UNIT 4 NOTES A TIME OF REVOLUTIONS AND REASON. Scientific Revolution (1400 ’ s -1700 ’ s)
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Transcript of UNIT 4 NOTES A TIME OF REVOLUTIONS AND REASON. Scientific Revolution (1400 ’ s -1700 ’ s)
Astronomy• Copernicus
– 1473-1543– Polish astronomer– Studied in Italy– Argued for heliocentrism
• Brahe– 1546-1601– Geocentric
•Believed sun and moon revolved around earth
•But believed planets revolved around sun
– Compiled data from observation
Astronomy• Galileo
– 1564-1642– Italian astronomer/physicist– Studied in Florence– Demonstrated law of gravity– Improved telescope, confirming Copernicus
• Kepler– 1571-1630– German astronomer and mathematician– Found that planets follow elliptical, not
circular, orbit in revolving around sun
Anatomy• Vesalius
– 1514-1564– Flemish physician– Made careful dissections of human body– Founded science of anatomy
• Harvey– 1578-1657– English physician– Demonstrated that blood circulates through
body
Reasoning• Bacon
– 1561-1626– English philosopher– Popularized scientific method
• Descartes– 1596-1650– French scientist, mathematician,
and philosopher– Discovered laws of optics– Founder of analytic geometry
Physical Science• Boyle
– 1627-1691– English chemist– Discovered a law of gases that is
fundamental to modern chemistry• Leeuwenhoek
– 1632-1723– Dutch naturalist– Perfected microscope– Studied “invisible” world of bacteria,
protozoa, and animal and plant cells
Blaise Pascal
• 1623-1662
• French mathematician and scientist
• Disagreed with dogma
• Urged a personal faith
Newton• 1642-1727• English mathematician,
astronomer, and physicist• Invented calculus• Discovered laws of
light and color
• Formulated the laws of motion• Calculated the law of gravitation
I could not have seen so far if I had
not stood on the shoulders of giants.
Thomas Hobbes
• English philosopher (1588-1679)• Fled London to Paris in 1640
because of the Civil War–Tutored future Charles II
• Supported absolutism–Denied divine right, thus lost
favor in Stuart eyes
Thomas Hobbes
• Wrote The Leviathan–Named for Biblical all-
powerful sea monster
–Government must, as well, be all-powerful
Hobbes’ Social Contract
• Entered into social compact to surrender freedom to a ruler
• Granted him absolute power to maintain law and order
• Ruler was not a party to contract
• People have no right to complain
Hobbes’ Influence
• His ideas never very popular –Supported absolutism when
democracy popular in England
• Overshadowed by John Locke–Democratically-minded
philosopher–Exponent of social contract
John Locke
• Foremost English philosopher of 17th century (1632-1704)
• Puritan-leaning Anglican family • His father fought on side of
Parliament in Civil War• During Charles II’s reign he fled for
safety to Holland
John Locke
• In 1689 after James II removed, returned to England
• In 1690 published philosophical justification of Glorious Revolution in his Two Treatises of Government
Locke’s State of Natural Man
• People in original state of nature –Happy
–Natural rights to life, liberty, and property
Locke’s Social Contract
• To protect natural rights–People enter into social contract to
create government –Grant it limited powers
• Government is party to contract• If government fails its agreement
–People have right to alter or end it
Locke’s Influence
• Thomas Jefferson (Declaration of Independence)
• Framers of the Constitution
• Jean Jacques Rousseau (Social Contract)
Increased Imports & World Trade
• Western Europe imported many commodities–From New World and East
–Improved West European living standards
Increased Imports & World Trade
• Large quantities of gold & silver from New World –Gave Europeans more
money to spend–Caused inflation–West European
merchants originated insurance to reduce risk of loss of goods
Shifted Economic Power
• Western Europe’s major trade routes shifted – From Mediterranean/Baltic to Atlantic
• Western Europe’s population increased – Partly because of additional food
• Urban population grew– Workers found jobs in new industries
• Middle class grew
Mercantilism Developed
• Colonies exist for benefit of MC• MC must attract gold and silver• MC must export more than import
(favorable balance of trade)–Sure sources of raw materials –Sure markets for manufactured
goods
Mercantilism Developed
• MC must discourage imports of foreign manufactures by:
–Levying tariffs–Forbidding colonies to trade
with any country except MC• MC must restrict colonial
manufacturing
Toward Capitalism
• Change:–From Middle Ages economy
• Static, localized, nonprofit
–To capitalism• Dynamic, worldwide, profit-oriented
Toward Capitalism
• Entrepreneurs took risks, hoping to make profit
• Prices and wages were determined largely by supply and demand
• Joint-stock companies sold stock to investors who would share profits/losses
Toward Capitalism
• Businesses aided by:–Growth of banks–Increased supply of currency
from New World gold and silver
–Relaxation of RCC prohibitions against usury
Toward Capitalism
• Manufacturers were unable to meet demand for goods–Employed domestic system—
raw materials worked in homes–Adopted factory system—
machines to speed production thus paved way for Industrial Revolution
Effects on World
• Many Europeans migrated to overseas colonies–To escape religious
persecution–To improve personal
economic condition (primogeniture)
Effects on World
• Europeans bought slaves in Africa and took them to New World to provide labor
• Trade and emigration spread European civilization throughout the world
Agricultural Revolution
• Change from primitive to modern farm-production methods
• Industrial Revolution influenced it–Labor-saving machinery–Need for greater quantities of raw
materials–Demand for increased food supplies
for city populations
Early Industrial Revolution
• Broad—Effect of machinery upon humanity
HomeSlower
More expensive Production
by hand
FactoryQuicker,
Less costly Production
by machine
Early Industrial Revolution’s Roots
• Commercial Revolution –Uncovered new markets–Created demands for goods–Created capital base
• Domestic System–16th century capitalists defied
guilds by making goods in workers’ homes
Why Begin in Britain?
• Population–Skilled workers who designed
needed machines
• Wealthy who invested capital
–Individuals in need of employment
Why Begin in Britain?
• Agricultural changes, including crop rotation and fencing-in
–Created need for new tools–Increased the supply of farm
produce –Created pool of unemployed
workers
Why Begin in Britain?
• Geographic advantages–Coal for steam power– Iron ore to make machines–Navigable rivers–Harbors to facilitate trade– Island apart from continental
disputes
Why Begin in Britain?
• Stable government–Competent administration in a
unified country–Good roads–Encouraged science
(Royal Society)
Why Begin in Britain?
• Strong economic situation–Markets–Fair taxes–Sound money system–Well-organized banking system–Colonies with raw materials–Joint-stock companies
18th Century French Philosophers’ Beliefs
•Humans possessed natural rights
•Society could be improved•Human institutions should conform to logic and reason
18th Century French Philosophers’ Beliefs
•Autocracy stemmed from traditional brute force that violated reason
•Autocracy perpetuated:–Despotic government–Legal and social inequality–Serfdom– Ignorance–Religious intolerance
•Autocracy prevented progress
18th Century French Philosophers’ Beliefs
•Traditional royal and Church authority should be
challenged•Called for end to Old Regime•At first censored, their ideas eventually reached many people
Montesquieu•1689-1755•Baron & landed aristocrat•Wrote The Spirit of Laws•Divide government into 3
branches to stop despotism–Executive, legislative & judicial–Branches check each other
•His ideas in US Constitution
Montesquieu•“Republics end with luxury;
monarchies with poverty."•"In a true state of nature,
indeed, all men are born equal, but they cannot continue in this equality. Society makes them lose it, and they recover it only by the protection of laws."
Voltaire
•1694-1778•Writer of literature &
political studies•Lived in exile in Britain for a
while•Wrote Letters on the English•Praised Britain’s •Denounced France’s
Voltaire•Urged religious freedom–Especially bitter against Catholic Church–Its authority barred human
progress•“I disapprove of what you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it.”
Rousseau•1712-1778•Probably of lower-class origin
•Lived disorganized life •Social Contract–Set forth theories of government–“Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains.”
Rousseau’s Nature of Man
•Humans in their original state of nature were happy
•They had natural rights•As inequalities arose, people
entered into social contract among themselves
Rousseau’s Social Contract
•Agreed to surrender all their rights to community
•Agreed to submit to the General Will (will of majority)
•If government failed in this purpose, people had right to
overthrow and replace it
Rousseau’s General Will
•Government has unlimited power
•GW used by dictatorship to justify totalitarian rule
•Dictator (or single party) determines, enforces, and speaks for GW
•All citizens owe obedience
Rousseau’s Social Contract
•Patterned his ideas after those of Locke–Locke more concerned with individual rights and limits on
government–Rousseau emphasized concept of General Will as supreme
Diderot•1713-1784•Son of skilled artisan•Was well-educated•Editor of Encyclopedia–Articles from leading thinkers
on variety of subjects–Vigorously attacked Old Regime abuses
Rulers Influenced by Enlightenment
•Tried to justify their absolutism by claiming to govern in people’s interest
•Introduced various reforms
Frederick the Great• Prussia
• 1740-1786• Most famous Hohenzollern
absolute monarch• Military genius• Areas of support/improvement:
• Literature, music, science• Agriculture• Education• Equal legal treatment for all people• Religious freedom Prussia
Catherine the Great
•Russia•1762-1796•Orchestrated murder of weak
husband•Areas of support/improvement:
– Extended boundaries– Art, literature and science– Greater local self-government– Legal reforms Russia
Joseph II•Austria• 1780-1790• Increased royal religious and
political authority – Took control of RCC– Weakened nobles
•Areas of support/improvement: – Improved serfs’ condition – Education– Equal legal treatment for all people– Equal religious toleration Austria
Failure of Enlightened Despotism
•Did not remove basic causes of discontent against absolutism:– Autocracy– Class distinctions– Unfair taxation– Frequent wars
•Could not assure good government by successors
•People still rebelled against absolutism