Unit 6 Groundless Beliefs

Teaching procedures:

Ⅰ Warm-up questions Ⅱ Background Ⅲ Word study Ⅳ General understanding of the text Ⅴ Detailed study of the text Ⅵ Questions for discussion Ⅶ Language focus Ⅷ Exercises

Ⅰ Warming-up questions

1. Do you have beliefs? How do you usually come by your beliefs? Are your beliefs and ideas really well-grounded?

2. Talk about one example of believing something groundless in your childhood memories.

3. Do you prefer thinking with beliefs or thinking without beliefs? Why?

Ⅱ Background information

1. About the text The present text is tak

en from Logic for the Millions by A ． E ．Mander, published by The Philosophical Library ， New York ，1947 ．

Ⅱ Background information

2. Galileo Galilei Galileo Galilei : [15 February 1564  – 8 January 1642]

commonly known as Galileo, was an Italian physicist, mathematician, astronomer and philosopher who played a major role in the Scientific Revolution. His achievements include improvements to the telescope and consequent astronomical observations, and support for Copernicanism. Galileo has been called the "father of modern observational astronomy", the "father of modern physics", the "father of science", and "the Father of Modern Science". Stephen Hawking says, "Galileo, perhaps more than any other single person, was responsible for the birth of modern science.“

Ⅱ Background information

3. William James William James (January 11, 1842 – August 2

6, 1910) was a pioneering American psychologist and philosopher who was trained as a medical doctor. He wrote influential books on the young science of psychology, educational psychology, psychology of religious experience and mysticism, and on the philosophy of pragmatism. He was the brother of novelist Henry James and of diarist Alice James.

Ⅲ Word study

1. agreeable 2. allowance 3. attribute 4. belittle 5. bungle 6. cue 7. established 8. fundamental

9. grudge 10. fashion 11. light 12. justify 13. legitimate 14. necessitate 15.originate 16.prestige

1. agreeable adj. pleasing, giving pleasure 令人愉快的 ; 宜人的 , 和蔼可亲的 ,

悦人的 , 讨人喜欢的 Harry is a charming and agreeable young man. 哈利是一位迷人且讨人喜欢的年轻人。 Her voice is agreeable to the ear. 她的声音悦耳。 clothes agreeable to the weather 适合天气的服装 adj.ready to agree [ 对于… ] 欣然同意的 , 赞成的 [to] I am quite agreeable to your suggestion. 我完全赞成你的建议。 I’ll invite her, if you are agreeable to her coming.

2. allowance

n. 1. [c,u] amount of sth, esp money, allowed or given regularly ( 定期支给的 ) 津贴 , 补助 ,… 费 , 零用钱

an allowance of ￡ 15 per day 每天 15 英镑的津贴 clothing/subsistence/travel /family allowance 治装，生活，旅途，眷

属津贴 I didn’t receive any allowance from my father. 我没有收到父亲给的零用钱。 2. [C] sum of money deducted; discount 折价；折扣 make an allowance of 10 percent for cash payment 付现款可以打九折 3. （ idm) make (an)allowance for sth: consider sth when making a de

cision, etc. （在做决定之前）考虑到某事 Make allowances for sb: regard sb as deserving to be treated differently

from others for some reason You must make allowances for him because he has been ill.

Compare: allowance, subsidy ， benefit ， grant 1. subsidy n. [C, U] money paid, esp by a government, to help an industry, t

o support the arts ， to keep the prices down, etc.( 尤指政府给的）津贴，补助金

food subsidies （ eg to reduce the price of basic food) 食品补贴 ( 如用以降低基本食品的价格）

housing subsidy 房屋津贴 increase the level of subsidy to the farmers 增加对农民的补贴 subsidized industry 受资助的工业 2. benefit n. [U ,C] allowance of money, etc. to which sb is entitled from an i

nsurance policy or from government funds 保险金，救济金，抚恤金，补助金

medical/unemployment/ sickness benefits 医疗、失业、疾病等补助 3. grant:money that you give for a particular purpose, esp money from the g

overnment · 拨款；补助 The government gives a grant to every student so that he can buy books. 政府给

每个大学生产补助使他能够买书。 · a cash grant 现金补助 · research grants 研究费 hardship grant 困难补助 4.allowance [c,u] amount of sth, esp money, allowed or given regularly ( 定期支

给的 ) 津贴 , 补助 ,… 费 , 零用钱

3. attribute n.[C] quality looked upon as naturally or necessarily belonging to sb.or sth.

性质；品质；属性；本性 Kindness is an attribute of a good teacher. Organizing ability is an essential attribute for a good manager. vt. a.consider as a quality of; as being the result of; as coming from · 认为是

…属性；是…结果；来自…；归因于 I attribute our success to him. 我把我们的成功归功于他。 I attribute his success to his energy. 我把他的成功归因于他的精力旺盛。 No fault can be attributed to him. 不能把错误归咎于他。 b.to regard as the work of a specified agent or creator: 认为是…所为 ( 所写

/ 所做 ) a symphony attributed to Mozart Adj. attributable[pred] ~ to sb/ sth 可归属于或归因于 [ 某人，某事物 ] Is this painting attributable to Peter? 这幅画是彼得画的吗？

4.belittle

vt. to make sb. or sth. seem unimportant [~ oneself] 看轻自己 , 自卑

Don't belittle yourself. 不可看轻自己。 A poor but honest man is not to be belittled.

vt. 缩小 , 减少 ; 使…显得微小 The size of the office tower belittles the surrounding build

ings.

5. bungle

Vt & vi. do (sth) badly or clumsily; spoil ( a task) through lack of skill 笨手笨脚地（做某事）；粗制滥造；（因技术差或不熟练）把（工作）做糟

It looks as though he’s bungled again. 看来他好像又把事情搞糟了。 Don’t let him mend your bike. He’s sure to bungle the job. 别让他修你

的自行车。他肯定会弄得一团糟的。 The gang spent a year planning the robbery and then bungled it. 这伙人蓄谋抢劫已有一年之久，然而到头来却失手了。 n. (usu sing) bungled piece of work. 拙劣的工作 The whole job was a gigantic bungle. make a bungle of... 把…搞得一团糟 bungler: person who bungles

6. cue n. 1. ~ (for sth/to do sth): thing said or done to signal sb’s turn to say or

do sth, esp in a theatrical or other performance 线索 , 提示 , 暗示 , 示意

give a person his cue 暗示某人行动的时间 [ 方法 ( 等 ) ] 2. example of how to behave, what to do, ect.( 行为、行动等的）榜样 take one‘s cue from a person 学某人样 , 从某人得到线索 3. （ idm) (right) on cue: at exactly the appropriate or expected mome

nt 就在这时候 He said she would be back very soon and, right on cue, she walked in.

他说她很快就回来，说着说着，她走进来了。 V. ~ sb (in) : give a cue to sb (to do sth) 提示，暗示某人（做某事） I’ll cue you in by nodding my head. 我一点头，你就开始。

7. established adj. 1. 已确立的 ; 确定的 an established fact 既定的事实 an old established shop 老铺 , 老店 an established invalid 慢性病患者 , 有痼疾的人 a person of established reputation 已确立声望的人 established usage 既定的惯用法 2. 国立的 , 国教的 the established church [religion] 国教 the Established Church ( 尤指 ) 英国国教 3. [ 在场所、职业、地位等 ] 安顿下来的 [in] Our firm is now fully established in France. 我们的公司已在法国完全站住了脚。 4. 任职 , 安顿 < 为… > 的 Mr. White was established as mayor of our city. 怀特先生已任职为本市市长。

8. fundamental adj. 1. of or forming the basis or foundation of sth;basic 基本的 , 基础的 , 根

本的 fundamental colors 原色 the fundamental form 基本形 fundamental human rights 基本人权 a fundamental note 【音乐】基音 ((和音的基础之音 )) a fundamental principle [rule] 基本原则 [规则 ] 2. most important; central or primary十分重要的 , 主要的；首要的 the fundamental cause of his success 他成功的主要原因 His fundamental concern was for her welfare. 他最关心的是她幸福。 The fundamental question is a political one.首要的问题是政治问题。 3. ~ （ to sth) essential or necessary[ 对… ] 必须的 Moderate exercise is fundamental to good health. 适度的运动对健康是绝对必要的。 Hard work is fundamental to success. n.[C] [ 常 ~s]basic rule or principle 基本规则 , 根本原则 , 基础 ; [of] · the fundamentals of religion, philosophy, art, etc. 宗教、哲学、艺术等的基本原理

9. grudge vt. do or give sth very unwillingly 吝于，舍不得 She grudges every penny she has to spend. 她每花一便士都很吝惜。 Mother grudges paying so much for such inferior goods. 母亲不愿花这么多钱买次品。 I grudge wasting time on that. 我舍不得浪费时间在那件事上。 vt. envy 嫉妒 < 人的成功等 > He grudges my success/ He grudges me my success.. 他嫉妒我的成功。 They grudged him his prize [his pretty wife]. 他们嫉妒他得 [拥有美丽的太太 ] 。

n. feeling of ill-will, envy, resentment, spite[C] 怨恨 , 宿怨 [against] have [hold] a grudge against a person ( 因过去的事情 ) 对某人怀恨 · pay off an old grudge 报一箭之仇 owe a person a grudge ( 有正当的理由 ) 怀恨某人 grudging adj. Unwilling; reluctant 不情愿，勉强的，吝啬的 give a grudging consent 勉强同意 He was grudging in his praises. 他不情愿称赞别人。 a grudging allowance 给得吝啬的零用钱 grudgingly adv. The boss grudgingly raised my salary. 老板很不情愿地给我加了薪。

10. fashion n. 1. [sing] manner or way of doing sth E.g. He walks in a particular fashion. 他走路的样子很奇怪。 2. [C,U] popular style (of clothes, behabior, etc.) dressed in the latest fashion穿着入时 3. （ idm) after a fashion: to a certain extent, but not satifactorily I can play the piano after the fashion. 我多少会弹一点钢琴（但尚未令人满意）。

after/in the fashion of sb (fml)like sb, imitating the style of sb向某人一样，模仿某人

She paints in the fashion of Picasso. 她模仿毕加索的绘画风格。 all the fashion/ rage (be) the latest style or trend Suddenly collecting antiques is all the fashion. 收集古董突然盛行起来。 come into/be in fashion: become/be popular Long skirts have come into fashion again. go/be out of fashion: become/be unpopular as a style

11. light (idm) according to one’s lights (fml) in conformity with one’s beliefs, attitu

des or abilities按照自己的信念、态度或能力 We can’t blame him, he did his best according to his lights. 我们不能怪他，

他已尽力而为了。 be/stand in one’s light: be placed between sb and the source of light挡住某

人的光线 Can you move? You’re in my light and I can’t read. bring sth to light: reveal sth, make sth known揭露或暴露某事物 by the light of nature: without special guidance or teaching cast/shed/throw light on sth: make sth clearer 使某事物清楚些 Recent research has shed new light on the causes of the diseases.最近的研究结果对该病的病因有了新的了解。

come to light: be revealed; become known. New evidence has recently come to light.新证据最近才为人所知。 in the light of sth: in view of sth; considering Review the proposals in the light of experience照老经验来评论那些建议

12. justify 1.vt. show that (a person statement,act,etc) is right, reasonable or proper 证

明（人、言论行动等）为正当的、合理的、公正的 The prime minister justified the action of the Government. 首相证明政府

的行动是正当的。 They found it hard to justify their son’s giving up a secure well-paid job. 他们难以理解儿子竟放弃了收入颇丰的稳定的工作。 2. vt. be a good reason for · 为……之好的理由，为……辩护 Your wish to go for a walk does not justify your leaving the baby alone in th

e house. 你想出去散步并不证明将婴儿独自留在屋中是对的。 Tiredness cannot possibly justify your treating your staff this way. 你不能以疲劳为理由这样对待你的员工。

justification n. [U,C] ~ ( for sth/doing sth) acceptable reason (for doing sth) I can see no justification for dividing the company into smaller units. He was getting angry—and with some justification. 他生气了—事出有因。 In justification(for/of sb/sth)as a defence of sb/sth 作为对（某人，某事物）

的辩解 I suppose that, in justification, he could always claim he had a family to supp

ort. 我想他反正会以养家为理由来进行辩解。 justified adj. 1. ~(in doing sth) having good reason for doing sth( 做某事）有正当理由的

As the goods were damaged, she felt fully justified in asking for her money back.

2. for which there is good reason 事出有因的 Justified criticism, suspicion, anger 事出有因的批评、怀疑、愤怒

13. legitimate adj.1. in accordance with the law or rules; lawful 合

法的 , 法定的 the legitimate heir 法定继承人 2. that can be defended, reasonable 正当的 , 合理的 a legitimate argument ， reason,case 合乎情理的论据、理由、例子 3.(of a child) born to parents who are legally married t

o each other 婚出的，合乎婚姻所生的 a legitimate son 嫡生子 [婚生子 ] 4.genuine 【戏剧】 ( 对喜剧、闹剧、电影、电视等

而言的 ) 正式的 , 正统的 ; 舞台剧的 , 正式戏剧的 the legitimate drama [theater] 正统戏剧 [演剧 ]

14. necessitate

vt. (fml) make sth necessary< 事情 > 使…成为必要 ,需要

The increase of traffic accidents necessitates proper precautions.

随着交通事故的增加 ,必须采取适当的预防措施。 Your proposal would necessitate changing our plans. 你的提议可能使我们的计划必须变更。 We were necessitated to accept the offer. 我们被迫接受该提议。

15.originate vt. 1.cause to be, bring about 产生；引起 The use of steam originated many other changes. 蒸气的使用产生了许多变化。 What originated the Great War? 是什么引起第一次世界大战的？ 2. produce for the first time, invent 发明；创始 He originated a political movement. 他发起了一场政治运动。 vi. arise, start 开始；产生；引起 The theory originated with him. 这个理论是他首创的。 The fire originated in the kitchen. 火是在厨房里开始烧起来的。 In today's practice, a substantial part of hydro-electricity originates fr

om reservoirs. 今天，很大一部分水电来源于水库。

16.prestige

n.[U] 1. respect based on good reputation, past achievement, etc.( 来自地位、高品质等的 ) 威望 , 威信 , 名声 , 声望

national prestige 国威 loss of prestige 威信 [面子 ] 的丧失 形容词 2. power to impress others, esp. as a result of wealth, distinction, glamo

ur, etc.影响力 Have, enjoy, earn prestige in the community 在社会上很有影响力 [attrib] 风评好的 , 有名气的 , 一流的 a prestige car 高级车 a prestige school 名校

Ⅳ General understanding of the text1. Main idea The article is meant to serve as a suggestive example

of a curious, inquiring mind at work. It encourages us to find out how we came by our beliefs and manage to be bold enough to test our beliefs.

The author lists five sources for many of our groundless beliefs: 1) result of early environment; 2) Parroting; 3) Self-interest; 4) Sentimental associations; 5) Fashion.

Ⅳ General understanding of the text

2. Structure of the text

Part 1 (Para. 1) about:The author’s proposition of the general practice of thinking .

Part 2 (Paras. 2—21) about: The author’s analysis of five non-rational factors in the determination of people’s opinions.

Part 3 (Paras. 22—25) about:The author’s encouragement on clear, fresh and rational ways of thinking.

ⅤDetailed study of the Text 1 ． In future we are going to follow the practice----until it becomes a ha

bit----of classifying propositions according to their grounds ． (1) to follow the practice： to take this practice as a guide ； to copy this practi

ce ； to develop the habit of doing things in this way to classify： to arrange things systematically in classes or groups propositions： views ； ideas ； assertions [Note] The author begins by emphasizing the importance of classifying our pr

opositions according to their grounds ． This is important because people very often base their judgment of propositions according to their popularity, usefulness, source of authority as well as to their personal taste ． They do not always accept beliefs because they are true. Often they accept them because these beliefs serve their immediate purpose. or because they sound nice ， or because it is easier or safer to accept them ．

2 ． Probably we shall be astonished at the number of propositions met with in everyday life which we shall find it necessary to class as groundless ． (1)

the number of propositions met with： the number of propositions encountered or experienced

to be astonished at： Compare： to be surprised at ； to be alarmed at ； to be disappointed at

to class as groundless： to classify as groundless (For more examples of verbs followed by as ， see Exercise 5 in Pre-class Work)

3 ． They rest upon mere tradition ， or on somebody’s bare assertion unsupported by even a shadow of proof…(1)

to rest upon/ on： to be based on bare assertions： strong statements without the support

of proof a shadow of： the slightest trace of (used in negative sen

tences)

4. Many of our strongest convictions were established then ．(2)

They are strong because they have been in our mind for such a long time ． They are strong because they were imprinted on our mind when we were little children ， before we were able to judge for ourselves ． They are strong because they were passed on to us during our most formative years and often by people we trusted and loved.

conviction： firm belief or opinion (Do not confuse this word with its other meaning as in “the conviction of a person for a crime”.)

to be established： to be formulated

5. But if the staunchest Roman Catholic and the staunchest Presbyterian had been exchanged when infants ， and if they had been brought up with home and all other influences reversed, we can have very little doubt what the result would have been ． (3)

But if they were exchanged when they were infants and brought up in different homes and under different influences ， then the staunchest Roman Catholic would be the staunchest Presbyterian ， and vice versa ． This shows that our beliefs are largely influenced by our surroundings.

Presbyterian： a member of the Presbyterian Church;a Protestant denomination

when infants： (elliptical) when they were infants The word “doubt” can be followed by a wh- clause or a that clause. More exam

ples： We have no doubt who is the rightful owner of the house. There is some doubt whether the local inhabitants will benefit from the pr

oject. They haven't the slightest doubt that military action will worsen the situat

ion.

6. It is consistent with all our knowledge of psychology to conclude that each would have grown up holding exactly the opposite beliefs to those he holds now… (3)

We can conclude ， based on all our knowledge of psychology ， that each would have grown up having exactly the opposite beliefs to what they have now ．

to be consistent with： to be in agreement with. More examples：

This practice is not consistent with government regulations. What he is doing is consistent with his basic moral principle

s ．

7. The same thing is true, of course ， of many beliefs other than those of a religious nature ． (3)

Not only are religious beliefs like this. Many other beliefs are, too.

other than:This expression usually means “except”, but here it means “apart from”. This usage, however, is not considered standard by many ．

Notice the pattern “to be true of sth” ．

8. If we had grown up in a community where polygamy or head-hunting, or infanticide, or gladiatorial fighting ， or duelling,was regarded as the normal and natural thing--then we should have grown up to regard it as “obviously” natural and perfectly moral and proper ． (3)

Polygamy ， headhunting ， infanticide ， gladiatorial fighting and dueling are practiced only in some communities or practiced in certain historical times ． They are considered immoral ， improper and abnormal elsewhere or in modern times ．

[Cultural Note] Polygamy refers to the condition of a man having mo

re than one wife or a woman having more than one husband at the same time. Its practice existed in many cultures in ancient times and in fact still does in some cultures today although mostly among wealthy people ．However, now it is considered barbarous in many countries and is prohibited by the law.

Headhunting refers to the practice of obtaining and preserving the heads of one’s enemies. Believed by some that the power of persons whose heads were taken was added to that already possessed by the successful warrior or his village. Once widely practiced, it is now rare.

Gladiatorial fighting: Gladiators were people whose profession was to fight for the public amusement in ancient Roman times Drawn from slaves, captives, and criminals, they were carefully trained and kept together in barracks or schools. They usually fought with nets, tridents and short swords. Gladiatorial fighting did not stop until the 5th century

Notice that the word “community” is often used where in the Chinese context it might be replaced by “society”

9 ． Many of our beliefs----many of our most deeply-rooted and fundamental convictions----are held simply as a result of the fact that we happen to have been “brought up” to them ． (3)

Many of our deep-rooted and basic beliefs are determined by our social or cultural traditions.

Give examples such as the following ： 1) China is a large country with abundant natural re

sources ． 2) Man will struggle to conquer nature ． 3) Money is dirty ．

4) Self-concern is the root of all evil ． 5) Those who work with their brain, rule ． 6) We are now living on the eve of world revolution ． 7) Once we have enough food, we will have nothing to

worry about ． 8) Class struggle is the key link. Once you grasp it, ever

ything else will fall into place ． 9) Many hands make light work ． 10) We must save every penny to support our national r

econstruction ．

10 ． of course we do not cease…to adopt new beliefs on mere suggestion.…to take only the most striking examples ， the enormous influence of newspapers and the effectiveness of skilful advertising ． (4)

Of course it does not mean that when we grow up we no longer have these mistaken beliefs ． We still do ． We are still easy and often willing victims of newspapers and advertising for example ．

Newspapers in the West are supposed to bring the truth to the readers. But actually they are often biased ． They often tell only half-truths ． Sometimes they even tell barefaced lies ．Honest reporting is often censored or banned ．

As for advertising ， political as well as commercial ， the purpose is to sell ， not to seek truth ． Therefore honest advertising is an oxymoron ．

11 ． Much of what passes as such is not, strictly, thinking at all ． It is the mere “parroting” of ideas picked up by chance and adopted as our own without question ． Most people, most of the time, are mere parrots ． (4)

what passes as such： what people take as thinking According to the author ， most people ， most of the time ，

are mere parrots ． They simply copy ， echo ， or repeat others’ ideas without question.

The author does not mean that we should not learn from others or benefit from the accumulated wisdom of the past ． The important thing is that all beliefs should be questioned ， reexamined and tested before we decide to accept or reject them ．

12. But as we leave childhood, we tend to accept only such new ideas as fit in with the ideas we already hold ． (4)

to fit in with: say the same thing or follow the same principle ； agree with

If we tend to accept such new ideas as fit in with the ideas we already hold ， they are ， strictly speaking, no longer new ideas ． Therefore it is often the case that when we say we are thinking ， we are really rearranging our deeply-rooted prejudices ．

Experience has told us that it is not easy to develop and accept new ideas. The psychological reasons might be： 1) New ideas require a great effort to discover and absorb, and

people have a natural tendency to be lazy (the force of inertia) ； 2) New ideas always threaten our sense of security, and peopl

e usually prefer not to enter what they consider dangerous waters (the fear of the unknown) ；

3) New ideas imply that our old ideas are wrong, and people feel that they make them foolish. They refuse to accept them in order to save their ego ；

4) New ideas always put some vested interests in danger, and people often reject them to cling on to those interests ．

13 ． Propositions that are accepted simply because “everybody says so,” must be classed under the same heading ． (5)

People often do this because group identity is a very strong psychological need ． People are afraid of being isolated ． They often have a tendency to follow the crowd (to jump on the bandwagon). It is because of this that tyrants often use group pressure to impose their views ． And it is because of this that we should learn to defy majoritarian tyranny if we want to stick to truth ．

14. It may be part of the traditional belief of the people or the race ． (5)

A person’s racial, cultural, national, political ， class ，gender ， generation identity, while enabling him/her to see the world in a unique approach, also tends to limit his/her vision ．

That’s why we need to guard against our racial, cultural ， national, political,class ， gender, generation prejudices and learn to be more open-minded.

15. But we should fully face the fact that beliefs which are merely inherited from the past must have originated at a time when men knew much less than they know today ． So the fact that a belief is“old”is no argument in its favour ． (5)

One of our common mistakes is to accept beliefs simply on the merit of their long history ． But the author is right to say that the fact a belief is old is no argument in its favor ． There are many old prejudices which have been proved wrong ． However, one might also add that the fact a belief is new is no argument in its favor either ， because it has not stood the test of time and is likely to pass like many fashionable things ．

So we might use the author’s own approach to classify his proposition that the fact a belief is old is no argument in its favor according to its grounds ． And we might say it is well grounded because it is true that many old ideas originated at a time when we knew much less than we do today ．

But we can also say that it is not so well-grounded because the fact that a belief is old sometimes does mean that it has been proved correct again and again in history ．

to be inherited from the past： to be passed on from the past

in its favor： in its support

16 ． When we find ourselves entertaining an opinion about which there is a feeling that even to enquire into it would be absurd ， unnecessary ， undesirable, or wicked----we may know that that opinion is a non-rational one ． (7)

Another common mistake we make is to judge opinions according to our feelings ． An opinion is true because it is true ， not because we like it or find it desirable or useful ． In fact ， truth can often be unpleasant or painful whereas untruth can be soothing and attractive ． That is why opinions are often bitterly debated or enthusiastically cherished ， precisely because their truthfulness is not established ．

17.…we should remember that the whole history of the development of human thought has been full of cases of such “obvious truths” breaking down when examined in the light of increasing knowledge and reason ． (8)

Examples of such cases (We used to regard the following as obvious truth)： that the sun moves round the earth ； the earth is flat ； the moon is a huge lantern in the sky ； the stars we see are all twinkling at this particular moment ； the air is weightless ； there is always a king ； there are always slaves and slave-owners ； men are always stronger than women ； war is inevitable ， etc ．

to break down: to cease to be useful; to fail to function: to stop being acceptable

in the light of: in consideration of: as a result of Notice that to the author, the right question to ask about an

y opinion is whether it is rational or whether it is true, not whether it is good,necessary ， desirable ， or important ．

He obviously believes that in the final analysis, an opinion that is rational and true cannot help being good, necessary and desirable ．

18 ． Again ， for more than two thousand years ． it was “impossible to conceive ”the planets as moving in paths other than circles ． The circle was “obviously” the perfect figure…(9)

It was Kepler (1571-1630) ， the famous German mathematician and astronomer, who formulated the three laws of planetary motion ． The first law states that the orbit of a planet is an ELLIPSE ， with the sun’s center as one of its principal focuses.

19 ． The age-long struggle of the greatest intellects in the world to shake off that assumption is one of the marvels of history ． (9)

intellect： a person possessing considerable capacity for thought and knowledge

to shake off： to get rid of For more phrasal verbs with “off” ， see Exercise 5 in

Pre-class Work ．

21. An assumed or dogmatic proposition which had been universally accepted as “obvious”; and which, when challenged, was supported by reference to a dogma of Aristotle ． Until Galileo actually demonstrated the contrary ， nothing could have seemed more beyond possibility or doubt ． (12)

This is a reference to the well-known story about Galileo’s experiment on the Leaning Tower of Pisa ．

to demonstrate the contrary： to prove that the contrary is true by means of a demonstration

20 ． Many modern persons find it very difficult to credit the fact that men can ever have supposed otherwise ． (10)to credit the fact ： to believe the fact otherwise ： differently

Dogma: a principle, belief or a statement of an idea formerly and authoritatively considered to be absolute truth

to be beyond possibility or doubt: to be impossible or unquestionable

Galileo Galilei (1564--1642) ， Italian mathematician, scientist ， and astronomer who laid the foundation for many natural sciences It is reported that he demonstrated the error of Aristotle’s theory that two bodies of different weight fall with speed proportional to their weight--from the famed Leaning Tower of Pisa.

22. Progress in human thought seems to consist mainly in getting rid of such ideas ． (13)

Notice the difference between consist in and consist of to consist of： to be made of or composed of Examples： The company consists of five departments ． to consist in： to have a basis in ； to lie in： to be found in Examples： Happiness consists in appreciating what you have ．

23 ． Other beliefs are held through self-interest ． Modern psychology leaves us no room for doubt on this point ． We adopt and cling to some beliefs because----or partly because----it “pays” us to do so ． (14)

This is obvious and has been proved by psychology ． Take for example our belief that human beings are superior to all other species. We hold and cling to this belief because it is in our interest to believe that all other species are created by God (only for those who believe in God) to serve our needs, a view no other animals ， in so far as they can have a view, will accept.

The author does not say whether it is possible for us to transcend our interest in forming our belief.The answer is yes,but it is possible only when we can forgo selfish considerations ．

To leave no room for doubt: to make it impossible for people to doubt

to pay sb to do sth: to bring benefit or advantage to sb to do sth

Examples ： It pays to tell people the truth ． It pays to forgive others ． It doesn’t pay to work too hard at the expense of you

r health ．

24 ． But ， as a rule, the person concerned is about the last person in the world to be able to recognize this in himself ． (14)

as a rule： generally speaking ； usually to be the last person to do sth： to be the least possible pe

rson to do sth People who hold those beliefs through self-interest usually

will not admit this. They usually try to cloak themselves with beautiful altruistic words ．

25. It would be quite wrong to attribute all opinions----even political opinions----to self-interest. But it would be equally wrong to deny that this is one potent factor ． (14)

Human motivations are complicated. There are other-regarding motivations as well as self-regarding ones. Therefore it is wrong to be cynical and think that all beliefs are based on self-interest. However ， we must admit that self interest is a very powerful factor ．

to attribute to: to regard as resulting from

26 ． But we may extend the term to cover also his interest in social position ． Popularity with his fellows ；the respect and goodwill of those whose respect and goodwill he values ． (15)

to extend the term： to extend the meaning of the word ； to understand the word in a broader sense

The author does not use the word interest in the material sense only ． He includes one's concern for position ，popularity ， fame ， respect ， love, etc ．

27. There is many a man who is unconsciously compelled to cling to a belief because he is a “somebody” in some circle----and if he were to abandon that belief, he would find himself nobody at all ． (15)

there is many a man: there are many people to be compelled to: to be forced to to be somebody in some circle: to be an important p

erson in a certain group of people who know each other

nobody: an insignificant person

28 ． Putting it broadly ， we should always suspect any of our opinions when we recognize that our happiness depends ，directly or indirectly, upon our continuing to hold them---when we might lose anything ， material or otherwise, by changing our opinion ． (16)

If by changing our opinions we might lose something and therefore be unhappy ， we must be suspicious about these opinions and try to find out whether we are not being blinded by our self interest ．

Notice that the author uses the word suspect ． It means that it is always wrong to link an opinion with interest ．

29. Somewhat similar is the acceptance of an opinion through the desire---probably not recognized by the person concerned----to justify his own nature ， his own position, or his own behavior ． (17)

We often accept an opinion to justify or defend our weaknesses ， mistakes ， vulnerable positions or wrongdoings ． Here it is no longer the interest to gain but the interest to avoid losing certain things.

30 ． Many groundless opinions are held through sentimental associations ． The thought is associated with memories----pleasant or unpleasant as the case may be----or particular persons who held similar opinions ． (18)

Very often we like or dislike an opinion because it is held by somebody we like or dislike ． This is another common error ． The fact is that there is no correlation between the truthfulness of an opinion and the person who holds that opinion ． Nice and well-meaning people may have erroneous opinions ， whereas unpleasant people may hold correct opinions.

31. In adult life ， as we have often observed, a bitter quarrel may change a man’s opinion entirely ． Antagonism to a man usually produces some antagonism to his opinions ； (19)

antagonism： hostility ； dislike ； hatred There was a time when we believed that we should oppo

se whatever our enemies supported and support whatever our enemies opposed ． This often proved to be wrong. The author has told us why here ．

32. What keen satisfaction we find in belittling the opinions or attacking the opinions, of somebody of whom we are jealous, or of somebody against whom we bear a grudge! (19)

keen satisfaction： strong satisfaction to belittle: (fml.) to make sth. or sb. seem small or unimp

ortant to be jealous of ： to feel angry and unhappy because s

b. has sth. that you don’t have to bear a grudge against sb.： to continue to feel anno

yed about sth. sb. did a long time ago

34 ． But, on the other hand, it is equally true that friendly feelings to a man have an effect in disposing us to feel friendly to his views ． (19)

to dispose sb. to do sth.： to make sb. more likely to feel or think a particular wav about sth.

(Note： This use of the word dispose is not common ． )

35 ． To take one example ： how largely our opinions on the merits of certain authors, or poets ， or composers, are dictated merely by fashion! We tend very strongly to feel and to believe as others are feeling and believing ． Not all others, perhaps ； but others of our own set ． (20)

Our opinions of authors ， poets and composers are to a large extent determined by fashion ． And as fashions come and go ， our opinions also change ．

merits： good qualities that make sth／ sb. deserve praise and admiration

to dictate： to control and influence ； to determine set： a group of people with similar interests ； crowd ；

bunch ； circle

36 ． Once an opinion is accepted ， whatever be the cause of its acceptance ， it has a strong tendency to persist ．(22)

whatever be the cause of its acceptance： whatever the cause of its acceptance may be／ no matter what the cause of its acceptance may be

Old ideas die hard ． That’s why it is not uncommon for a person to enter a new century while his brain remains in the old century ． Only a few great intellects can think ahead of their time ． Most people suffer from mental inertia or cultural lag ．

to persist： to continue to exist or happen whatever be the cause of its acceptance： no matter what th

e cause of its acceptance may be. This is an adverbial clause of condition-concession ． In such a clause ， the subjunctive mood is sometimes used when the verb is “be”.

37 ． The “brain path” becomes so well worn; the pattern of brain-centres becomes so well connected up by continual use, that the nerve current finds a route of practically no resistance ， and so it always takes almost exactly the same course ． (22)

We tend to hold old ideas (It’s easy to fall into a rut) because they are familiar and make us feel secure and comfortable ． They are comfortable because we are following the same brain path which offers no resistance ， and our thinking (The author calls it nerve current) tends to follow the easy path the way water flows along a course which has the least resistance ．

brain path： thought habit ； the way you always think brain-centres: ( Note that in this essay ， the British term is used be

cause the author is British ． )It should be nerve centres ．

38. We all know the person who has a string of stock anecdotes ． (23)

a string of： a number of(similar things) ； a series of

stock anecdotes： stories about your personal experiences that you keep telling people whenever you can think of nothing else to tell

39 ． Put them on to the “record” about the good old days ； or about prohibition ； or about the wicked capitalist ； or about the lazy and improvident workers; or about the country going to the dogs ； or about the modern girl… ， and nothing on earth can stop him----until the record” has run out! (23)

Put them on to the “record” ．．． and nothing can ．．．： If you put them on to… then nothing can ．．．

Notice that the conjunction and here introduces a clause of consequence ．

If you start them talking about these things ， they will repeat themselves just like the playing of an old gramophone.

good old days: happy days in the past (One favorite subject for many people is how everything used to be better.) Old people usually feel that in their earlier time in life society was better than it is now.

Prohibition: This refers to the law in force in the U.S between 1920 and 1933 ， prohibiting the manufacture, sale and consumption of liquor throughout the country. The law proved to be unenforceable and resulted in a general contempt for the law as well as corruption and crime. It was finally repealed in 1933.

The wicked capitalist: or…workers： The author views them as class prejudices.

the country going to the dogs: In any society and at any time, there will be people who are unhappy and believe that their country is getting worse and worse

to go to the dogs: to become ruined until the “record” runs out: until the “record” is pla

yed out: until they have nothing more to tell The author is saying that people often have fixed vie

ws about certain things.

40 ． After they have been held a certain length of time ， they become ， as it were, so stamped in by continual use that it is almost impossible now to change them ． (24)

as it were： as you might say ； so to speak to stamp in： The usual expression is to stamp out ．

To stamp in is coined by the author, and therefore he said “as it were”

41 ． Thus we become ， in James’s term, Old Fogeys ． (24)

William James (1842--1910) ， U ． S ． philosopher and psychologist ； one of the founders of pragmatism. His Principles of Psychology was for years a standard textbook.

Old Fogey: a person who is excessively old-fashioned in attitude, ideas and manners etc

42. Sometimes our thought-patterns set while we are still quite young ． In a few rare cases they remain open or alterable even into old age ． (24)

Sometimes our ideas and thought habits are fixed when we are very young ， and therefore we are unable to absorb new ideas ． Only in a few rare cases people will still be open to new ideas when they are old ．

to set： to become fixed

43 ． Yet when full allowance has been made for all these non-rational factors in the determination of opinion, there remains----not in all minds, not in most minds, but in some----a desire to discover the facts ； to think things out in a clear and rational way ； to get at the truth at all costs ，whatever it may turn out to be! (25)

Yet in spite of all these factors which make it difficult for people to form their opinions rationally ， there are still some people who have a desire to think in a clear and rational way ； and to do everything possible to find the truth, no matter whether the truth is pleasant or unpleasant ．

to make allowance for： to consider sth. when making a decision

Ⅵ Oral Practice I. Discuss What do you think of this article? Have you learned anything from it o

n the problem of beliefs? II. Comment on any of the following quotations. 1) Most men ， when they think they are thinking, are merely rearrang

ing their prejudices. —Knute Rockne

2) The prejudices of ignorance are more easily removed than the prejudices of interest ； the first are blindly adopted ， the second willingly preferred.

--George Bancroft 3) Nothing is so firmly believed as that which is least known ． --Michel de Montaigne 4) If we believe absurdities we shall commit atrocities. —Voltaire

Ⅶ Language focus

1. Vocabulary Verb: depose, extend Noun: result Conj. : lest Some uses of “stock” (n. & adj. )2. Grammar Focus Sentence analysis Abbreviated adverbial clausesImplied condition( both real & unreal)

Ⅷ Exercises

Omitted.

Thank you!