1.EFA GlobalMonitoring Report 2 0 1 2YOUTH AND SKILLSPutting education to work

2. Youth and skills:Putting education to work 3. Youth and skills:Putting education to workUNESCOPublishingUnited Nations Educational, Scientic and Cultural Organization 4. 2 0 1 2 Education for All Global Monitoring ReportThis Report is an independent publication commissioned by UNESCO on behalf of theinternational community. It is the product of a collaborative effort involving members of theReport Team and many other people, agencies, institutions and governments.The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do notimply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNESCO concerning thelegal status of any country, territory, city or area, or of its authorities, or concerning thedelimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.The EFA Global Monitoring Report team is responsible for the choice and the presentationof the facts contained in this book and for the opinions expressed therein, which are notnecessarily those of UNESCO and do not commit the Organization. Overall responsibility forthe views and opinions expressed in the Report is taken by its Director. UNESCO, 2012All rights reservedSecond editionPublished in 2012 by the United Nations Educational,Scientific and Cultural Organization7, Place de Fontenoy, 75352 Paris 07 SP, FranceGraphic design by FHI 360Layout by FHI 360Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication DataData availableTypeset by UNESCO Cover illustrationISBN 978-92-3-104240-9 UNESCO/Sarah Wilkins 5. FOREWORDForewordThis 10th edition of the EFA Global Monitoring Report could not be better timed. The thirdgoal of Education for All is to ensure that all young people have the opportunity to acquireskills. The urgency of reaching this goal has sharpened acutely since 2000.The global economic downturn is impacting on unemployment. One young person ineight across the world is looking for work. Youth populations are large and growing.The wellbeing and prosperity of young people depend more than ever on the skills thateducation and training can provide. Failing to meet this need is a waste of human potentialand economic power. Youth skills have never been so vital.This Global Monitoring Report reminds us that education is not only about making sureall children can attend school. It is about setting young people up for life, by giving themopportunities to find decent work, earn a living, contribute to their communities andsocieties, and fulfil their potential. At the wider level, it is about helping countries nurturethe workforce they need to grow in the global economy.There has been undeniable progress towards the six EFA goals including an expansionof early childhood care and education and improvements in gender parity at primarylevel. However, with three years to go until the 2015 deadline, the world is still not ontrack. Progress towards some goals is faltering. The number of children out of school hasstagnated for the first time since 2000. Adult literacy and quality of education still demandfaster progress.Recent developments ascribe ever greater urgency to ensuring equitable access toappropriate skills development programmes. As urban populations grow rapidly,especially in low income countries, young people need skills to work their way out ofpoverty. In rural areas, young people require new coping mechanisms to deal with climatechange and shrinking farm sizes, and to exploit opportunities for off-farm work. ThisReport reveals that around 200 million young people need a second chance to acquire thebasic literacy and numeracy skills, which are essential to learning further skills for work.In all of this, women and the poor face particular hardship.We must see the growing numbers of young people who are unemployed or trapped inpoverty as a call to action to meet their needs by 2015 and to keep momentum afterthen. We can achieve universal lower secondary education by 2030, and we must.Donors commitment to education may be waning, and this is deeply worrying.Government budgets are under pressure today, but we must not risk the gains madesince 2000 by reducing engagement now. Evidence in this Report shows that funds spenton education generate ten to fifteen times as much in economic growth over a personslifetime. Now is the time to invest for the future. i 6. 2 0 1 2 FOREWORD We must think creatively and use all the resources at our disposal. Governments and donors must continue to prioritize education. Countries should look to their own Education for All Global Monitoring Report resources, which could be giving millions of children and young people skills for life. Whatever the source of funding, the needs of the disadvantaged must be a high priority in every strategy. Young people everywhere have great potential this must be developed. I hope this Report will catalyse renewed efforts worldwide to educate children and young people so they can greet the world with confidence, follow their ambitions and live the lives they choose.Irina Bokova Director-General of UNESCOii 7. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSAcknowledgementsThis Report was made possible thanks to the support and advice of many individuals andorganizations. The EFA Global Monitoring Report team would like to thank everyone whocontributed to this endeavour.The EFA Global Monitoring Reports Advisory Board plays a key role in providing guidanceand support at all stages of the Reports cycle. We would like to thank each of itsmembers for their time, energy and enthusiasm. Particular thanks go to the chair of theAdvisory Board, Amina J. Mohammed. The publication was made possible by the generousfinancial support of a group of funders.We are very grateful for the advice and support of individuals, divisions and units withinUNESCO, both at headquarters and in the field. The UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS)plays a key role in the development of the Report. We warmly thank its director and staff,including Redouane Assad, Sheena Bell, Manuel Cardoso, Cesar Guadalupe, FriedrichHuebler, Alison Kennedy, Albert Motivans, Simon Normandeau, Sad Ould Ahmedou Voffal,Pascale Ratovondrahona and Wendy Xiaodan Weng.We would also like to acknowledge the support from colleagues at the InternationalInstitute for Educational Planning (IIEP), the International Bureau of Education (IBE), theUNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning (UIL), and the International Centre for Technicaland Vocational Education and Training (UNEVOC).Special thanks to colleagues in UNESCOs Education Sector as well as colleagues in theSector for External Relations and Public Information who play a vital role in supportingthe Global Monitoring Report. We are also grateful to our colleagues in the KnowledgeManagement Service and the Sections for Finance and Budget Administration and forHuman Resources for facilitating our work daily.Sincere gratitude goes to Kevin Watkins, the previous director of the Global MonitoringReport, who participated in the initial development of this Report.A number of experts generously gave their time to prepare think pieces, participate in meetingsand provide comments on the drafts of the Report. Special thanks go to members of the expertpanel, including Arvil Van Adams, Borhene Chakroun, Christopher Colclough, Kenneth King andFurio Rosati. We would also like to thank Ragui Assaad, David Atchoarena, Roland Baecker,Michaela Baur, Laura Brewer, Gareth Conyard, Marta Encinas-Martin, Mary-Luce FiauxNiada, Michael Hrtel, Maria Hartl, Claudia Jacinto, Emmanuel Jimenez, Simon Junker,Mark Keese, Matthias Pilz, Bianca Rohrbach, Katja Rmer, Roland Schwartz, Law SongSeng, Kate Shoesmith, Madhu Singh, Birgit Thomann, Richard Walther and Michael Ward.The Report would not have been possible without the advice and support of numerousresearchers who prepared background papers and other commissioned inputs toinform the analysis. We would like to thank them for sharing their expertise and time:Andrs Mejia Acosta, Peter Aggleton, Subhash Agrawal, Nadir Altinok, Monika Aring,Shubhashansha Bakshi, Farzana Bardai, Paul Bennell, Gabrielle D. Blumberg, Hong-MinChun, Yekaterina Chzhen, David Clarke, Ute Clement, Arne H. Eide, Jakob Engel, KyuCheol Eo, Ernesto Martins Faria, Ningwakwe George, Ursula Grant, Lorenzo Guarcello,Eric A. Hanushek, Kenneth Harttgen, Jo Hawley, Frances Hunt, Zoe James, Kate Jere,Jyotsna Jha, Hiromichi Katayama, Maria Kett, HyeJin Kim, Irena Kovarova, Scott Lyon,iii 8. 2 0 1 2AcknowledgementsAnna McCord, Scott Murray, Maurice Mutisya, Anne-Mari Nevala, Landon Newby, NicoleNikolaidis, Christophe Nordman, Lee E. Nordstrum, Moses Oketch, Laure Pasquier-Doumer, Education for All Global Monitoring ReportFrancesco Pastore, Maro Ranzani, Caine Rolleston, Fiona Samuels, Roland Schwartz,Lucio Severo, Kate Shoesmith, Ratna Sudarshan, Daniela Ulicna, Justin van Fleet, NermineWally, Karin Wedig, Ludger Woessmann, Shoko Yamada and Kazuhiro Yoshida.We are also grateful to the Institute of Development Studies, GHK Consulting Ltd, the City& Guilds Centre for Skills Development, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation andDevelopment, the Overseas Development Institute, the United Nations Girls EducationInitiative, Understanding Childrens Work, Young Lives Programme and the World Bankfor their support in providing research and analysis.We would like to extend our thanks to Interactive Things for the development of the WorldInequalities Database on Education (WIDE) and Globescan for facilitating focus groupdiscussions with young people around the world. We are also very grateful to SarahWilkins for the design of the cover and the illustration included in this Report. Warmthanks go to the young people who participated in the youth blog and took part in theart contest on youth, skills and work. Our congratulations in particular go to the winner,Khalid Mohamed Hammad Elkhateem from Sudan.Special thanks to all those who worked tirelessly to support the production of the Report,including Sylvaine Baeyens, Rebecca Brite, Laura Chan Aramendi, FHI 360, Jana Gough,David McDonald, Max McMaster, Cathy Nolan and Stefanie Schnell. Many colleagueswithin and outside UNESCO were involved in the translation and production of the Reportand we would like to thank them all. The EFA Global Monitoring Report teamDirector: Pauline RoseKwame Akyeampong, Manos Antoninis, Madeleine Barry, Nicole Bella, Stuart Cameron,Erin Chemery, Diederick de Jongh, Marcos Delprato, Hans Botnen Eide, Joanna Hrm,Andrew Johnston, Lna Krichewsky, Franois Leclercq, Elise Legault, Leila Loupis, AlasdairMcWilliam, Patrick Montjourides, Karen Moore, Claudine Mukizwa, Judith Randrianatoavina,Kate Redman, Maria Rojnov-Petit, Marisol Sanjines, Martina Simeti, Asma Zubairi.The Education for All Global Monitoring Report is an independent annual publication. It isfacilitated and supported by UNESCO. For more information, please contact:Previous EFA Global Monitoring Reports EFA Global Monitoring Report team2011. The hidden crisis: Armed conflict and education c/o UNESCO, 7, place de Fontenoy 2010. Reaching the marginalized 75352 Paris 07 SP, France2009. Overcoming inequality: why governance matters Email: efareport@unesco.org2008. Education for All by 2015 Will we make it? Tel.: +33 1 45 68 07 412007. Strong foundations Early childhood care and education www.efareport.unesco.org 2006. Literacy for life efareport.wordpress.com2005. Education for All The quality imperative2003/4. Gender and Education for All The leap to equality2002. Education for All Is the world on track? Any errors or omissions found subsequent to printing will be corrected in the online version at www.efareport.unesco.org.iv 9. contentsContentsForeword. .............................................................................................................................................................. iAcknowledgements. ................................................................................................................................... iiiList.of.figures,.tables.and.text.boxes........................................................................................... viiiOverview............................................................................................................................................................... 1Part 1. Monitoring progress towards the EFA goals........................................................................ 34Chapter 1 The.six.EFA.goals....................................................................................................................................... 36Goal 1: Early childhood care and education...................................................................................................... 39Panel.1.1:.Early.childhood.nutrition.is.improving.globally,.but.progress.is.too.slow.and.uneven.................. 41Panel.1.2:.The.ECCE.index,.a.new.instrument.for.monitoring.goal.1.............................................................. 45.Policy focus: Preparing children for school by expanding pre-primary education........................................ 48Goal 2: Universal primary education................................................................................................................. 58 .Panel.1.3:.Progress.in.reducing.numbers.of.children.out.of.school.has.stalled. ........................................... 60.Panel.1.4:.Entering.school.on.time.is.critical.................................................................................................... 64Panel.1.5:.Progression.through.primary.school.varies.between.and.within.countries................................... 66Policy focus: Reducing costs of primary school for the poorest. .................................................................... 69 .Goal 3: Youth and adult learning needs............................................................................................................. 80Panel.1.6:.Promising.progress.towards.measuring.skills.development......................................................... 82Policy focus: Life skills education can help tackle HIV and AIDS.................................................................... 84Goal 4: Improving levels of adult literacy.......................................................................................................... 90Panel.1.7:.Progress.in.reducing.adult.illiteracy.has.been.slow........................................................................ 92Panel.1.8:.LAMP.deepens.understanding.of.literacy.contexts......................................................................... 94 .Panel.1.9:.Completing.primary.school.does.not.guarantee.literacy.for.all. .................................................... 96 .Policy focus: Strengthening adult literacy in rich countries............................................................................ 98Goal 5: Assessing gender parity and equality in education............................................................................ 106Panel.1.10:.Girls.face.obstacles.in.entering.school........................................................................................ 108Panel.1.11:.Gender.disparities.in.learning.outcomes.persist......................................................................... 111Policy focus: Challenging disadvantage and disengagement among boys in secondary school.................. 113Goal 6: The quality of education....................................................................................................................... 122Panel.1.12:.Millions.of.primary.school-age.children.are.failing.to.learn.the.basics..................................... 124Panel.1.13:.Learning.achievement.within.countries.varies.with.socio-economic.status.............................. 127Policy focus: Addressing the crisis in early grade teaching. ......................................................................... 130 .World.Inequality.Database.on.Education.(WIDE). .............................................................136Chapter 2 Financing.Education.for.All...............................................................................................................138Monitoring progress on financing Education for All....................................................................................... 141Trends in financing Education for All, 19992010........................................................................................... 142Has aid to education reached its peak?........................................................................................................... 145 v 10. 2 0 1 2 contents Aid to education: the challenge of effectiveness. ........................................................................................... 152. Policy.focus:.Turning.the.resource.curse.into.a.blessing.for.education...................................................... 156 Policy.focus:.Harnessing.the.potential.of.private.organizations. ................................................................... 164. Education for All Global Monitoring Report Part 2. Putting education to work................................................................................................................170Chapter 3Youth,.skills.and.work..building.stronger.foundations. .............................................174 A large youth population presents challenges. .............................................................................................. 177 . Many young people lack foundation skills....................................................................................................... 179 Transferable skills: preparing for the world of work..................................................................................... 187 A hazardous transition from school to work................................................................................................... 190 Conclusion......................................................................................................................................................... 199Chapter 4Investing.in.skills.for.prosperity....................................................................................................200 Skills development is vital to reduce poverty and promote growth.............................................................. 203 Many governments neglect skills and the disadvantaged lose out most...................................................... 208 Boosting finance to bring skills to disadvantaged youth................................................................................ 213 Conclusion......................................................................................................................................................... 225Chapter 5Secondary.education..paving.the.way.to.work. ................................................................226 Global inequalities in secondary education..................................................................................................... 229 Removing the barriers to secondary education.............................................................................................. 233 Making secondary education more relevant to the world of work................................................................ 236 Strengthening the links between school and work........................................................................................ 242. Providing alternative routes for early school leavers.................................................................................... 249. Conclusion......................................................................................................................................................... 253Chapter 6Skills.for.urban.youth..a.chance.for.a.better.future.....................................................254 Urban poverty is widespread and increasing.................................................................................................. 257 Employment for poor urban youth is mostly informal................................................................................... 260 . Expanding skills training opportunities for disadvantaged youth. ................................................................ 263 . Conclusion......................................................................................................................................................... 275Chapter 7Skills.for.rural.youth..an.escape.route.from.poverty. .................................................276 Rural poverty limits opportunities for education and better livelihoods....................................................... 279 Addressing rural training needs...................................................................................................................... 283 Conclusion......................................................................................................................................................... 294vi 11. contentsYouth.skills:.pathways.to.a.better.future................................................................................2961. Provide second-chance education for those with low or no foundation skills. ........................................ 299.2. Tackle the barriers that limit access to lower secondary school.............................................................. 3003. Make upper secondary education more accessible to the disadvantaged and improve its relevance to work...................................................................................................................... 3004. Give poor urban youth access to skills training for better jobs................................................................. 3015. Aim policies and programmes at youth in deprived rural areas............................................................... 301.6. Link skills training with social protection for the poorest youth............................................................... 3017. Make the training needs of disadvantaged young women a high priority................................................. 3028. Harness the potential of technology to enhance opportunities for young people.................................... 3029. Improve planning by strengthening data collection and coordination of skills programmes................. 30210. Mobilize additional funding from diverse sources to meet the trainingneeds of disadvantaged youth.................................................................................................................... 303Conclusion......................................................................................................................................................... 303Annex.................................................................................................................................................................305The Education for All Development Index....................................................................................................... 306Statistical tables................................................................................................................................................ 311Aid tables........................................................................................................................................................... 392Glossary............................................................................................................................................................. 406Abbreviations..................................................................................................................................................... 409References. ....................................................................................................................................................... 412.Index................................................................................................................................................................... 448 vii 12. 2 0 1 2 list of figures, tables and text boxes List of figures, tables and text boxes Education for All Global Monitoring Report Figures Figure 1.1: There has been considerable progress in reducing stunting, but it has been uneven............................................................41 Figure 1.2: Malnutrition is a greater problem in rural areas .....................................................................................................................42 Figure 1.3: In most countries, the gap in nutrition between the richest and the poorest exceeds thegap between urban and rural areas ........................................................................................................................................................43 Figure 1.4: Country experiences in tackling malnutrition in rural areas vary enormously .......................................................................44 Figure 1.5: Progress towards early childhood goals varies widely across key dimensions ......................................................................45 Figure 1.6: Pre-primary education has a positive impact on learning outcomes in school.......................................................................48 Figure 1.7: Participation in pre-primary education is lower than the system allows ................................................................................50 Figure 1.8: Enrolment in pre-primary education varies widely between and within regions ....................................................................51 Figure 1.9: Participation in pre-primary education varies significantly within countries ..........................................................................52 Figure 1.10: The number of out-of-school children decreased in the initial years afterDakar, but this has been followed by stagnation ....................................................................................................................................60 Figure 1.11: Almost one in two out-of-school children are expected never to enrol.................................................................................61 Figure 1.12: Almost half the worlds out-of-school children live in just twelve countries ........................................................................61 Figure 1.13: In Nigeria, the number of children out of school is large and has increased ........................................................................62 Figure 1.14: Countries with large numbers of out-of-school children have followed different trajectories ............................................63 Figure 1.15: In Ethiopia poor rural females are least likely to go to in school...........................................................................................63 Figure 1.16: Late entry into primary school is widespread in low and middle income countries .............................................................64 Figure 1.17: Late entry is more common among disadvantaged children .................................................................................................65 Figure 1.18: Pupils who are older than the official age for their grade are more likely to drop out .........................................................65 Figure 1.19: Inequality in primary education access and completion between the poorest and the richest is very large .......................66 Figure 1.20: Different patterns of access and progression can exist in the same country .......................................................................68 Figure 1.21: Countries can make progress over a short period, but can also lose ground .......................................................................68 Figure 1.22: Children from the poorest families are more likely to be out of school ................................................................................70 Figure 1.23: Across eight countries, school fees make up almost 15% of household spending on education .........................................71 Figure 1.24: In Nigeria, rich households spend more to improve the quality of schooling for their children...........................................71 Figure 1.25: Fee abolition has boosted primary school participation.........................................................................................................73 Figure 1.26: In Uganda the education expenditure gap between poorer and richer households widened after fee abolition .................74 Figure 1.27: Richer households are more likely to spend more on supplementary tuition for their children..........................................76 Figure 1.28: Knowledge about HIV and AIDS varies within countries.........................................................................................................86 Figure 1.29: Almost three-quarters of the worlds illiterate adults live in just ten countries ...................................................................92 Figure 1.30: Most countries will miss the adult literacy target, some by a wide margin ..........................................................................93 Figure 1.31: Even among countries with similar literacy rates, people use their literacy skills in different ways ..................................94 Figure 1.32: Community characteristics that help maintain literacy differ widely by country ..................................................................95 Figure 1.33: For many young people, six years of school are insufficient to build literacy skills..............................................................96 Figure 1.34: Literacy skills are not improving across sub-Saharan Africa ...............................................................................................97 Figure 1.35: In Ghana, not even lower secondary school is sufficient to guarantee literacy .....................................................................97 Figure 1.36: Many adults in rich countries have low literacy and numeracy skills....................................................................................99 Figure 1.37: Adults lose numeracy skills over time, but those with less education lose them faster ....................................................100 Figure 1.38: In Canada, indigenous people have lower literacy skills ......................................................................................................101 Figure 1.39: There has been progress in reducing gender disparity but girls still face majorobstacles gaining access to school ......................................................................................................................................................109 Figure 1.40: Poor girls have a lower chance of starting primary school ..................................................................................................110 Figure 1.41: Girls outperform boys in reading while boys often do better in mathematics.....................................................................111 Figure 1.42: The gender gap in reading has widened ...............................................................................................................................112 Figure 1.43: In Bangladesh, there are increasingly more girls than boys in secondary school ..............................................................115 Figure 1.44: In Trinidad and Tobago, boys especially from poor and rural households face acute disadvantage in participation and achievement ..................................................................................................................116 Figure 1.45: Boys are more likely than girls to be engaged in economic activity, and those who work aremore likely not to attend school ............................................................................................................................................................117 Figure 1.46: In several countries, socio-economic status amplifies the gender difference in learning achievement ...........................118 Figure 1.47: Even if they progress through the grades, many primary school children do notacquire basic knowledge and skills ......................................................................................................................................................125 Figure 1.48: Cross-country inequality in primary school participation is much smaller than inequality in learning outcomes ...........126viii 13. list of figures, tables and text boxesFigure 1.49: Learning achievement varies by socio-economic status ......................................................................................................127Figure 1.50: Learning outcomes are very low for disadvantaged students in middle income countries but can improve rapidly ....128Figure 2.1: Spending on education has increased or been maintained in most countries ......................................................................142Figure 2.2: Aid to education is an important share of resources for poor countries ...............................................................................146Figure 2.3: Aid to education stagnated in 2010..........................................................................................................................................148Figure 2.4: The three donors that made the largest increases in aid in 2009 made cuts in 2010 ...........................................................148Figure 2.5: The Gleneagles target was missed and total aid even decreased in 2011.............................................................................149Figure 2.6: Most donors reduced aid as a share of their national income in 2011 ..................................................................................150Figure 2.7: Projections show overall aid levels flattening out ..................................................................................................................151Figure 2.8: Ghanas increased revenue is set to boost expenditure on reducing poverty .......................................................................162Figure 2.9: Natural resource revenue could significantly increase education budgets ..........................................................................163Figure 2.10: The motivation of private engagement in education ranges from philanthropy to corporate interest ...............................165Figure 2.11: Education funding from the largest foundations is dwarfed by donor aid ...........................................................................166Figure 3.1: In many countries, more than half the population is younger than 25 ..................................................................................178Figure 3.2: The youth population in sub-Saharan Africa will continue to grow at a fast pace.................................................................179Figure 3.3: Many young people are unable to acquire foundation skills ..................................................................................................181Figure 3.4: Youth from wealthy households are more likely to have foundation skills ...........................................................................183Figure 3.5: Wealth gaps widen as education levels increase ...................................................................................................................184Figure 3.6: Gender gaps are often larger among the poorest ..................................................................................................................185Figure 3.7: Youth from urban areas are more likely to acquire foundation skills ...................................................................................186Figure 3.8: Gender gaps in foundation skills are wide in some states in India ........................................................................................186Figure 3.9: In rich countries, young people struggle with problem-solving skills ...................................................................................188Figure 3.10: Education can improve problem-solving skills.....................................................................................................................189Figure 3.11: Youth unemployment is more than double adult unemployment in many countries ..........................................................193Figure 3.12: Young people with low levels of education have been hit harder by the economic crisis in Europe ..................................195Figure 3.13: In Jordan and Turkey, many young women are not seeking work .......................................................................................195Figure 3.14: Low levels of education lead to working poverty ..................................................................................................................197Figure 3.15: Unemployment versus working poverty in Brazil and Cameroon ........................................................................................198Figure 3.16: Young women are often confined to low paid work ..............................................................................................................199Figure 4.1: The Republic of Koreas investment in skills development has contributed to its impressive economic growth ...............205Figure 4.2: Donors spend around US$3 billion on skills development ....................................................................................................216Figure 4.3: Aid to general secondary education and vocational training has increased over the past decade.......................................217Figure 4.4: Skills development is a prominent part of aid spending for some donors ............................................................................218Figure 4.5: For some donors, a large proportion of aid never leaves the country .................................................................................219Figure 5.1: Some young people do not even enter secondary school, and many do not complete it ......................................................230Figure 5.2: Many European Union countries are not on target to reduce early school leaving...............................................................232Figure 5.3: Low secondary enrolment, a smaller share in technical and vocational education .............................................................238Figure 6.1: Wide disparities between urban rich and poor .......................................................................................................................259Figure 6.2: The urban informal sector employs large numbers in low and middle income countries ...................................................261Figure 7.1: Young women in rural areas are the most likely to lack foundation skills ...........................................................................280Figure 7.2: Better educated rural youth tend to be in non-farm work ....................................................................................................283TablesTable 1.1: Key indicators for goal 1 ..............................................................................................................................................................39Table 1.2: The ECCE index and its components, 2010 .................................................................................................................................46Table 1.3: Key indicators for goal 2 ..............................................................................................................................................................58Table 1.4: Financial constraints matter when a household decides not to send a child to school............................................................69Table 1.5: Key indicators for goal 3 ..............................................................................................................................................................80Table 1.6: G20 Multi-Year Action Plan on Development proposed indicators on skills acquisition ..........................................................82Table 1.7: Key indicators for goal 4 ..............................................................................................................................................................90Table 1.8: Key indicators for goal 5 ............................................................................................................................................................106Table 1.9: Countries where the gender parity index is below 0.90, 2010..................................................................................................108Table 1.10: Boys disadvantage in secondary school participation is more common in richer countries ...............................................114Table 1.11: Key indicators for goal 6 ..........................................................................................................................................................122Table 1.12: Characteristics of sampled populations in PISA, selected middle income countries relative to the OECD average...........129ix 14. 2 0 1 2list of figures, tables and text boxesTable 2.1: Public spending on education, by region and income level, 1999 to 2010 ...............................................................................141Table 2.2: Total aid disbursements to education and basic education, by region and income level, 2002 to 2010.................................147Table 2.3: Trends in expected aid to education from the ten largest donors to education ......................................................................150 Education for All Global Monitoring ReportTable 2.4: Many resource-rich countries could reach Education for All if they raised morerevenue and increased focus on education...........................................................................................................................................161Table 2.5: Funding provided by foundations identified as supporting education in developing countries ..............................................166Table 2.6: Corporations spending above US$5 million a year on education (2010 or closest available year).........................................167Table 3.1: Current education status of 15- to 19-year-olds ......................................................................................................................180Text boxesBox 1.1: Pre-schooling has striking benefits for school performance .......................................................................................................49Box 1.2: Variations in pre-school in Peru widen inequality.........................................................................................................................56Box 1.3: The Right to Education Act in India ................................................................................................................................................73Box 1.4: HIV and AIDS remain prevalent in some countries .......................................................................................................................84Box 1.5: Schoolchildren are not learning enough about HIV and AIDS in southern and eastern Africa ...................................................86Box 1.6: Botswana curriculum boosts HIV and AIDS awareness................................................................................................................87Box 1.7: Scaling up life skills and HIV education in India and Nigeria ........................................................................................................89Box 1.8: Adult literacy among indigenous populations in high income OECD countries .........................................................................101Box 1.9: Boys disadvantage in secondary school enrolment in Bangladesh...........................................................................................115Box 1.10: In Trinidad and Tobago, boys are at a disadvantage in secondary education...........................................................................116Box 2.1: Estimating the contributions of national governments and aid donors to education spending ................................................145Box 2.2: Aid cuts by the Netherlands jeopardize education gains ............................................................................................................149Box 2.3: Aid effectiveness and the Global Partnership for Education ......................................................................................................153Box 2.4: Getting a better deal for Zambias mineral resources................................................................................................................158Box 2.5: Chads unsuccessful Oil Revenue Management Law..................................................................................................................159Box 2.6: Ghanas natural wealth: a new source of education financing ...................................................................................................162Box 2.7: The many faces of private contributions to education ................................................................................................................165Box 2.8: Leveraging private resources to improve the quality of education ............................................................................................168Box 3.1: Measuring foundation skills of young people ..............................................................................................................................180Box 3.2: How many young people need a second chance? .......................................................................................................................182Box 3.3: Building self-esteem through education: evidence from Mumbai .............................................................................................190Box 3.4: Decent and productive work for all: employment in the MDGs ..................................................................................................191Box 3.5: In India and Pakistan, working women with more education reap benefits...............................................................................196Box 3.6: High unemployment in Brazil, low paid work in Cameroon........................................................................................................198Box 4.1: Prioritizing skills development as a response to youth unemployment ....................................................................................204Box 4.2: Skills and growth comparing Ghana and the Republic of Korea ............................................................................................207Box 4.3: Ethiopia aims for growth through comprehensive skills planning .............................................................................................210Box 4.4: Sierra Leones youth employment strategy needs to reach all those lacking foundation skills ...............................................212Box 4.5: Measuring aid for skills development .........................................................................................................................................217Box 4.6: Private foundations can reach disadvantaged youth through productive partnerships ............................................................222Box 4.7: Tunisias training fund reaches large numbers of unemployed youth .......................................................................................225Box 5.1: Early school leaving is a challenge in Europe .............................................................................................................................232Box 5.2: Challenges of linking primary and secondary schooling in Zambia ...........................................................................................233Box 5.3: Abolishing secondary school fees in Kenya.................................................................................................................................235Box 5.4: In Ghana, technical and vocational subjects are better resourced in urban schools than in rural ones ..................................241Box 5.5: How does Germanys successful dual model work? ...................................................................................................................245Box 5.6: Egypt adopts the German model with success ...........................................................................................................................246Box 5.7: Affordable new and old technology can improve learning for disadvantaged groups ...............................................................248Box 5.8: Reducing dropout in secondary education in the Philippines through flexible provision ..........................................................249Box 5.9: Reconnecting young people with school and work in New York City..........................................................................................250Box 6.1: Many young people in Nairobi slums lack education and training opportunities ......................................................................259Box 6.2: Defining the urban informal sector .............................................................................................................................................260Box 6.3: Indias skills strategy recognizes training needs for the urban informal sector .......................................................................264Box 6.4: Enhancing outcomes of South Africas Expanded Public Works Programme through skills training ......................................268Box 6.5: Perus PROJoven programme helps young people find better jobs ...........................................................................................269Box 7.1: A second chance for Malawis primary school dropouts ............................................................................................................285Box 7.2: Bringing skills to adolescent girls in rural Egypt ........................................................................................................................286Box 7.3: BRAC tackles multiple faces of poverty with training .................................................................................................................287Box 7.4: Camfed provides business skills to poor young rural women ....................................................................................................291x 15. OVERVIEWOverviewWith just three years to go until the deadlineMonitoring the Educationfor the Education for All goals that were setin Dakar, Senegal, it is vitally urgent to ensure for All goalsthat the collective commitments made by164 countries in 2000 are met. Lessons also The six Education for All goalsneed to be drawn to inform the definition offuture international education goals and theExpand early childhood care and educationdesign of mechanisms to make sure that allEarly childhood is the critical period in which topartners live up to their promises. lay the foundations for success in education andbeyond, so early childhood care and educationUnfortunately, this years EFA Global Monitoringshould be at the centre of EFA and broaderReport shows that progress towards many ofdevelopment agendas.the goals is slowing down, and that most EFAgoals are unlikely to be met. Despite the gloomyChildren who are hungry, malnourished or illoutlook overall, progress in some of the worldsare not in a position to gain the skills needed forpoorest countries shows what can be achievedlater learning and employment. There are signswith the commitment of national governments that early childhood health is improving, but fromand aid donors, including greater numbers a very low base in some countries and not fastof children attending pre-school, completingenough to meet international development goals.primary school and making the transition to The annual rate of decline in child mortalitysecondary education.accelerated from 1.9% in 19902000 to 2.5%in 20002010. Recent estimates suggest thatThe 2012 EFA Global Monitoring Report is dividedjust over half the decline in child deaths can beinto two parts. Part I provides a snapshot of attributed to more education among women ofprogress towards the six EFA goals, and towards reproductive age.spending on education to finance the goals. Part IIturns to the third EFA goal, paying particularWhile it is encouraging that today 3 moreattention to the skills needs of young people.children survive for every 100 born than in 1990, Giacomo Pirozzi/PANOS1 16. 2 0 1 2OVERVIEWthere are still 28 countries, 25 of which are inRecent evidence based on the 2009 survey insub-Saharan Africa, where more than 10 in 100 the OECD Programme for International Student Education for All Global Monitoring Reportchildren die before the age of 5. Assessment (PISA) shows that in fifty-eight outof sixty-five countries, 15-year-old studentsAn important factor behind child deaths iswho had attended at least a year of pre-primarymalnutrition, which also hinders childrens school outperformed students who had not,cognitive development and capacity to learn.even after accounting for socio-economicStunting, or being short for ones age, is thebackground. In Australia, Brazil and Germany,clearest sign of malnutrition. Globally,the average benefit after controlling for socio-171 million children under age 5 were affected by economic background was equivalent to onemoderate or severe stunting in 2010. By 2015, onyear of schooling.current trends, the number of children sufferingfrom stunting will still be as high as 157 million, Since 1999, the number of children enrolled inor around one in four children under 5. pre-school has risen by almost half. However,this still leaves more than one in two children notChildren in rural areas and from poor attending, rising to five out of six in the pooresthouseholds suffer more because nutrition is countries. The groups that would benefit thenot just a matter of general availability of food.most from pre-school are missing out the most.Rather it is also a matter of access to food, goodIn Nigeria, about two out of three children fromhealth care, water and sanitation services, fromthe richest 20% of households attend pre-school,which the poorest are often denied. For example,compared with less than one in ten from thein Nepal, the stunting rate was 26% among the poorest 20% of households.richest children and 56% among the poorest,with corresponding rates of 27% in urban andUnderinvestment is a key reason for low42% in rural areas. Ongoing food price instability, coverage of pre-schooling. This level accountsclimate change and conflict make improvingfor less than 10% of the education budgetnutrition a challenge in many parts of the world. in most countries, and its share tends to beparticularly low in poor countries. Nepal and theBut the contrasting experience of manyNiger spend under 0.1% of GNP on pre-school,countries shows that political commitment can and Madagascar and Senegal less than 0.02%.markedly improve nutrition. Within less thantwo decades, Brazil managed to eliminate an One consequence of low government investmenturban-rural gap in malnutrition thanks to a is that the average share of enrolment in privatecombination of improved education of mothers, pre-school is 33%. In the Syrian Arab Republic,access to maternal and child health services, with a pre-primary gross enrolment ratio ofprovision of water and sanitation, and targeted 10%, the share of private provision was 72%.social transfers. Over the same period, rates This indicates demand that is not met by theof malnutrition, particularly in rural areas, inpublic sector.countries such as the Plurinational State ofBolivia, Guatemala and Peru, remained higherIt seems unlikely that expanding fee-chargingthan expected for their income level. private pre-schools will reach more of thepoorest households, whose children are thoseGood quality pre-school programmes are also least likely to be enrolled. In Indias Andhravital to prepare young children for school. Pradesh state, pre-school enrolment in ruralEvidence from places as diverse as Australia, areas is highest among the richest 20% ofIndia, Mozambique, Turkey and Uruguay households, where almost one-third of childrendemonstrates the short- and long-term benefitsattend private institutions. Almost all childrenof pre-primary education. These range from ain pre-school from the poorest households arehead-start in literacy and numeracy skills to served by government providers.improved attention, effort and initiative all ofwhich lead to better education and employment Where children live can also determine theoutcomes. quality of the service. In rural areas of China,2 17. OVERVIEWPeru and the United Republic of Tanzania,40 million children of primary school age out ofchildren who make it to pre-school are school, but have subsequently progressed at verymore likely than urban children to be in andifferent speeds. Between 1999 and 2008, theovercrowded class with fewer qualified teachersnumber of out-of-school children in South andand fewer learning resources.West Asia fell by 26 million, while the reduction in sub-Saharan Africa was a more modest 13To ensure that all children reap the benefitsmillion. Between 2008 and 2010, out-of-schoolof pre-school, reforms are needed, including numbers increased in sub-Saharan Africa by 1.6expanding facilities and making sure they aremillion, but declined by 0.6 million in South andaffordable, identifying appropriate ways toWest Asia. Sub-Saharan Africa now accounts forlink pre-schools with primary schools, and half of the worlds out-of-school children.coordinating pre-school activities with widerearly childhood interventions. Among countries with data, twelve account for almost half of the global out-of-schoolThe importance of making balanced efforts to population. Nigeria heads the list with one inimprove conditions for young children is further six of the worlds out-of-school children, a totalhighlighted by a new index developed for thisof 10.5 million. It had 3.6 million more childrenyears Report, which evaluates progress on thisout of school in 2010 than in 2000. By contrast,goal and its three main components: health,Ethiopia and India managed to reduce theirnutrition and education. numbers of out-of-school children dramatically. In India, there were 18 million fewer children outSome countries score almost equally well onof school in 2008 than in 2001.all three indicators (such as Chile) or equallypoorly (such as the Niger). Others have a very Among those out of school, some may enterhigh or very low score for one dimension relativelate, while others may have dropped out andto their overall standing in the index scale,many may never enrol. In 2010, 47% of childrenwhich reveals specific challenges. For example,out of school were likely never to enrol. TheJamaica and the Philippines both have a childproportion was highest in low income countries,mortality rate of about 30 per thousand live where 57% of out-of-school children couldbirths but have very different education records.expect never to enrol. Girls were more likelyOnly 38% of children aged 3 to 7 were enrolled inthan boys to belong to this group.a pre-primary or primary school programme inthe Philippines, compared with 90% in Jamaica. Just five years before 2015, twenty-nineThis highlights the need to invest in integrated countries had a net enrolment ratio of lessapproaches that give equal importance to all than 85%. These countries are very unlikely toaspects of early childhood development.achieve the goal of UPE by the deadline. Children of official school starting age whoAchieve universal primary educationdid not enter school by 2010 will not be able toOn current trends, the goal of universal primary complete the primary cycle by 2015. In 2010,education (UPE) will be missed by a largethere were seventy countries with a net intakemargin. The major push towards getting morerate below 80%.children into school that was kick-started atthe World Education Forum in Dakar in 2000 The challenge of UPE is to get children intois grinding to a halt. The number of primary school at the correct age and to ensure thatschool age children out of school has fallen fromthey progress through the system and complete108 million to 61 million since 1999, but three- the education cycle. Analysis for this Reportquarters of this reduction was achieved betweenshows that, across twenty-two countries with1999 and 2004. Between 2008 and 2010, progress household survey data between 2005 and 2010,stalled altogether.38% of students entering school were two or more years older than the official age. In theSouth and West Asia and sub-Saharan Africa sub-Saharan African countries included in thestarted from similar positions in 1999 with around analysis, 41% of the children starting primary3 18. 2 0 1 2OVERVIEWschool were two or more years older than theAbolishing formal school fees has been aofficial school entry age.fundamental step towards realizing UPE. But Education for All Global Monitoring Reportit is also important for governments to takeMore children from poor households start late,complementary measures, such as grants forusually because they live too far from school,schools to help them cover their costs so thattheir health and nutritional status is worsethey do not informally impose other chargesand/or their parents may be less aware of on parents. Social protection measures, suchthe importance of sending children to schoolas cash transfers, are vital to ensure that pooron time. In Colombia, 42% from the pooresthouseholds have the financial means to coverhouseholds started two or more years late,all school costs without compromising theircompared with 11% from the richest households.spending on other basic needs. Steps also needto be taken to ensure that the ability of richerLate entry influences whether children complete households to spend more on private schoolingthe education cycle. By grade 3, children who and private tuition does not lead to wideninghave entered late can be four times as likely toof inequality.drop out as children who started school at thecorrect age.Promote learning and life skillsPoverty also has a negative effect on childrensfor young people and adultslikelihood of leaving school early. In Uganda,The social and economic challenges of recent97 out of every 100 children from the richest years have focused attention on the availability ofquintile entered primary school and 80 reachedskills and learning opportunities for the young.the last grade in 2006; of children from theAs the thematic part of this Report details, thesebottom quintile, 90 out of 100 entered school challenges are bringing a sense of urgency tobut only 49 reached the last grade. an important goal that has not been given theattention it deserves because of the ambiguityTo tackle the barriers that prevent disadvantaged of the commitments made when the EFA goalschildren from entering on time and progressingwere established in 2000.through school, system-wide reforms areneeded. In many countries, cost is the primaryFormal secondary schooling is the most effectivereason parents do not enrol their children in way to develop the skills needed for work andschool or take them out of school. Even after life. Despite a global increase in the number ofschool fees have been formally abolished, children enrolling in secondary school, the grossofficial or unofficial fees still accounted for enrolment ratio for lower secondary school wasalmost 15% of such spending in eight countriesjust 52% in low income countries in 2010, leavinganalysed for this Report. millions of young people to face life without thefoundation skills they need to earn a decentRicher households are able to spend living. Worldwide, 71 million adolescents of lowersignificantly more on their childrens education, secondary school age were out of school in 2010.improving their opportunities for better qualityThe number has stagnated since 2007. Three outschooling. This includes spending more on of four out-of-school adolescents live in Southprivate schooling or private tuition. In Nigeria, and West Asia and sub-Saharan Africa.the richest 20% of households spend morethan ten times as much as the poorest 20% There are 25% more children in secondaryfor children to attend primary school. Even low school today than in 1999. Sub-Saharan Africafee private schooling is out of reach for the has doubled the number of students enrollingpoorest households. Sending three children to over the period, yet has the worlds lowest totala school in a Lagos slum costs the equivalent secondary enrolment ratio, at 40% in 2010.of 46% of the minimum wage. In Bangladeshand Egypt, the richest households spend fourSome young people develop skills throughtimes as much as the poorest households ontechnical and vocational education. The proportionsupplementary tuition, and are more likely to of secondary school pupils enrolled in suchinvest in such tuition in the first place.programmes has remained at 11% since 1999.4 19. OVERVIEWSkills are not only developed in school. if, for example, they do not feel empowered toInternational organizations have a range oftake the right action at the right time.frameworks for categorizing skills and skillsdevelopment programmes. But twelve years Life skills education with a focus on HIV andafter the EFA goals were established in Dakar, AIDS encourages young people to adoptthe international community is still a long wayattitudes and behaviour that protect theirfrom agreeing what constitutes progress in health, for example by empowering themequitable access to appropriate learning and life to negotiate sexual relations. It does this byskills programmes (the core of goal 3), agreeingaddressing psychosocial and interpersonalon a coherent set of internationally comparableskills such as assertive communication,indicators and assessing whether progress is self-esteem, decision-making and negotiation.being made. There are promising signs that Life skills programmes that approach sensitivethe situation may be changing, but recentissues in ways that allow student engagementdevelopments will not produce sufficient datashould be introduced to complement topics inin time to measure goal 3 adequately before thethe curriculum such as health education anddeadline has passed. broader HIV and AIDS education.Any post-2015 international goals for skillsdevelopment need to be more precisely definedReduce adult illiteracy by 50%and to set out clearly how progress can be Literacy is crucial for adults social andmeasured. This should be based on a realisticeconomic well-being and that of their children.assessment of information that can be collected, Yet progress on this goal has been very limited,in order to avoid the problems that have plagued largely as a result of government and donorefforts to monitor goal 3. indifference. There were still 775 million adults who could not read or write in 2010. Half wereThe Dakar Framework for Action specified in South and West Asia, and over a fifth insome risks from which young people need to besub-Saharan Africa.protected by developing the relevant life skills.One of those risks was HIV and AIDS. HIV-related In 81 out of the 146 countries with data forknowledge remains low. Recent global estimates 20052010, more women than men are illiterate.based on 119 countries show only 24% of youngOf these countries, twenty-one display extremewomen and 36% of young men aged 15 to 24 gender disparity, with fewer than seven literatebeing able to identify ways of preventing thewomen for every ten literate men.sexual transmission of HIV and to reject majormisconceptions about its transmission. Globally the adult literacy rate has increased over the past two decades, from 76% in 19851994Knowledge of HIV and AIDS is low even in to 84% in 20052010. But among forty-threecountries with high prevalence rates. In 2007, countries with an adult literacy rate below 90% inabout 60,000 grade 6 students (aged around 13, 19982001 only three will reach the target ofon average) in 15 countries of southern andreducing illiteracy by 50% by 2015. Some countrieseastern Africa were assessed on their knowledgeare likely to miss the target by a very wideof HIV and AIDS. The test focused on the officialmargin. And while some in the latter group havecurriculum frameworks for HIV educationmade significant gains such as Mali, whichadopted by ministries of education in thedoubled its literacy rate others, like Madagascar,participating countries. The results suggest have experienced a decline in the last decade.ineffective implementation and possibly poordesign of the official curriculum. On average, Almost three-quarters of adults who areonly 36% of students reached the minimum illiterate live in just ten countries. Of the globalrequired knowledge levels and just 7% reachedtotal, 37% live in India. In Nigeria, the number ofthe desirable level. illiterate adults has increased by 10 million over the past two decades, to reach 35 million.It is not enough to ensure that youth know how toAn important question is whether these dataprotect their own health and the health of otherspresent the full extent of the problem. Adults are5 20. 2 0 1 2OVERVIEWasked whether they can read and write ratherAchieve gender parity and equalitythan having their abilities put to the test. Direct Gender parity and equality in education Education for All Global Monitoring Reportapproaches to assessing adult skills provideconstitute a basic human right, as well as anricher profiles of literacy skills. important means of improving other socialand economic outcomes. Narrowing theIt is commonly assumed that it takes four orgender gap in primary enrolment is one offive years of school for children to use reading, the biggest EFA successes since 2000. Evenwriting and calculation with ease. New analysis so, many countries are still in danger of notof household surveys for this Report shows, achieving gender parity in primary andhowever, that far more children than expected secondary education by 2015. And morein low and lower middle income countries areneeds to be done to ensure that educationcompleting primary school without becomingopportunities and outcomes are equitable.literate. In Ghana, for example, over half ofwomen and over one-third of men aged 15 to 29 Sixty-eight countries have still not achievedwho had completed six years of school could gender parity in primary education, and girlsnot read a sentence at all in 2008. A further 28% are disadvantaged in sixty of them. Whileof the young women and 33% of the young men countries like Ethiopia and Senegal havecould only read part of a sentence. made tremendous progress, others, includingAngola and Eritrea, have gone backwards.The environment in which people live can affecttheir ability to acquire and maintain literacyThe number of countries where girls faceskills. Preliminary findings of the Literacyextreme disadvantage, or a gender parity indexAssessment and Monitoring Programme inbelow 0.70, fell from sixteen in 1990 to elevenJordan, Mongolia, Palestine and Paraguay show in 2000, and to just one in 2010 Afghanistan.that literacy rates can mask large differences in Despite its place at the bottom of the rankings,the range of practices and in the environmentshowever, Afghanistan has made great progressthat shape the literacy skills of adults. in recent years.In high income countries, the universal spread of Severe disadvantage measured by a genderschooling has consigned high levels of illiteracy parity index below 0.90 is also lower than tento the distant past. Yet direct assessments years ago. Of the 167 countries with data forindicate that as many as one in five adults inboth 1999 and 2010, thirty-three had a genderthese countries, equivalent to around 160 million parity index below 0.90 in 1999, including twenty-adults, have very poor literacy skills unable toone in sub-Saharan Africa. By 2010, there wereuse reading, writing and calculation effectively in only seventeen countries in this group, includingtheir day to day lives, for example to apply for jobs twelve in sub-Saharan Africa.or interpret information on a medicine bottle.Those facing social disadvantage, including Countries that have made sufficient progressthe poor, migrants and ethnic minorities, are to have now achieved gender parity, such asparticularly affected.Burundi, India and Uganda, show what can bedone when strategies are put in place to improvePeople with poor reading and writing skills girls participation in school, such as mobilizingare often stigmatized and suffer from low communities, targeting financial support forconfidence. This poses a major challenge forgirls, ensuring that gender-sensitive teachingadult literacy initiatives. Programmes that helpmethods and materials are used, and providingparticipants benefit from using literacy skills safe, healthy school environments.in daily life encourages adults to participateUnderstanding the reasons for girls lowerwhile avoiding the stigma that can be associatedenrolment is necessary to achieve gender parity.with their involvement. High level politicalAnalysis for this Report of household survey datacommitment and a long-term, coherent policy in nine countries shows that girls face largervision, backed by sufficient resources, are obstacles to entering primary school than boys,needed to tackle the problem. but once in school they tend to have an equal6 21. OVERVIEWchance of completing it. In Guinea, for example, interest in digital texts. To close the gap inonly 40 out of 100 girls from the poorestmathematics, progress in gender equityhouseholds reach the end of primary school,outside the classroom, notably in employmentcompared with 52 boys. This is largely due toopportunities, could play a major role infewer girls starting in the first place: 44 out of reducing disparities.100 girls from poor households enter school,compared with 57 boys. Improve the quality of educationIn over half of the ninety-seven countries withAmong the worlds 650 million children ofgender disparity at secondary level, fewer boysprimary school age, it is time for emphasisthan girls are in school. These countries tend to fall not only on the 120 million who doto be richer and to have higher enrolmentnot reach grade 4 but also on the additionaloverall. They are concentrated in Latin America130 million who are in school but failing toand the Caribbean, and East Asia and the learn the basics.Pacific. But there are also three low incomecountries where boys are disadvantaged:Analysing patterns of inequality in learningBangladesh, Myanmar and Rwanda.outcomes, and what is driving them, can help shape policies that enable children from poorThe main factor driving boys out of secondarybackgrounds to beat the odds. In the seventy-school appears to be poverty and the pull of four countries and economies that participatedthe labour market, as can be seen in Latin in the 2009 PISA survey, the higher the quartileAmerica and the Caribbean. For example, in of the socio-economic index to which a studentHonduras six out of ten boys aged 15 to 17 belonged, the better the performance, with awere in paid work, of whom only two were insimilar pattern for boys and girls.school. By contrast, only two in ten girls werein paid work.In middle income countries participating in the assessment, student performance wasBoys may also drop out because of the school very low: on average, at least half scoredenvironment, including teachers attitudes.below level 2 in mathematics. Even so, overAlthough differences in learning styles betweentime, some middle income countries haveboys and girls are less significant than the been able to increase mean scores andsimilarities, teachers need to be aware of suchreduce inequality in learning outcomes.differences where they exist, and be preparedThe percentage of low performers in eachto adjust their teaching and assessmentquartile of socio-economic status in Brazilmethods accordingly. Two methods that have and Mexico fell between 2003 and 2009.been tried but shown to be inappropriate inThis is particularly impressive given thatsome contexts are single-sex schools and participation in secondary education increasedstreaming classes by performance.significantly over the period. Targeted social protection policies that have beenBoys also face disadvantages in learning implemented in these countries since the lateoutcomes, notably in reading. Over time, this1990s are a likely source of the gains made bygender gap has been widening in favour ofdisadvantaged students.girls. Boys continue to have an advantage inmathematics, but there is some evidence that Teachers are the most important resource forthe gap may be narrowing.improving learning. In many regions, a lack of teachers, and especially of trained teachers,There is no inherent difference in the presents a major obstacle to achieving thecapacities of girls or boys to perform equally EFA goals. The latest estimates suggest thatwell in school. To close the gap in reading, 112 countries need to expand their workforceparents, teachers and policy-makersby a total of 5.4 million primary school teachersshould find creative ways to entice boys by 2015. New recruits are needed to cover bothto read more, including harnessing their the 2 million additional posts required to reach7 22. 2 0 1 2OVERVIEWuniversal primary education and the 3.4 millionEducation for All Development Indexposts of those leaving the profession. Sub-The EFA Development Index provides a Education for All Global Monitoring ReportSaharan African countries alone need to recruitsnapshot of overall progress of nationalmore than 2 million teachers to achieve UPE. education systems towards Education for All. For a subset of fifty-two countries, itThe number of primary school teachers per pupilis possible to observe the evolution of theis one measure of the quality of education. ThereEDI since the World Education Forum inwas a small decline in the global pupil/teacherDakar. The EDI improved in forty-one of theratio, from 26:1 in 1999 to 24:1 in 2010. In sub-fifty-two countries between 1999 and 2010.Saharan Africa, despite the recruitment of moreA particularly large increase took place inthan 1.1 million teachers, the pupil/teacher ratio the twelve sub-Saharan African countries inrose slightly, from 42:1 to 43:1, as a result of this group, with Ethiopia and Mozambiqueenrolment increasing at a faster pace. recording the greatest increases.Of 100 countries with data on primary education, Similar scores may mask differences in thein thirty-three less than 75% of teachers were effort a country is putting into EFA. Colombiatrained to the national standard. Teachers and Tunisia, for example, have the same EDIneed to be trained appropriately to ensure theyscore. Tunisia has high primary enrolmentare able to carry out their tasks effectively. and survival rates but a low adult literacyAssessments have shown that children inrate. Colombia has a much higher adultmany of the worlds poorest countries canliteracy rate but a low primary adjustedspend several years in school without learning net enrolment ratio and an especially lowto read a word. In Mali, for instance, at leastsurvival rate. Tunisias low adult literacyeight out of ten grade 2 students could not read may reflect in part a historical legacy anda single word in a national language. Shocking not necessarily its current effort, whileresults such as this have turned the spotlight onColombias lower scores on indicatorshow teachers are trained, and the support they associated with primary school age childrenreceive once they are in the classroom.suggest that it could face lower adult literacy rates in the future.Teachers themselves may lack the necessarysubject knowledge when they are admitted Extending the EDI to include the ECCE Indexto teaching colleges, so courses often focus developed for this Report reveals whichon helping teachers develop basic subjectcountries have put more emphasis on earlyknowledge rather than learn how to teach childhood. Some countries notably in Centraleffectively. In addition, professional develop-Asia, such as Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan,ment tends to stop once teachers step into and in East Asia, such as Indonesia and thethe classroom. Philippines drop in ranking, while countries such as Jamaica and Mexico improveGovernments should take active steps totheir ranking.strengthen teaching in early grades. Pre-servicetraining programmes need to increase the EFA will not be achieved unless equal attentionemphasis on effective classroom techniques.is paid to all goals. This requires particularIn-service training programmes, in turn, can attention to those considered the mostengage teachers interactively to ensure that neglected, including ECCE and adult literacy.knowledge is converted into better classroom Breaking the intergenerational cycle ofpractice. Benefits are likely to be most education deprivation by providing qualitynoticeable when training is combined witheducation to all children, including in theirother interventions, such as improvement ofearly life years, and to their parents, is key.instructional materials.8 23. OVERVIEWFinancing EFA: shortfalls in spending from 3.2% of GNP to 5.7% allowedand opportunities impressive growth in primary enrolment and theThe experience of the last decade shows thatelimination of the gender gap.increasing the financing of education can go along way towards meeting the Education for AllDespite this promising global trend, somegoals. But just as the numbers of children out of countries that are a long way from achievingschool are stagnating, there are worrying signs EFA, such as the Central African Republic,that donor contributions may also be slowingGuinea and Pakistan, have maintained a lowdown. More money alone will not ensure that level of spending, allocating less than 3% of GNPthe EFA goals are reached, but less money willto education. Pakistan has the second largestcertainly be harmful. A renewed and concerted number of children out of school 5.1 million effort by aid donors is urgently needed. At the yet reduced its spending on education from 2.6%same time, it is vital to explore the potential to 2.3% of GNP over the decade.of new sources to fill financing gaps and tostrengthen the way in which aid money is spent. Fears that the recent food and financial crisescould counter the generally positive trend ineducation spending do not seem to have beenSpending more matters realized, although the longer-term impact needsTotal government spending on education hasto be monitored. Two-thirds of low and lowerbeen rising steadily since Dakar. The greatestmiddle income countries with available dataincrease in spending has been in low income continued to expand their education budgetcountries, where it grew by 7.2% a year, on through the crises. But some countries that areaverage, since 1999. In sub-Saharan Africa, the furthest from EFA, such as Chad and the Niger,annual increase was 5%. Among low and middlemade cuts in 2010 following negative economicincome countries with comparable data, 63%growth in 2009.increased the share of national income spent oneducation in the past decade. New analysis for this Report identifies the extentto which some of the poorest countries haveMost countries that accelerated progressbenefited from aid. In nine countries, all in sub-towards EFA over the last decade did so bySaharan Africa, donors fund more than a quarterincreasing spending on education substantiallyof public spending on education. For example,or maintaining it at already high levels. For in Mozambique, numbers out of school declinedexample, in the United Republic of Tanzania,from 1.6 million in 1999 to less than 0.5 millionthe share of national income spent on education in 2010. During much of this period, aid made upmore than tripled, and the primary net42% of the total education budget.enrolment ratio doubled. In Senegal, an increase Chris Stowers/PANOS 9 24. 2 0 1 2 OVERVIEW Has aid to education reached its peak? donors to basic education in the past decade, The largest increase in aid to education no longer considers education one of its priority Education for All Global Monitoring Report since 2002 was recorded in 2009. It wasareas and is expected to cut aid to education by to a large extent driven by the World Bank 60% between 2010 and 2015. This could have and International Monetary Funds earlyserious implications in some of the poorest disbursement of pledged funds to helpcountries. The Netherlands is set to withdraw vulnerable countries cope with possiblefrom Burkina Faso, for example, at the same consequences of the financial crisis. However, time as four other donors have said they also aid to education stagnated at US$13.5 billionintend to pull out of education in the country. in 2010. Of that amount, US$5.8 billion was for basic education. While that was almost doubleNew donors, such as Brazil, China and India, the 20022003 level, just US$1.9 billion was are receiving greater attention. But they are not allocated to basic education in low income yet providing large volumes of aid, nor are they countries. This is insufficient to fill theprioritizing aid to basic education for low US$16 billion financing gap these countriesincome countries. face. Aid for basic education to low income countries grew by just US$16 million in 2010. Not all countries benefited equally. The increaseSpending aid effectively between 2009 and 2010 was mainly concentratedFigures on aid to education tell only part of the in Afghanistan and Bangladesh, which receivedstory. Ensuring that money is spent effectively 55% of the additional funding for the sixteenis just as vital. Of the thirteen targets on aid low income countries that experienced an effectiveness established by the OECD-DAC increase. By contrast, funding to nineteen low in Paris in 2005, just one was reached by the income countries fell. agreed 2010 deadline. Despite the increases in aid over the last decade, The education sector has been at the forefront donors failed to fulfil the promise they madeof the aid effectiveness agenda. In Kenya, at the Group of 8 Gleneagles Summit in 2005Mozambique, Rwanda and Uganda, for to increase aid by US$50 billion by 2010. Sub- example, significant amounts of aid deployed in Saharan Africa received only around half the conjunction with government plans contributed increase it was promised. Assuming a similar to unprecedented increases in access to primary share going to education as in previous years, education. this failure was equivalent to US$1.9 billion less for schools that year, or around one-third ofDespite this positive experience, there is still current aid to basic education.a need for more and better spending of aid tomany of the poorest countries. One potential Of even greater concern, the outlook for aid vehicle for aid effectiveness principles, the for the years to 2015 is not positive. In 2011,Global Partnership for Education (formerly the total aid decreased in real terms by 3%. ThisEFA Fast Track Initiative), remains underused. is the first time aid has fallen since 1997. Aid It is the only global pooled fund mechanism budgets have been singled out for cuts as part offor aid to education, but it disbursed only austerity packages primarily as a consequenceUS$1.5 billion between 2003 and 2011, equivalent of continuing economic downturn in richto 6% of the share of total aid to basic education countries. From 2010 to 2011, aid as a share ofin low and lower middle income countries. This national income decreased in fourteen out of compares poorly with corresponding funds in the twenty-three countries that belong to the OECDs health sector. The partnership was established Development Assistance Committee (DAC).not only to increase aid volumes, but also tofill gaps left by national governments and aid Some key donors are not only reducing theirdonors. The potential of the partnership to overall aid budgets, but may also be makingensure that aid is better coordinated and more education a lower priority, which would result effective needs to be monitored closely in in education aid falling faster than overall aid coming years in order to inform a post-2015 levels. The Netherlands, one of the top threefinancing framework.10 25. OVERVIEWMore broadly, donors are calling for more universal primary education but its secondarytangible results from their aid investments gross enrolment ratio stands at 82%, doubleas budgets tighten and the pressure for the average for the continent. Ghana has builtaccountability increases. A new approachpolitical consensus around ensuring that itsthat aims to provide aid based on results wealth is used effectively, including in investmentgives recipient country governments morein education.responsibility for achieving their education policyobjectives. For