ushas anatomy notes

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Chapter 1An Introduction to the Human Body

• Anatomy– science of structure– relationships revealed by dissection (cutting apart)– imaging techniques

• Physiology– science of body functions

• Structure follows function (or is it the other way around?)

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Gross Anatomy

Surface Anatomy- general forms & superficial markings.

Regional Anatomy- concerned with areas of the body.

Systemic Anatomy- concerned with organ systems.

Developmental Anatomy- concerned with embryology.

Clinical Anatomy- description based on subspecialty.

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Clinical Observational Techniques• Observation• Palpation

– feel body surface with hands• pulses and breathing rates

• Auscultation– listen to body sounds with stethoscope

• abnormal fluid in lungs

• Percussion– tap on body surface and listen to echo

• Air/fluid in lungs & organ size

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Microscopic Anatomy

• Cytology is the study of cell structures. Trillions of cells in human body, only about 200 different cell types.

• Histology is the study of tissues (groups of specialized cells that work together to perform a specific function).

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Physiology

The study of how an organism functions.

• Cell Physiology- function of cells

• Special Physiology- function of specific organs.

• Systemic Physiology- function of specific organ systems.

•Pathological Physiology- studies the effects of disease on organs & organ systems.

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Levels of Structural Organization

• Chemical Level– atomic and molecular level

• Cellular level– smallest living unit of the body

• Tissue level– group of cells and the materials surrounding them

that work together on one task– 4 basic tissue types

• epithelium, muscle, connective tissue, and nerve

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• Organ level– grouping of 2 or more tissue types into a

recognizable structure with a specific function.

• Organ system level– collection of related organs with a common function– sometimes an organ is part of more than one system

• Organism level– one living individual.

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Organ Systems

1. Integumentary

2. Skeletal

3. Muscular

4. Nervous

5. Endocrine

6. Cardiovascular

7. Lymphatic

8. Respiratory

9. Digestive

10. Urinary

11. Reproductive

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1

Molecules

Atoms

Chemical levelAtoms combine toform molecules.


Figure 1.1

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1

2

Smooth muscle cellMolecules

AtomsCellular levelCells are made up ofmolecules.



Figure 1.1

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1

2

3


Atoms

Smoothmuscletissue

Cellular levelCells are made up ofmolecules.

Tissue levelTissues consist ofsimilar types of cells.



Figure 1.1

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1

2

4

3


Atoms

Smoothmuscletissue

Epithelialtissue

Smoothmuscletissue

Connectivetissue

Bloodvessel(organ)



Organ levelOrgans are made upof different typesof tissues.



Figure 1.1

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1

2

4

5

3


Atoms

Smoothmuscletissue

Epithelialtissue

Heart

Bloodvessels

Smoothmuscletissue

Connectivetissue

Bloodvessel(organ)

Cardiovascularsystem




Organ system levelOrgan systems consist ofdifferent organs thatwork together closely.



Figure 1.1

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INTEGUMENTARY

•Protection

•Heat Regulation

•Sensory Input

SKELETAL

•Support

•Protection

•Mineral Storage

•Blood Cells Prod.

MUSCULAR

•Locomotion

•Organ Protection

•Organ Support

•Heat Generation

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NERVOUS

•Homeostasis

•Directs Responses to Stimuli immediately

CARDIOVASCULAR

•Distributes nutrients, gases, minerals & hormones

•Distributes Heat

•Removes Wastes

ENDOCRINE

•Homeostasis by directing slow, large, long term changes in target organs.

•Functional Changes associated with Growth & Maturation.

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LYMPHATICS

•Immunological Defense

•Return tissue fluid to the bloodstream

RESPIRATORY

•Oxygen for body

•CO2 removal

•Sound for Communicaton

DIGESTIVE

•Breaks down food into absorbable units

•Eliminates undigestable foodstuffs as feces

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URINARY

•Eliminates nitrogenous wastes

•Regulates blood volume, pH & ion concentrations

REPRODUCTIVE

•Perpetuation of species

•Production of hormones for secondary sexual charactheristics.

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1

2

4

5

6

3


Atoms

Smoothmuscletissue

Epithelialtissue

Heart

Bloodvessels

Smoothmuscletissue

Connectivetissue

Bloodvessel(organ)

Cardiovascularsystem




Organ system levelOrgan systems consist ofdifferent organs thatwork together closely.

Organismal levelThe human organismis made up of manyorgan systems.



Figure 1.1

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Interaction of Organ Systems

• Interaction of different systems of the body

– skin produces vitamin D needed for calcium absorption and

bone growth

– bone marrow produces cells which help resist infection.

– Pancreas produces enzymes for digestion, and also hormones

as part of the Endocrine system.

EXTRACELLULARMATERIAL

AND FLUIDS

CELLS

combineto form

TISSUEScombineto form ORGANS

interactin ORGAN SYSTEMS

The levels of organization in the body, with the four primary tissue types highlighted

EPITHELIAL TISSUE CONNECTIVE TISSUE MUSCLE TISSUE NEURAL TISSUE

Organism


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Life Processes

• Metabolism = sum of all chemical processes– building new structural components (proteins)– breakdown of large molecules into small – providing chemical energy for cells

• Responsiveness– detect & respond to changes in internal or external

environment– some typical responses

• muscle contraction, electrical signals, hormone or glandular secretion

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Life Processes• Movement at any structural level

– the body, an organ, a cell or cell component

• Growth– increase in number or size of cells or the material found

between cells

• Differentiation– specialization of cells for a specific function– stem cells give rise to cells that specialize

• Reproduction– formation of new cells or new individuals

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HOMEOSTASISNecessary Life Functions

• Maintaining boundaries – the internal environment remains distinct from the external environment– Cellular level – accomplished by plasma

membranes– Organismal level – accomplished by the skin

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Body Fluids

• Delineation of fluid compartments– intracellular fluid (ICF) = within cells– extracellular fluid (ECF) = outside cells

• intercellular fluid = tissue fluid = interstitial fluid

• plasma = fluid portion of blood=intravascular

• CSF = cerebrospinal fluid

• Composition of fluids change as substances move between compartments– nutrients, oxygen, ions and wastes move in both

directions across capillary walls

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Homeostasis• Maintaining the internal environment within physiological

limits despite dangerous, unpredictable environmental changes

• Autoregulation is intrinsic (e.g. cells release chemicals to dilate blood vessels if ↓ O2)

• Extrinsic reglation (e.g. Insulin helps maintain blood glucose level within the narrow range 80-120mg/100ml)

-Nervous system is fast acting and short-lived-Endocrine system is slow acting but long-

lasting

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Control of Homeostasis

• Homeostasis is continually being disrupted by– external stimuli or

• intense heat, cold , and lack of oxygen

– internal stimuli• psychological stresses

• exercise result in chemical changes

• Disruptions are usually mild & temporary

• If homeostasis is not maintained (disease process), death may result

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Neural and Endocrine Controls

• Process of maintaining a controlled condition– sensory receptors detect change in a monitored variable– nervous system and/or endocrine system responds

• Example of control of blood gas level– exercise increases blood CO2 levels

– sensory receptors detect change– nervous system increases heart and breathing rates to remove

excess CO2

– adrenal gland releases epinephrine to increase heart and breathing rates

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Components of Feedback Loop

• Receptor – monitors a controlled condition

• Control center - CNS

– determines next action (integration)

• Effector– receives directions from the

control center and produces a response that changes the controlled condition

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Negative & Positive Feedback Loops

• Negative feedback loop– original stimulus reversed – most feedback systems in the body are negative– used for conditions that need frequent adjustment– body temperature, blood sugar levels, blood

pressure

• Positive feedback loop– original stimulus intensified– seen during normal childbirth

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Homeostasis of Blood Pressure• Pressure receptors in walls of certain

arteries detect an increase in BP– blood pressure = force of blood on

walls of vessels

• Brain receives input and signals heart and blood vessels

• Heart rate slows and arterioles dilate (increase in diameter)

• BP returns to normal

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Positive Feedback during Childbirth• Stretch receptors in walls of

uterus send signals to the brain

• Brain releases hormone (oxytocin) into bloodstream

• Uterine smooth muscle contracts more forcefully

• More stretch, more hormone, more contraction etc.

• Cycle ends with birth of the baby & decrease in stretch

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Homeostatic Imbalances• Disorder = abnormality of function

• Disease = homeostatic imbalance with distinct– symptoms---changes in body function felt by the

patient such as nausea and – signs----changes in body function that can be observed

by the doctor such as rash or fever

• Diagnosis---skill of distinguishing one disease from another

• Epidemiology----how disease is transmitted

• Pharmacology --- use of drugs to treat disease

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Basic Anatomical Terminology

• Anatomical position

• Regions of the body

• Anatomical planes, sections and

directional terms

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Anatomical Position• Standardized position from which to

describe directional terms– standing upright

– facing the observer, head level

– eyes facing forward

– feet flat on the floor

– arms at the sides

– palms turned forward

anatomical position?

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Common Regional Names

• Clinical terminology based on a Greek or Latin root word.

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Planes and Sections

• A plane is an imaginary flat surface that passes through the body.

• A section is one of the 2 surfaces (pieces) that results when the body is cut by a plane passing through it.

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Sagittal Plane

• Sagittal plane– divides the body or an

organ into left and right sides

• Midsagittal plane– produces equal halves

• Parasagittal plane– produces unequal

halves

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Other Planes and Sections• Frontal or coronal plane

– divides the body or an organ into front (anterior) and back (posterior) portions

• Transverse(cross-sectional) or horizontal plane– divides the body or an organ into

upper (superior) or lower (inferior) portions

• Oblique plane– some combination of 2 other planes

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Planes and Sections of the Brain(3-D anatomical relationships revealed)

• Horizontal Plane

• Frontal Plane

• Midsagittal Plane

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Major Directional Terms

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Superior or Inferior

• Superior

– towards the head

– The eyes are superior

to the mouth.

• Inferior

– away from the head

– The stomach is

inferior to the heart.

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• Dorsal or Posterior– at the back of the body

– The brain is posterior to the forehead.

• Ventral or Anterior– at the front of the body

– The sternum is anterior to the heart.

Dorsal or Ventral

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Medial or Lateral• Medial

– nearer to the midline of the body

– The heart lies medial to the lungs.

• Lateral– farther from the midline

of the body

– The thumb is on the lateral side of the hand.

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Proximal or Distal• Proximal

– nearer to the attachment of the limb to the trunk

– The knee is proximal to the ankle.

• Distal

– farther from the attachment of the limb to the trunk

– The wrist is distal to the elbow.

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Directions• The heart lies ________ to the lungs.

• The thumb lies _______ to the pinky.

• The knee is _______ to the groin.

• The head is _________ to the torso.

• The elbow is _________ to the hand.

• The mouth is ________ to the eyes.

• The organs are _____ to the skin.

Medial

Lateral

Distal

Superior

Proximal

Inferior

Deep

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Dorsal Body Cavity• Near dorsal surface of

body• 2 subdivisions

– cranial cavity• holds the brain

• formed by skull

– vertebral or spinal canal• contains the spinal cord

• formed by vertebral column

• Meninges line dorsal body cavity

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Ventral Body Cavity• Near ventral surface of

body• 2 subdivisions

– thoracic cavity above diaphragm

– abdominopelvic cavity below diaphragm

• Diaphragm = large, dome-shaped muscle

• Organs called viscera• Organs covered with

serous membrane

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Abdominopelvic Cavity

• Inferior portion of ventral body cavity below diaphragm• Encircled by abdominal wall, bones & muscles of pelvis

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Thoracic Cavity

• Encircled by ribs, sternum, vertebral column and muscle• Divided into 2 pleural cavities by mediastinum • Mediastinum contains all thoracic organs except lungs

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Mediastinum

• Midline wall of tissue that contains heart and great vessels, esophagus, trachea and thymus.

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Serous Membranes

• Thin slippery membrane lines body cavities not open to the outside– parietal layer lines walls of cavities– visceral layer covers viscera within the cavities

• Serous fluid reduces friction

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Pleural & Pericardial Cavities

• Visceral pleura clings to surface of lungs --- Parietal pleura lines chest wall

• Visceral pericardium covers heart --- Parietal pericardium lines pericardial sac

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Peritoneum

• Visceral peritoneum --- serous membrane that covers the abdominal viscera

• Parietal peritoneum --- serous membrane that lines the abdominal wall

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Abdominopelvic Regions & Quadrants

• Describe locations of organs or source of pain• Tic-tac-toe grid or intersecting lines through navel

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