safe.Should be secure and safe. Feel we have a right to this privacy.Feel we have a right to this privacy. Web sites we visit should be our business.Web sites we visit should be our business.

National Security or Criminal Actions.National Security or Criminal Actions. Terrorists use e:mail, mobile phones and the Internet Terrorists use e:mail, mobile phones and the Internet

to communicate amongst themselves.to communicate amongst themselves. Criminals use the Internet to host web sites.Criminals use the Internet to host web sites.

What about our privacy?What about our privacy? Security organisations can scan all e:mail and mobile Security organisations can scan all e:mail and mobile

phone messages looking for tell tale phrases.phone messages looking for tell tale phrases. FBI caught thousands of paedophiles across USA FBI caught thousands of paedophiles across USA

and Europe via their IP address and phone number.and Europe via their IP address and phone number.

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Legal Implications of Information Legal Implications of Information SystemsSystems

The Data Protection Act 1998The Data Protection Act 1998 Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 The Regulation of Investigatory Powers The Regulation of Investigatory Powers

Act 2000Act 2000 The Freedom of Information Act (Scotland) The Freedom of Information Act (Scotland)

20022002 Health and safety RegulationsHealth and safety Regulations

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The 1998 Data Protection ActThe 1998 Data Protection Act The 8 Data Protection Principles.The 8 Data Protection Principles.

Personal data shall be processed fairly and lawfully.Personal data shall be processed fairly and lawfully. Personal data shall be obtained only for lawful purposes,Personal data shall be obtained only for lawful purposes, Personal data shall be adequate, relevant and not excessive.Personal data shall be adequate, relevant and not excessive. Personal data shall be accurate and, kept up to date.Personal data shall be accurate and, kept up to date. Personal data shall not be kept for longer than is necessary.Personal data shall not be kept for longer than is necessary. Personal data shall be processed in accordance with the Personal data shall be processed in accordance with the

rights of data subjects.rights of data subjects. Appropriate measures shall be taken against unauthorised or Appropriate measures shall be taken against unauthorised or

unlawful processing of dataunlawful processing of data.. Personal data shall not be transferred to a country outside Personal data shall not be transferred to a country outside

EuropeEurope.. Data must be registered with the Data Commissioner. Data must be registered with the Data Commissioner.

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The 1998 Data protection ActThe 1998 Data protection Act

Unconditional exemptions.Unconditional exemptions. Data related to National Security.Data related to National Security. Data which by law has to be made public (e.g. voters’ Data which by law has to be made public (e.g. voters’

roll).roll). Data held by the Police and National Health Service.Data held by the Police and National Health Service.

  conditional exemptions.conditional exemptions. mailing lists (names and addresses).mailing lists (names and addresses). data used for calculating and paying wages.data used for calculating and paying wages. information used for club memberships.information used for club memberships. data used by a data subject at home.data used by a data subject at home.

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The 1998 Data Protection ActThe 1998 Data Protection Act

Rights of Data Subjects.Rights of Data Subjects. TTo see any personal data stored either electronically or o see any personal data stored either electronically or

manually about them.manually about them. The Data controller may ask that a small fee be paid to The Data controller may ask that a small fee be paid to

cover their costs in providing the data.cover their costs in providing the data. TTo have their data corrected if it is inaccurate.o have their data corrected if it is inaccurate. TTo prevent their data being used by companies to send o prevent their data being used by companies to send

them junk mail.them junk mail. Responsibilities of Data Users.Responsibilities of Data Users.

Have to register with the Data Protection Registrar if they Have to register with the Data Protection Registrar if they wished to hold personal information about data subjects.wished to hold personal information about data subjects.

They must be willing to let data subjects see data held They must be willing to let data subjects see data held about them, but must amend any false data without about them, but must amend any false data without charge.charge.

Data Users must also be willing to remove subjects’ Data Users must also be willing to remove subjects’ names and addresses from mailing lists if asked to.names and addresses from mailing lists if asked to.

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The 1998 Data Protection ActThe 1998 Data Protection Act

Changes From 1984 Act.Changes From 1984 Act. The 1984 DPA had certain shortcomings.The 1984 DPA had certain shortcomings.

• only covered data in electronic form.only covered data in electronic form.• companies could circumvent certain provisions.companies could circumvent certain provisions.• It had no European or worldwide dimension.It had no European or worldwide dimension.• there was no obligation on any data user to tell the there was no obligation on any data user to tell the

data subject that they held any data about them.data subject that they held any data about them. The 1998 Act.The 1998 Act.

• covers the transmission of data in electronic form, covers the transmission of data in electronic form, which was not really an issue in 1984.which was not really an issue in 1984.

• harmonised the European Union Data Protection harmonised the European Union Data Protection legislation.legislation.

• It also made it a requirement of the Act to ask for It also made it a requirement of the Act to ask for the prior consent of data subjects to have data the prior consent of data subjects to have data held about them, and included paper based held about them, and included paper based records.records.

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Copyright, Designs & Patents ActCopyright, Designs & Patents Act Software Licensing.Software Licensing.

Software can be legally installed on as many Software can be legally installed on as many computers as the licence allows.computers as the licence allows.

Shareware can be used legally for 30 days then Shareware can be used legally for 30 days then either paid for or deleted.either paid for or deleted.

Freeware can be downloaded and used free of Freeware can be downloaded and used free of charge.charge.

Computer Applications.Computer Applications. Databases can store vast amounts of copyright Databases can store vast amounts of copyright

data.data. Act covers extracts from computer databases.Act covers extracts from computer databases. Plagiarism to copy work directly from the Web.Plagiarism to copy work directly from the Web. Music downloads must be paid for and copyright Music downloads must be paid for and copyright

checked.checked. Software piracy a crime - FAST.Software piracy a crime - FAST.

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The Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000The Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000 Gives powers to:-.Gives powers to:-.

Police, Special Branch, GCHQ and MI5.Police, Special Branch, GCHQ and MI5. It allows organisations to monitor employees, e-mail and It allows organisations to monitor employees, e-mail and

Web usage.Web usage. It also provides powers to help combat the threat posed It also provides powers to help combat the threat posed

by rising criminal use of strong encryption to try to break by rising criminal use of strong encryption to try to break into electronic transactions.into electronic transactions.

The Act contains 5 parts.The Act contains 5 parts. allows the authorities to monitor our personal e-mail and allows the authorities to monitor our personal e-mail and

Internet usage.Internet usage. businesses, local authorities and government businesses, local authorities and government

departments can and do monitor internal e-mails,departments can and do monitor internal e-mails, monitor Internet usage of staff, students and pupils.monitor Internet usage of staff, students and pupils.

sounds very “Big Brother.”sounds very “Big Brother.” May enrage and disturb many people to realise this.May enrage and disturb many people to realise this. When terrorists can be anywhere in our society it may be When terrorists can be anywhere in our society it may be

a relief to know that the authorities are taking such steps a relief to know that the authorities are taking such steps to catch them.to catch them.

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The Freedom of Information Act (Scotland) 2002The Freedom of Information Act (Scotland) 2002 From 1From 1stst January 2005. January 2005.

General right of public access to all types of 'recorded' General right of public access to all types of 'recorded' information held by public authorities.information held by public authorities.

sets out exemptions from that general right.sets out exemptions from that general right. places a number of obligations on public authorities.places a number of obligations on public authorities. The Act applies only to 'public authorities' and not to The Act applies only to 'public authorities' and not to

private entities.private entities. Public authorities include Government Departments, Public authorities include Government Departments,

local authorities and many other public bodies, and also local authorities and many other public bodies, and also schools, colleges and universities.schools, colleges and universities.

The Act will be enforced by the Scottish Information The Act will be enforced by the Scottish Information Commissioner.Commissioner.

Responsibilities of public authorities.Responsibilities of public authorities. Required to adopt and maintain a Publication Scheme.Required to adopt and maintain a Publication Scheme. Sets out the classes of information available (eg. Sets out the classes of information available (eg.

prospectuses, almanacs and websites).prospectuses, almanacs and websites). the manner in which they intend to publish the the manner in which they intend to publish the

information,information, whether a charge will be made for the information.whether a charge will be made for the information.

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Health and Safety RegulationsHealth and Safety Regulations

Requirement on employers.Requirement on employers. Carry out a Carry out a risk assessmentrisk assessment.. Employers with five or more employees need Employers with five or more employees need

to record the significant findings of the risk to record the significant findings of the risk assessment.assessment.

Risk assessment should be straightforward in Risk assessment should be straightforward in a simple workplace such as a typical office.a simple workplace such as a typical office.

Provide a safe and secure working Provide a safe and secure working environment.environment.

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Economic Implications of ICTEconomic Implications of ICT

The Effect of New ICT on Business.The Effect of New ICT on Business. Business and ICT.Business and ICT. Business Costs.Business Costs.

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The Effect of New ICT on BusinessThe Effect of New ICT on Business

Costs.Costs. Investing in a new computerised system is Investing in a new computerised system is

very expensive.very expensive. Staff training a major cost.Staff training a major cost.

BenefitsBenefits.. Increased productivity (fewer staff).Increased productivity (fewer staff). Increased functionality.Increased functionality. Reports from the computerised system can Reports from the computerised system can

save the expense of professionals.save the expense of professionals.

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Business and ICTBusiness and ICT Competitive advantage.Competitive advantage.

Business wants advantage compared to their Business wants advantage compared to their competitors in the same area of business who competitors in the same area of business who have not made a similar investment.have not made a similar investment.

How to gain Competitive AdvantageHow to gain Competitive Advantage.. Employ a systems analyst.Employ a systems analyst. Complete a feasibility study covering.Complete a feasibility study covering.

• technical aspects and legal and economic feasibility.technical aspects and legal and economic feasibility. Huge Leap of Faith?Huge Leap of Faith?

First paper based mail order company.First paper based mail order company.• to move over to a call centre and telephone ordering.to move over to a call centre and telephone ordering.• tie in with an “intelligent warehouse”.tie in with an “intelligent warehouse”.• exhaustive economic feasibility study to see if they exhaustive economic feasibility study to see if they

would gain a competitive advantage over their rivals.would gain a competitive advantage over their rivals.• they did, but was it an even bigger leap of faith to be they did, but was it an even bigger leap of faith to be

the first of these companies to introduce Internet the first of these companies to introduce Internet Ordering?Ordering?

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Business CostsBusiness Costs

Initial Costs.Initial Costs. Huge costs to set up a production line, just-in-Huge costs to set up a production line, just-in-

time ordering or a call centre.time ordering or a call centre. Computers, Software, Robots etc.Computers, Software, Robots etc.

Running Costs.Running Costs. Staff required.Staff required. Paper, Ink cartridges, back-up media.Paper, Ink cartridges, back-up media. Software licences.Software licences. Maintenance contracts.Maintenance contracts.

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Ethical Implications of ICTEthical Implications of ICT

Censorship Censorship Regulating The Content of The Regulating The Content of The

InternetInternet Privacy and EncryptionPrivacy and Encryption Global CitizenshipGlobal Citizenship

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CensorshipCensorship

On The Internet.On The Internet. Current censorship laws may not be adequate.Current censorship laws may not be adequate. Operators of questionable sites can host sites in Operators of questionable sites can host sites in

countries without such laws.countries without such laws. Controls can hinder freedom of speech.Controls can hinder freedom of speech. Now if you visit an illegal site (even if it is legal where Now if you visit an illegal site (even if it is legal where

it is published) you can be prosecuted.it is published) you can be prosecuted. Should “Spam” be illegal – freedom of speech.Should “Spam” be illegal – freedom of speech. Visiting an illegal site by accident can be a valid Visiting an illegal site by accident can be a valid

defence (description bears no resemblance to the defence (description bears no resemblance to the actual contents).actual contents).

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Regulating the content of the Regulating the content of the InternetInternet

Dubious Material On the Internet.Dubious Material On the Internet. Conscious access needs to be made before ‘offensive’ or Conscious access needs to be made before ‘offensive’ or

‘unacceptable’ material is displayed.‘unacceptable’ material is displayed. Software can be installed that will monitor what accesses Software can be installed that will monitor what accesses

are made from which terminals, when and by whom.are made from which terminals, when and by whom. Internal organisational procedures should deal with this Internal organisational procedures should deal with this

type of situation.type of situation. Contravening Legislation on the Internet.Contravening Legislation on the Internet.

Internet is no different from other media- can contravene Internet is no different from other media- can contravene legislation on sensitive matters.legislation on sensitive matters.

Successful libel cases taken out against bulletin board Successful libel cases taken out against bulletin board operators for the materials that were published on their operators for the materials that were published on their boards.boards.

Is current legislation enough? Presumably only time will tell.Is current legislation enough? Presumably only time will tell. Future governments and public opinion will influence new Future governments and public opinion will influence new

legislation.legislation.

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Privacy and EncryptionPrivacy and Encryption Privacy.Privacy.

Text messages, mobile calls, e-mail and Internet usage Text messages, mobile calls, e-mail and Internet usage can all be monitored by security organisations,can all be monitored by security organisations,

Criminals are using technology to try and intercept and Criminals are using technology to try and intercept and read personal information.read personal information.

If we are to trust on-line shopping, then the on-line If we are to trust on-line shopping, then the on-line vendors must apply security to their site.vendors must apply security to their site.

Encryption.Encryption. Ensure that the card number is encrypted when it leaves Ensure that the card number is encrypted when it leaves

the shopper’s computer until it arrives safely at the the shopper’s computer until it arrives safely at the vendor’s web site.vendor’s web site.

PGP, Pretty Good Privacy, which uses a 32-bit PGP, Pretty Good Privacy, which uses a 32-bit encryption procedure.encryption procedure.

This is unbreakable and is used by good on-line retailers This is unbreakable and is used by good on-line retailers who will usually advertise the fact.who will usually advertise the fact.

They may also subscribe to a code of practice (like the They may also subscribe to a code of practice (like the Which? Code for Internet shopping) that is based on Which? Code for Internet shopping) that is based on PGP and 32-bit encryption.PGP and 32-bit encryption.

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ICT and Global CitizenshipICT and Global Citizenship

Study of Citizenship.Study of Citizenship. Gives pupils and students the knowledge, skills and Gives pupils and students the knowledge, skills and

understanding to play an effective role in society at understanding to play an effective role in society at local, national and international levels.local, national and international levels.

Global citizenship is generally though of as being Global citizenship is generally though of as being aware of global issues such as environment, aware of global issues such as environment, commerce, politics and society in general.commerce, politics and society in general.

Use of ICT in Citizenship.Use of ICT in Citizenship. If a pupil or student is studying citizenship then the If a pupil or student is studying citizenship then the

use of the Internet means that information and use of the Internet means that information and discussion papers can be found and studied very discussion papers can be found and studied very easily.easily.

newsgroups exist on a wide range of citizenship newsgroups exist on a wide range of citizenship topics – informed and serious discussions.topics – informed and serious discussions.

e-mail links with schools in foreign countries.e-mail links with schools in foreign countries.