Using coloured pens, match up the defence mechanism with ...Bobo Doll Experiment. Experimental...

Refresh your memory!

Using coloured pens, match up the defence

mechanism with its description and example!

Activity

Cognitive Perspective

An approach to psychology that focuses

on the ways in which we perceive, store

and respond to information.

Humanistic

Sociocultural

Cognitive

Biological

Behavioural

Psychodynamic

Notably, the cognitive perspective represents the most dominant approach to psychological research today!

Social Learning TheoryAlbert Bandura (1977)

Albert Bandura agrees with the behaviourist learning theoriests

of classical conditioning and operant conditioning. However,

he adds two important points: Mediational

learning

Processes?1. Mediational processes occur between stimuli and

responses

2. Behaviour is learned from the environment through

the process of observational learning

Observational Learning

Children observe the people around them behaving in various ways.

Individuals that are observed are called Models

Social

Learning

Theory

• Parents within the family • Characters on children’s TV shows• Friends within their peer groups• Teachers at schools

The Bobo Doll Experiment

The studySample:

Bandura, Ross and Ross (1961) tested 36 boys and 36 girls from the Stanford University Nursery School aged between 3 to 6 years old.

The researchers tested the children for how aggressive they were by observing the children in the nursery and judged their aggressive behaviour on several 5-point rating scales.

It was then possible to match the children in each group so that they had similar levels of aggression in their everyday behaviour. This is an example of a matched pair design

Bobo Doll

Experiment

The study (continuous)

Method:

The lab experiment was used in which the independent

variable (type of model) was manipulated in three conditions:

Aggressive model shown to 24 children

Non-aggressive model shown to 24 children

No model (control group) – 24 children

Bobo Doll

Experiment

The matched pair design model

72 children

24 aggressive role model

Female model

6 boys

6 girls

Male model

6 boys

6 girls

24 non-aggressive role

model

Female model

6 boys

6 girls

Male model

6 boys

6 girls

24 control group

[no model]

Experimental Stages

The experiment took place at three stages:

1. The modelling stage

2. The aggressive arousal stage

3. The test for delayed imitation stage Bobo Doll

Experiment

Experimental Stages

24 children watched a male or a female model behaving

aggressively towards a toy called a ‘Bobo doll’. The adults

attached the Bobo doll in a distinctive manner – they used a hammer in some cases and in other they threw the doll in the

air and shouted ‘Pow Boom’.

Another 24 children were exposed to non-aggressive model who played in a quite and subdued manner for 10 minutes

(playing in a tinker toy and ignoring the bobo-doll).

The final 24 children (12 boys and 12 girls) were not exposed to

any model. They remain in a room full of toys and they plaued there independenty

Stage 1:

Modelling

Experimental Stages

At this stage, all children (including the control group) were

subjected to ‘mild aggression arousal’. Each child was

(separately) take to a room with relatively attractive toys.

As soon as the child started playing with these toys, the

experimental told the child that these were the

experimental favourite and thus has decided to reserve them for other children!

Stage 2:

Aggressive

Arousal

The next room contained some aggressive toys and some non-aggressive toys.

The non-aggressive toys included:

A tea set

Crayons

Plastic farm animals

Three Bears

The aggressive toys included:

Dart guns

Mallet

Peg Board

Three foot Bobo Doll

The child was in the room for 20 minutes and their behaviour was observed and

rated trough a one-way mirror. Observations were made at 5-second intervals

therefore giving 240 responses for each child

The experimenters also noted other behaviours that didn’t imitate that of the

model such as punching the Bobo doll on the nose!

Stage 3:

Test for

delayed

imitation

Experimental Results Children who observed aggressive model made far more imitative

aggressive responses than those who were in the non-aggressive or control group

There was more partial and non-imitative aggression among those children who has observed aggressive behaviour, although the differences for non-imitative aggression were small

The girls in the aggressive model condition also showed more physical aggressive responses if the model was male, but more verbal responses if the model was female. However, the exception to this general pattern was the observation of how often they punched the bobo doll and in this case the effects of gender were reversed

Boys were more likely to imitate same-sex model than girls. The evidence for girls imitating same-sex model is not statistically significant.

Boys imitated more physically aggressive acts than girls. There was little differences in the verbal aggression between boys and girls

Bobo Doll

Experiment

Evaluation:

There are three advantages of an experimental method:

1. Experiments are the only means by which cause and effect can be

established

2. It allows for precise control of variables. Many variables were

controlled such as the gender of the model, the time children

observed the model and the behaviour modelled and so on.

3. Experiments can be replicated. By using standardised procedures

and instructions, replicability is possible.

Evaluation: limitation

Many psychologists are very critical of laboratory studies of

imitation - in particular because they tend to have low

ecological validity. The situation involves the child and an adult

model, which is a very limited social situation and there is no

interaction between the child and the model at any point;

certainly the child has no chance to influence the model in

any way. Also the model and the child are strangers. This, of

course, is quite unlike 'normal' modeling, which often takes

place within the family.

LOW

Ecological

Validity

Mediational Processes

The social learning theory is often described as the bridge between

traditional learning theory (i.e. behaviourism) and the cognitive

approach because it focuses on how mental (cognitive factors) are

involved in learning.

Unlike Skinner, Bandura (1977) believes that humans are active

information processors, and think about the relationship between their

behaviour and its consequences. Observational learning could not occur unless cognitive processes were at work. These mental factors

mediate (i.e. intervene) in the learning process to determine whether a

new response is acquired.


stimulus

in the environment

The Black Box

cannot be studied

response

behaviour

The Behavioural Perspective: only studies ‘observable/external behaviour

The Cognitive Perspective: scientifically studies internal processes

through experimental methods

Input

in the environment

Mediational Processes

mental event (e.g. memory)

Output

behaviour

Behaviourist versus Cognitive

Perspectives

Compare!

Behavioural

Focuses on the observed

behaviour itself

Learners respond to

environmental stimuli (e.g.

food, toy, an image)

Knowledge is acquired

Reinforcements strengthen

the behaviour

Cognitive

Focuses on the knowledge

underpinning learning

Learners initiate learning experiences

Knowledge is

constructed

Reinforcements are

sources of feedback

Behaviourist versus Cognitive

Perspectives

Cognitive PerspectiveThe computer analogy

The use of the computer as a tool for thinking about how the

human mind handles information.


The Computer Analogy

ProcessINPUT OUTPUT


In this process, hardware would be --------------

and software would be -----------------------------


In this process, hardware would be the brain

and software would be mental processes

In which ways do the brain and computer differ?!

Cognitive PerspectiveMental Processes studied by cognitive

psychologists

Perception

Attention

Memory

Language

Thinking

Problem Solving

Cognitive PerspectiveMental Processes studied by cognitive

psychologists

Perception

Attention

Memory A primary focus of research

Language

Thinking

Problem Solving

Ready to be a witness in court!Let us answer a few questions

A man went into the shop up the road.

How was he dressed?

Dark clothes

Light clothes

Jeans

I'm not sure

Well done if your choice was dark cloths, if Not do not

worry, most people did not focus on this bit!

Ready to be a witness in court!

A woman parked her car in the street shortly before the crime took place, did you notice her car? Was it one of these?

It was the Renault Scenic

Ready to be a witness in court!

What colour hair did the woman in the

video have?

Blonde hair

Dark hair

Red hair

I am not sure!

She was

blonde

Ready to be a witness in court!Here are some mugshots, can you pick the

first man you saw ran out of the shop?!

Ready to be a witness in court!Let us answer a few questions

The

criminal is

none of

them!

Cognitive PerspectiveAims: to establish whether people may be persuaded by misleading questions to remember false details, Loftus specifically wanted to see whether mentioning an object that was not present in a film they participants watched would influence participants remember it later as present.

Methods: 150 students were shown a short piece of film showing a white car that was involved in a crash. They then answered ten questions about the film. Nine of these questions were the same for all participants but one question differed. Half the participants received the question: ‘how fast was the white car going when it passed the barn?’, the remaining participants instead received: ‘how fast was the car going while travelling along the country road?’ One week later the participants returned and were given a further ten questions about the film, one of which was ‘did you see a barn?’

Key Application:eyewitness testimony

Loftus (1975) Leading Questions and the Eyewitness Report. Cognitive psychology 7, 560-572

NOTE: there was no barn in the film and the question mentioning a barn was meant to mislead participants


Results: as expected, participants who had previously had the question

‘how fast was the white car going when it passed the barn?’ where

much more likely to respond that they had seen a barn. Seventeen

percent of these reported seeing a barn as opposed to less than

three percent of the control group who had received the questions

not mentioning a barn.

Discussion: this study shows clearly how witnesses can be deliberately misleading. Indeed, it casts doubt generally on the reliability of

eyewitness testimony

Key Application:eyewitness testimony

Loftus (1975) Leading Questions and the Eyewitness Report. Cognitive psychology 7, 560-572

Cognitive PerspectiveHow do we process information

The most widely accepted information-

process model within this approach is called

the ‘stage theory’ which is based on the

work of Atkinson and Shriffin (1968).

The multi-store model

Cognitive PerspectiveThe multi-store memory/info process model

The multi-story memory model

The Multi Store memory model is a structural model

composing of 3 completely separate memory stores

where information passes across in a linear way. The

3 stores are:

The Sensory memory store

The Short-term memory store

The Long-term memory store


Sensory memory is the shortest-term element of

memory. It is the ability to retain impressions of

sensory information after the original stimuli have

ended. It acts as a kind of buffer for stimuli received

through the five senses of sight, hearing, smell, taste

and touch, which are retained accurately, but very

briefly. For example, the ability to look at something

and remember what it looked like with just a

second of observation is an example of sensory

memory.

Sensory

Memory

(<1 second)

Cognitive PerspectiveThe multi-store memory/info process model

Examples of Sensory learning problems

Visual discrimination issues

Visual motor processing issues

Visual spatial issues

Letter and symbol reversal issues

Dyslexia

Dyscalculia

Dyspraxia

ADHD

Autism


Remember these figures in the same order!

$?$*#*$?£*£##?$?*££?*#£#$


Jot as much as you remember!

Short-term

memory


Compare!

Short-term

memory

$?$*#*$?£*£##?$?*££?*#£#$


Try again!

Short-term

memory

$$$$$?????*****£££££


Jot down as much as you

remember!Short-term

memory


Any better?!

Short-term

memory

Any idea why is that?


Long-term memory is, obviously enough, intended for storage of

information over a long period of time.

Long-term

memory

Scope: Facts on matters you are interested in and have read about

The direction to school or grandma’s house

The names of countries in the world

The function of hundred's of objects you use daily

Characters of your favourite TV shows

Players in your favourite sports’ teams

Foods from different parts of the world

Birthdays and important events

Travel experiences you have enjoyed – or not! Mathematical concepts you have learnt at school

Sub-types of the long-term memory

Long-term Memory

Explicit Memory

Declarative

Episodic Memory

Semantic Memory

Implicit Memory

Procedural Memory

Sub-types of the long-term memory

Long-term Memory

Life time

Explicit Memory

conscious

Declarative Memory

Facts and Events

Episodic Memory

Events and experiences

Semantic Memory

Facts and concepts

Implicit Memory

unconscious

Procedural Memory Tasks and Skills

Long-term versus Short-term Memory

Short-term Memory

Very fast input

Limited capacity

5-20 seconds duration

Contains words,

images, ideas and

sentences

Immediate retrieval

Long-term Memory

Relatively slow input

Practically unlimited

capacity

Practically unlimited

duration

Contains networks

and schemata

Retrieval depends on

connections

Let us play another memory game!

1.Evening 13. Love

2. Country 14. Bargain

3.Salt 15. War

4. Easy 16. Cold

5. Peace 17. Hate

6. Morning 18. Wet

7. Pretty 19. Rich

8. Expensive 20. Nurse

9. Poor 21.Peper

10. Doctor 22. Hate

11. City 23. Hart

12. Dry 24. Love

Sensory Memory

(<1 second)

Short-term Memory

(<1 minute)

Working Memory

Operating

Long-term Memory

Life time

Explicit Memory

conscious

Declarative

Facts and events

Episodic Memory

Events and experiences

Semantic Memory

Facts and concepts

Implicit Memory

unconscious

Procedural Memory

Tasks and Skills

Activity: Provide an example of

each type of memory!

What have you done!

The most basic definition: thinking about thinking

Another one is the concept of learning how to learn!

Metacognition What would help you remember the facts for today?! (Mnemonics)

What about the notes you have taking, have you used colour

codes, simples and even words from your native language to

help you understand and recall these?


Strengths:

Like the behavioural perspective the cognitive approach is scientific; theories are testable and are backed up with a solid body of research

Has numerous practical applications such as eyewitness testimony in courtrooms

Introduces mediational mental processes that bridges between stimulus and response

Has been successfully combined to other approaches in order to design intervention and programmes:

- behaviourism+ cognition: cognitive behavioural therapy

- biology + cognition: evolutionary psychology

Strengths and

Limitations of this

approach


Limitations:

The metaphor of ‘man as machine’ is seen as simplistic and reductionist, ignoring emotional, motivational and social factors in human behaviour

The emphasis on laboratory experiments means that the findings may not reflect everyday life; lacking ecological validity

The approach explains how cognitive processes happen but tends to ignore why

It can be difficult to establish cause and effect correlations when applying cognitive models of psychology. For example, Beck’s model of depression sees faulty information-processing as the cause of depression when it may be as much one of the symptoms

Strengths and

Limitations of this

approach

Combining perspectives in psychology

Cognitive

Behavioural

Therapy

How does a depressed mind process information?

Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) is a talking therapy that

can help you manage your problems by changing the way you

think and behave.

It is most commonly used to treat anxiety and depression, but

can be useful for other mental and physical health problems.

Beck’s Model of Depression

The components of therapy

Cognitive

Behavioural

Therapy

CBT techniques

- SMART Goal Setting;

- Challenging core beliefs

- Downward Arrow Technique;

- Positive Data Log

downward

arrow and

thought

challenging techniques

Example of A CBT session

Using coloured pens, match up the defence mechanism with ...Bobo Doll Experiment. Experimental...

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