UNESCO Historic Villages in Korea, Japan, and...

UNESCO Historic Villages in Korea, Japan, and ChinaSince its establishment in 1945, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and

Cultural Organization (UNESCO) has designated over a thousand sites around the world as culturally or physically significant places. Known as the World Heritage sites, these places exhibit enormous importance to the humanity in historical, environmental, and cultural terms. Places that become designated as the UNESCO World Heritage sites attract a vast number of tourists and receive much attention from experts in various fields - such tangible benefits have motivated countries around the world to lobby actively for the enlistment of their properties. However, there have not been thorough efforts to compare and contrast particular Heritage Sites in a particular region.

The three countries in East Asia - China, Korea, and Japan - have long shared common traits including language, religion, and arts based on their similar historical courses. The UNESCO World Heritage sites should be no exception. Hence, I decided to delve into the Cultural Heritage sites in the three East Asian nations. Especially intriguing to me were the historic villages. Based on my visit to the Hahoe historic village in Korea, I knew that the historic villages are not only unique architectural structures but also reflections of the traditions and social circumstances during the particular time period. Each historic village itself is a standing history, capturing the past moments and presenting them to contemporary world with minimal alterations.

In this paper, the four historic villages - one in Korea, one in Japan, and two in China - will be extensively evaluated on a basis of various subcategories. At the end, I'll discuss comparison between the villages and my viewpoint on their preservation. Korea's Hahoe and Yangdong villages, Japan's Shirakawa-go and Gokayama villages, and China's Southern Anhui villages and Lijiang villages each have preserved the traditional village structures, architectural styles, and cultures unique to the region and the time period. They are distinct in their own ways and yet demonstrate many common aspects, confirming the common historical courses that the three countries followed.

Table of ContentsUNESCO World Heritage Criteria pg 3Historic Villages in Other Countries pg 3Historic Villages of Korea: Hahoe and Yangdong pg 4

2 UNESCO Historic Villages in Korea, Japan, and China

Japan: Historic Villages of Shirakawa-go and Gokayama pg 7China: Ancient Villages in Southern Anhui – Xidi and Hongcun pg 10China: Old Town of Lijiang pg 13Comparison and Contrasts pg 17Conclusion pg 23Bibliography pg 24


UNESCO World Heritage CriteriaOut of six cultural criteria for UNESCO World Heritage, the historic villages in the three East Asian countries were selected on the basis of one or more of the following criteria.II. "to exhibit an important interchange of human values, over a span of time or within a cultural area of the world, on developments in architecture or technology, monumental arts, town-planning or landscape design"III. "to bear a unique or at least exceptional testimony to a cultural tradition or to a civilization which is living or which has disappeared"IV. "is an outstanding example of a type of building, architectural, or technological ensemble or landscape which illustrates a significant stage in human history"V. "is an outstanding example of a traditional human settlement, land-use, or sea-use which is representative of a culture, or human interaction with the environment especially when it has become vulnerable under the impact of irreversible change"

Historic Villages in Other CountriesTo enumerate some of UNESCO historic villages in other parts of the world,Brazil: Historic Town of Ouro PretoBermuda: Historic Town of St George and Related FortificationsCôte d'Ivoire: Historic Town of Grand-BassamCzech Republic: Holašovice Historical Village ReservationFiji: Levuka Historical Port TownFrance: Provins, Town of Medieval FairsGermany: Old Town of Regensburg with StadtamhofGermany: Town of BambergKenya: Lamu Old TownLaos: Town of Luang PrabangMexico: Historic Town of Guanajuato and Adjacent MinesPhillipines: Historic Town of ViganSwitzerland: La Chaux-de-Fonds / Le Locle, Watchmaking Town PlanningScotland: Old and New Towns of EdinburghTanzania: Stone Town of Zanzibar

Historic Villages of Korea: Hahoe and YangdongCriteriaTo summarize the reasons for UNESCO's selection of Hahoe and Yangdong as the UNESCO World Heritage site:


Criterion III - Hahoe and Yangdong were clan villages and followed Confucian ideals, both characterizing the trend in the Joseon Dynasty.Criterion IV - The overall and individual layout of the villages, along with the ensemble of yangban and commoners' residences, demonstrate the significant stage during Joseon Dynasty and its influence in literary and philosophical traditions.

Location and GeographyHahoe and Yangdong villages are located in the Kyungsangbukdo province, the

south-eastern region of Korean peninsula that was the center of the Joseon Dynasty's rule. They are sheltered by forested mountains and facing out onto a river and open agricultural fields. Their location was determined according to the Pungsu principle, which emphasized the role of topography in shaping the residents' life and prevailed during the Joseon Dynasty. Hahoe faces Buyongdae Cliff to the north and Mt. Namsan to the south. Its name is a combination of "ha," meaning "river", and "hoe," meaning "going around"; the Nakdonggang River flows around the village, drawing a huge curve that looks like a "s." Yangdong Village spreads down into the valleys of Mt. Seolchangsan, which divides into three branches in the shape of the Chinese character ‘勿.’

Hitorical BackgroundBoth Hahoe and Yangdong villages were formed by yangban, nobles during

Joseon Dynasty, but each have its unique historical account.Hahoe was formed at the end of the Goryeo Dynasty by three clans: Heo, An, and

Ryu. In the 16th century the Ryu clan produced distinguished politicians and scholars; in the mid 17th century Hahoe village came under control of the single Ryu clan when the Heo and An clans left. The village continued to expand in the 18th and 19th centuries until the late 1900s when young people started migrating to cities.

Yangdong village is an example of settlements that grew into noble villages through marriages. It was founded by Son So who later married his daughter to a Yi family member. The marriage produced one of the eighteen sages of Korea, Yi Unjeok. The village developed through competition and cooperation of the Yi and Son clan, and the two clans produced many distinguished figures during the 16th century.

Overall LayoutHahoe village has a shape of a lotus flower or two interlocking commas. It is

divided into Namchon(South Village) and Bukchon(North Village.) The main branch of the Ryu clan, the Gyeomampa, is in the Namchon side and the secondary branch, the


Seoaepa is in the Bukchon side. Bukchon has two significant buildings: Bukchondaek and Yangjindang. Bukchondaek is the largest residential house in Hahoe Village, Yangjindang is the oldest. Across from the Yangjindang stands the Choonghyodang of Namchon, which had been the house of Ryu Seong-ryong, a noted prime minister, and was visited by Queen Elizabeth I.

Yangdong is shaped like an auspicious Hanja(Chinese) character. Members of the Son and Yi families resided on the high grounds of the mountains and valleys. The lower-class homes were built on lower ground. This organization highlights the severe social stratification characteristic of Joseon Dynasty society. Prince Charles visited Yangdong in 1993.

Major BuildingsHahoe and Yandong villages include residences of yangban and commoners,

pavilions, study halls, and Confucian academies for learning.One of the major buildings in Hahoe village is Yongmogak Shrine. It houses Ryu

Seong-ryong's collection of books and includes National Treasure No. 132 Chingbirok, a record of the Imjin War of Korea in 1592, and Treasure No. 160 Kunmundungok, a record of the military encampments. Byeongsanseowon Confucian Academy, which is located 4km east of Hahoe village, is one of the Joseon's five notable Confucian Academies. As an Academy that paid respect to Ryu Seong-ryong and his third son Ryu Jin, it displays great architectural style and outstanding view of Nakdonggang River.

In Yangdong village, Seobaekdang was the primary home of the Wolseong Son Family. It is the oldest building in Yangdong village. It also preserves the layout of the houses during early Joseon period; in contrast to the segregation that emerged later, the men’s quarters are part of the main compound. Seobaekdang Peak can be viewed from the large, wooden floored main hall. Another building, Mucheomdang, was the primary house of the Yeogang Yi family. Its hall is distinguished by its broad dimensions, paper clad lifting doors, and decoration on the tops of the cylindrical pillars. Seobaekdang is located in the northern part of the village, and the Mucheomdang in the southern part.

Architectural StyleBoth Hahoe and Yangdong villages are ensembles of yangban's and commoners'

residential houses. The nobility houses were timber-framed and tiled roof buildings surrounding a small court or impluvium. The nobles constructed their houses in these ways to reflect the style of palace buildings of the Goryeo Dynasty and to adapt to the climate with its extremes of temperature between summer and winter. Moreover, the yangban houses of the nobility reflect the Joseon dynasty's social order and rigid


distinctions between male and female, outer and inner, young and old, servant and master. Each of the yangban houses had separate quarters for men and women; it also had detached servants’ quarters, grain stores, household stores and a library. The house of the head of the family was distinguished by an ancestral shrine and that of the main ‘descent’ family a large ritual or reception hall for maintaining ancestral tablets and hosting ceremonies. On the other hand, commoners' houses were one-storey buildings characterized by mud walls and thatched roofs. They clustered around the yangban houses and were used in strictly functional manners.

Lifestyle and CustomsHahoe and Yangdong villages adopted and followed Confucian principles that

prevailed during the Joseon dynasty. They were also influenced by pungsu principles that pursued harmony between human and the local topography. Residents in the villages carried out rituals to honor their ancestors. For living, they mostly did agricultural activities. The yangban class did not do manual labor, but rather studied Confucian texts or engaged in state affairs as government officials; the servants and the commoners worked on the fields to grow various crops. Hahoe village still maintains folk arts such as Hahoe Mask Dance Drama, a shamanist rite honoring the communal spirits of the village. The performance was a way to satirize the yangban and apostate monks and a way to relieve the oppression of the hierarchical society.

Japan: Historic Villages of Shirakawa-go and GokayamaCriteriaTo summarize the reasons for UNESCO's selection of Shirakawa-go and Gokayama as the UNESCO World Heritage site:Criterion IV - they are traditional settlements that aptly adapted to the environment and social and economic purposes.Criterion V - they have endured drastic economic changes in Japan since 1950 and have preserved both the spiritual and material evidence of their long history through their village structure.

Location and Geography


The two villages are located along the Sho River in Gifu and Toyama Prefectures in central Japan. Shirakawa-gō, meaning "White River Old-District," is located in the village of Shirakawa in Gifu Prefecture. Gokayama, meaning "Five Mountains," is within the city of Nanto in Toyama Prefecture. Situated in a river valley surrounded by the rugged high-mountain Chubu region, these villages overlook the Sho River, which flows into the Japan Sea. This mountainous region was isolated from the rest of the world for a long period of time and so prevented the villages from actively interacting with the outside world.

Historical BackgroundBeginning in the 8th century, the region was frequented by the members of an

ascetic religious order who revered Mount Hakusan while adhering to Pre-Buddhist and Esoteric beliefs. It served as a place for mountain worship. Until the 13th century, the Tendai sect dominated the area; then it was replaced by the Jodo Shin sect, which still remains influential in the region. The religious teachings led to the kumi system of mutual cooperation between neighboring households, which played an important role in the development of the social structure of the region.

The two villages were also subject to clan rule for some period. Shirakawa-go was part of the territory of the Takayama Clan at the beginning of the Edo period. Then from the late 17th century until the Meiji Restoration of 1868 it was under the direct control of the Edo Bakufu, a military government. Gokayama was directly ruled by the Kanazawa Clan throughout the Edo period.Overall Layout

The inscribed property is composed of Ogimachi village in the Shirakawa-go region and Ainokura and Suganuma villages in the Gokayama region. Each of the three villages spreads over a terrace supported by a stone wall. A main street, crossed by other streets and lanes, passes through the tiny community. The houses are on individual lots and are separated by cultivated areas, which mostly grow rice or city-crops. The region is an open landscape, as the villages' boundaries are defined by roads, canals, and cultivated plots rather than walls or hedges. Secondary structures, such as wooden-walled storehouses and grain-drying shelters, were built far away from the residential houses for fire prevention. Religious buildings, for Shinto or Buddhism worship, occupy the higher ground.

In Ogimachi, 117 houses and seven other structures are designated as the historic buildings. Several of the houses were built in gassho style mostly during the 19th century; some others were constructed in post-and-beam structure with rafter-framed roofs, which is similar to gassho style, during the 20th century. It also has two Buddhist


temples and a Shinto shrine, where the guardian spirit of the village is housed. Ainokura village includes 22 gassho-styled houses, most of which have four-room square layout, a Buddhist temple, and a Shinto shrine. Suganuma resembles Ainokura more than Ogimachi and is much smaller, with only eight households and a population of 40 people. It has nine gassho houses, the most recent one built as late as 1929.

Architectural Style and Major BuildingsThe villages are characterized by their Gassho-style houses, which are "rare

examples of their kind in Japan" according to UNESCO. The famous German architect Bruno Taut praised the houses that they are "not like other Japanese style." Gassho-style houses are large houses with steeply pitched thatched roofs, which are shaped like hands folded in prayer and give the name "gassho." Gassho style suited well to both the environmental and economic circumstances of the region. The overall design, in particular the roofs, endured the heavy snowfall that was frequent in the area. It was also apt for the rearing of silkworms and the production of gunpowder, which were the major economical activities of the residents. The upper storeys of the gassho houses were used for cultivation of silkworms, as the heat rising from the first floor filled with people and activity provided an environment conducive to the cultivation. The basement was used for the production of nitre, one of the raw materials needed for the production of gunpowder. The houses are large with three or four storeys, as they intended to accomodate large extended families and a highly efficient space for a variety of industries.

One of the major buildings in the villages is "Haba House" that retains the most well-preserved gassho structure with very little renovation. Another is "Iwase house", which is the largest gassho-style house in Gokayama with 5 floors and an interior constructed of zelkova wood.

Lifestyle and CustomsThe region's mountainous geography limited the area available for agriculture

and homestead development. Traditional rice-field production was not wholly successful in the area, so farmers had to cultivate alternative grains such as buckwheat and millet in small fields, but even with these the farming provided earnings no greater than a subsistence amount. Hence, the residents turned to rearing of silkworms for sericulture, cultivation of mulberry for paper, and production of nitre for gunpowder. Paper and nitre production declined in the 19th century with the introduction of western paper-making processes and the importation of cheap saltpetre from Europe; the silk industry survived longer, until the 1970s.


China: Ancient Villages in Southern Anhui – Xidi and HongcunCriteriaTo summarize the reasons for UNESCO's selection of Xidi and Hongcun as the UNESCO World Heritage site:Criterion III - Xidi and Hongcun demonstrate well a kind of human settlements based on a trading economy during feudal period.Criterion IV - Their buildings and street patterns reflect the socio-economic structure of a long-lived settled period of Chinese history.Criterion V - The villages have preserved well the traditional non-urban settlements of China that have mostly disappeared in other areas.

Location and GeographyXidi and Hongcun villages are located in Yi County, Huangshan City in south

Anhui Province. Xidi village is surrounded by mountains and built along and between three streams - Front Stream, the Back Stream and the Golden Stream - running east-west. These streams enter from the north and east and converge at the Huiyuan Bridge in the south of the village. Hongcun is situated at southwest foot of Huangshan Mountain next to a stream which forms two pools. Because it is on a high altitude, it is almost always shrouded by cloud and mist.


Historical BackgroundThe two villages were built by successful merchants and officials who returned

home from government appointments and businesses. The construction of Xidi began during Northern Song dynasty. It was originally

called Xichuan, meaning “West River”, because of the streams that pass through it. It owes its growth to the Hu family from Wuyuan, whose adopted son Hu Changyi's descendants moved their families from Wuyuan to Xidi in 1047. They started constructing important buildings then. From 1650s until 1850s, the Hu family was influential in both commerce and politics. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, members of the family became imperial officials, while many also became graduates of the Imperial College.

Hongcun was first founded in the Shaoxing period of the Southern Song Dynasty by Wang family. From then on, it served as the main village where Wang families lived together. Wang clan was a respectable family in Central Plains. The clan moved to the south at the end of the Han dynasty and settled in the lower reaches of the Changjiang River. Hongcun village thrived during the Ming and Qing dynasties. A number of imposing public buildings, such as the South Lake Academy (1814), the Hall of Meritorious Deeds (1888), the Hall of Virtuousness (1890) and the Hall of Aspiration (1855, rebuilt 1911) were constructed in the 19th and early 20th centuries. When the Republic was established, Hongcun fell into decline, somewhat later than Xidi, but it still has a history of over 900 years.

Overall LayoutIn Xidi, the streets run alongside the three rivers and are paved with granite.

Narrow alleys join the streets, and with nearly hundred alleys and streams interlacing, the village is like a maze of folk buildings. There are small open spaces in front of main public buildings, which were built at a distance from each other. At the entrance of the village stands a memorial archway, which was built by Hu Family in 1578.

Hongcun village is shaped like an ox. Leigang Hill in the west end of the village resembles an ox head and two huge trees on the hill stand like ox horns. At the front and rear of the village are four bridges that go over Jiyin stream and resemble four legs of the ox. The several hundred well-arranged houses form the body of the ox, and Jiyin stream that meanders through the village is regarded as its intestines. A crescent pond is the fourth stomach, and a larger South Lake the second stomach.

Major Buildings


Xidi village has 124 ancient residences and three ancestral halls that include an archway, Linyun Pavilion, Eastern and Western Gardens, Ruiyu Courtyard, Taoli Garden, Da Fu Grand House, and Lvfu Hall. Built in 1578, the Ruiyu Courtyard is a pailou to the residence of the Qing prefectural governor Hu Wenguang. The five-storey pailou is supported by four pillars and symbolizes the eminent status of the Hu family. The Dafu Grand House was the home of a senior official in the feudal society. The Jing'ai Ancestral Temple, located in the center of the village, is the largest ancestral temple in Xidi. It covers an area of about 1800 square meters, in which every house with its magnificent courtyard and exquisite garden demonstrates unique layout, structure, decoration and furnishings.

Hongcun village has about 137 Ming and Qing style residences. Known as the "folk imperial palace", Chengzhi House is the most well preserved and representative. Covering an area of over 2,000 square meters, it is the grandest and most exquisite building in the village. Various patterns and figures are carved on the columns, door frames, and beams and are gilded with gold; it is said that about five kilograms of gold was used in gilding the wood carvings during the construction of the house. Jingxiu House, Dongxian House, Sanli House and Xuren House are some other grand houses in the village.

Architectural StyleMost houses in the two villages are timber-framed with brick outer walls and

elegantly carved decoration that depict social activities such as the Lantern Festival. In Xidi, the grandiose residential buildings with the title of 'hall', despite complex ground plans, use similar materials, decoration, and patterns. The outer walls have very small windows for security; they are carved out of granite and decorated with floral and geometric motifs. Many have small private gardens, usually in the front courtyard, that were ingeniously used despite their limited area. The elaborate carvings on the wood, stone, and tiles are common ornaments in the village.

In Hongcun, the well-arranged residences have pink walls and black tiles. What's exceptional in this village is the extensive water system. At first, around 1405, a channel was dug to bring fresh water to the village from the West Stream. Some 200 years later, the water supply system was completed with the creation of the South Lake. The waterways were supposed to be designed to provide source of washing water, even water for fire extinguishing. They were designed to form a shape of ox, as already explained above.

Lifestyle and Customs


The two ancient villages are distinguished from other ancient villages in that their construction and development were independent of agriculture to a large extent. The villagers in these villages have largely surpassed common peasants and citizens in terms of their awareness, lifestyle and taste. They maintained and strived to keep in touch with the literati and officials. Therefore, these ancient villages have a deep cultural atmosphere. Based on the common housing construction, the residents used different decorative techniques to build small gardens and windows, dig pools, arrange bonsai, carve on beams, and hang horizontally inscribed boards, creating an elegant environment which all reflected their artistic accomplishments. The location selection and housing construction in Xidi and Hongcun followed the geomantic theory on the Book of Changes, which has more than 2,000 years of history, emphasizes the theory that man is an integral part of nature, and has a scientific basis and high aesthetic standards.


China: Old Town of LijiangCriteriaThough they are not stated explicitly in the UNESCO website, to summarize the reasons for UNESCO's selection of Lijiang as the UNESCO World Heritage site:Criterion II - Lijiang is a harmonious fusion of different cultural traditions.Criterion IV - Lijiang has unique architectural styles in its abundant domestic dwellings.Criterion V - Lijiang's exceptional water system has enabled the town to exist harmoniously with the environment.

Location and GeographyLijiang town is located in Lijiang Naxi Autonomous County of Yunnan Province, a

southern province that borders Myanmar and Laos. The town is situated on a mountain slope running from north-west to south-east, facing a deep river. The plateau it stands on rises about 2,400 meters above the sea level. The town is embraced by the Lion Mountain in the west and Elephant and Golden Row Mountains in the north. It has vast fertile fields in the southeast and crystal clear water running through. With these geographical features, Lijiang looks like a big jade ink slab, thereby getting the nickname the Town of Big Ink Slab (Dayanzhen).

Historical BackgroundEven before Lijiang town was built, the Lijiang region was under continuous

human occupation since the Palaeolithic era. It was under the jurisdiction of the Shu region of the Qin State during the Warring States period; it was established as Suijiu County in the Western and Eastern Han Dynasties. The construction of Lijiang town began in the 13th century AD during the later Southern Song dynasty when the ancestors of the ruling Mu family moved their main centre to the area. After Azong Aliang submitted in the 1250s to the authority of the Yuan Emperor Hubilie, the town became an administrative centre. The Lijiang Junmin prefecture was established when the region came under Ming rule in 1382, a prefect of which was awarded the honorable surname "Mu". The successive Mu prefects were responsible for developing their centre until 1724


when they were replaced by a non-native, imperial appointee. The new prefect built prefectural offices, barracks, and educational facilities at the foot of the Jinhong Mountain. Lijiang County was created as part of Lijiang Junmin Prefecture in 1770 and survived when the prefecture was abolished by the Republic in 1912. Lijiang has continued to function as an administrative centre ever since, now for the Lijiang Naxi Autonomous County.

Lijiang town was the cultural, political, and educational center in the area. It also played an important role in the commercial activities among Yunnan, China hinterland, Tibet, India, and many other Asian countries. The northern part of Lijiang City was a commercial district; the main streets in this part of the old town come from the broad street known as Sifangjie, which has traditionally been the commercial and trading centre of the north-western part of Yunnan Province.

Overall LayoutA unique characteristic of the town's layout is the absence of a city wall. The

reason was that if the Chinese character of 'Mu," which was the name of the ruling family of Lijiang for more than 500 years, is put into a frame, which represents the city wall, the resulting character is 'Kun,' which means 'siege' or 'predicament'.

Some other features of the layout are that the houses are close to each other, and the lanes are narrow and meandering. The streets are paved with slabs of a fine-grained red breccia or local bluestones, which are neither muddy in the rainy season nor dusty in the dry season. The center of the town is Sifangjie, from which four main streets radiate and extend to the four different directions.

Major BuildingsOne of the major buildings in the old town is Mu's residence. Situated in the

southwest of the town, Mu’s Residence is the yamen (office and residence of a Chinese official) of Tusi Mu. It was rebuilt in 1996 and presently functions as the local museum. Covering an area of 46 acres, it fully reflects the architectural style of the Central Plains in Ming Dynasty but also retains the Tang and Song architectural features. The layout of the courtyard demonstrates the style of Naxi culture as well. Wangu Tower is another landmark building of Lijiang. It is famous for being the first all-wood structure floor of China. The building is 33 meters high with 16 main columns.

Architectural StyleThe domestic dwellings in the town represent well the Naxi minority culture. They

developed into a unique architectural style with the absorption of elements of Han and


Zang architecture. Most of the houses are made of timber and tile and are two-storeyed. Naxi people paid much attention to decorating the walls and windows with figures of human or animals. The walls have stone foundation and the exteriors of the walls are plastered and lime-washed. The walls of the first floor are made of adobe and those of the second floor, timber planks. The houses have tiled roofs and an external corridor or veranda. Houses mostly have gardens with beautiful trees and flowers.

Lijiang has a unique water system that still functions today. Black Dragon Pool is the town's main water source and subdivides into many streams which can reach every family and every street. The water supply is supplemented by many springs and wells within the town. The water system has three main usages; the residents built three mouths from the upriver to the downriver. The water in the first mouth is for edibility, the second one is for cleaning of the vegetables and fruits, and the last one is for washing clothes. A sluice, opened late at night, uses the different levels of the Western and Central Rivers to flush and wash the streets. There are 354 bridges altogether that are necessary in this kind of complex water system.

Lifestyle and CustomsDongba culture of Naxi people was one of the predominant influences in the

town. Before the formation of this culture, Naxi people largely followed native religion of sorcery and a bunch of other cultures like the Tibetan Bon Religion, Buddhism, and Taoism that were introduced into the region during Tang and Song dynasties and affected the native religion. Along with the impact and blending among these various cultures, the new Dongba Religion was founded. Dongba culture was led by sages who were considered to be mediums between humans, gods, and ghosts; they were also regarded as being capable of removing disasters and guaranteeing good fortunes. Dongba culture consists of writings, scriptures, paintings, music, and dance. Dongba character is the only existing hieroglyphic in China and is used by a few Naxi people even today. Naxi people drew Dongba paintings to show their wishes and beliefs. They also performed Dongba dance in sacrifice events; most of these dancing performances show the locals' fight against the natural world and the forces of evil.

For economic activities, Naxi people mostly engaged themselves in farming, stockbreeding and handicrafts. They wore unique traditional clothes and celebrated traditional festivals like "Farm-Tool Fair," "God of the Rain Festival," and "Mule and Horse Fair," along with the same festivals as those of the Hans, including the Lunar New Year, the Pure Brightness Festival, the Dragon Boat Festival, the Mid-Autumn Festival and the Torch Festival. Feudal landlord economy dominated the region, under which men enjoyed a predominant status in monogamous families.


Comparison and ContrastsTime PeriodThe four villages were constructed in the following periods:

11~13th C: China 15~16th C: Korea

8th C: Japan

700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600


Location

a: Japan's Shirakawa-go and Gokayamab: Korea's Hahoe and Yangdongc: China's Xidi and Hongcund: China's Lijiang

The Overall Appearance

Japan's Shiwakawa-go Village Japan’s Gokayama Village

China's Xidi Village China’s Hongcun Village

Korea's Hahoe Village Korea's Yangdong Village


China's Lijiang Village

Reason for SelectionKorea's Hahoe and Yangdong were selected as the World Heritage site mainly

because of their reflections on the social background like Joseon dynasty, Confucianism, Pungsu principle, and social hierarchy. Japan's Shirakawa-go and Gokayama were selected for their environmental interaction and reflection on its environmental circumstances rather than social values or structures. This characteristic is evident in that gassho houses were built to adapt to the environment and that the residents mainly engaged in sericulture, nitre production, and paper production. China's Xidi and Hongcun had both social and environmental aspects, demonstrated by the fact that they were ruled by Chinese officials or merchants and had well-developed water system. Lijiang in China also displays both facets in that it was influenced by various cultures, notably Naxi culture, and developed extensive water system.

Common featuresThe four villages display various common characteristics. First, they have

preserved their buildings, layouts, architectural styles, and traditional customs throughout the history, while most other towns have transformed greatly due to modernization and urbanization. Second, they reflect their backgrounds, either social or environmental. Hahoe and Yangdong villages in Korea show the values and cultures of Joseon dynasty; Japan’s villages constructed houses and engaged in economic activities in accordance with the geographical and climatic factors; China’s villages developed water systems by harnessing the geographical advantages, cultivated cultures based on their time period and the region, and decorated their buildings according to the local culture. Third, their geographical features are similar in that they are situated in valleys, with rivers flowing through and mountains surrounding the towns. Fourth, each village


has a distinct shape. Yangdong village in Korea is shaped like a Chinese character ‘勿,’ Hongcun village in China like an ox, and Lijiang village in China like a big jade ink slab. Fifth, the buildings in the four villages had roofs made of thatched straws or tiles. In Korea’s villages, the roofs of yangban’s dwellings were made of tiles and the roofs of commoners’, thatched straws. In Japan’s villages, the gassho houses were roofed by thatched straws. In China’s villages, the buildings had tiled roofs.

UniquenessThough all four villages shown above are similar in various ways, each town

possesses a unique trait that aptly characterizes it. Korea's Hahoe and Yangdong are distinguishable in that they were ensembles of yangban(noble) and commoners, were ruled by clans, and reflected Confucianism and social structure of Joseon dynasty; Hahoe Mask Dance is one of unique traditions of the towns. Characteristic features of Japan's Shirakawa-go and Gokayama are the gassho-style houses and the economic activities like producing paper, gunpowder, and silk. Both towns in China are unique in that they developed remarkable waterways that still remain intact today.

PreservationThe four historic villages have been preserved well largely because they were

designated as the World Heritage sites by UNESCO. In Korea's Hahoe and Yangdong villages, various regulations in state, provincial, and local levels have been enforced to protect and manage the properties. In Japan's Shirakawa-go and Gokayama, the government has implemented protection laws and designation of buffer zones; the residents have retained a conventional collaboration system for maintaining Gassho-style houses. Both the Southern Anhui villages and Lijiang village in China have been under similar preservation efforts. These collaborative efforts should be recognized, because some countries tend to solely rely on the UNESCO committee for protection of their heritage sites without their own investment of state revenue and efforts. Moreover, it cannot be denied that the designation of the villages as the World Heritage sites has been crucial in their preservation by stimulating both state and local protection efforts.

Japan’s Shirakwa-go and Gokayama villages have the longest history: they were constructed during the eighth century. These villages were preserved for such a long time due to various reasons. First, their geographical features made them isolated from the outside world for a long time, sheltering them from the influence of modernization and urbanization for the time period. Second, they minimized the fire risk by constructing secondary buildings far away from the main houses. Third, elaborate fire-extinguishing systems have been installed and fire-fighting squads of residents have been organized,


protecting the buildings from fire. Finally, the conventional collaborative efforts of the residents have helped preserve the traditional houses; such efforts of the community have proved to be equally important as the government policies.

However, it is also true that these villages have not remained wholly intact. One factor for the changes was the enforcement of urban development projects like construction of roads and new buildings. In Japan, for instance, major highway construction less than one kilometer from Ogimachi and Suganuma has had a detrimental effect on the scenic landscape despite endeavors to reduce the effect through plantings along the roadside and embankments and controls on bridge design. In Korea, construction of bridges, roads, and railways has damaged the landscape in Yangdong village. Even Hahoe village that is acclaimed as one of the most well-preserved Heritage sites in the world bears a scent of urban development, in my opinion. I have visited the village several years ago and can still recall that the construction cranes had a disturbing effect on the village's view. Another force that has undermined the integrity of these villages is the tourism. Artificial elements have been added to the villages to attract more tourists. The lives of local residents have been geared to display the "traditional" lifestyle to the tourists. The constant influx of visitors not only has disrupted the residents' otherwise peaceful lives but also has threatened the protection of the properties and the environment. For example, in China's Lijiang village, potted flowers line the streets and are crammed into every free corner, which is an apparent attempt geared toward tourists but artificial and somewhat distracting. Moreover, the state has followed a typical strategy: lower the rents for the local residents under the condition that they continue to dress in their traditional garb and sit outside their homes doing “local” activities such as smoking or weaving. Yet, the urban development and tourism are part of the irrevocable modernization trend and cannot be dismissed just for the sake of preservation. Therefore, it is important to strike a balance between protection and development.


ConclusionThis paper has analyzed each historic village thoroughly in terms of its selection

criteria, geography and location, historical background, overall layout, architectural style, and major buildings; it has then compared the four villages, analyzing the similarities and differences of the villages. The four villages share many common characteristics especially because they were parts of the civilizations that had long interacted with each other through trades and cultural diffusion. Yet, each village has also developed unique features that distinguish it not only from the other Asian historic villages but also from the extant historic villages the world over. It is precisely because of such uniqueness that the UNESCO has recognized and thus has designated each village as the World Heritage site.

It can be concluded that the four villages have been preserved well, and the governments, both local and national, deserve recognition for their extensive efforts of protection. The four villages are exemplary cases in which historical assets have survived the dramatic social and economic transformations; they provide excellent guidance for other states - especially the developing ones - that strive to exhibit their own historical landmarks. It is important to take note that the preservation has not resulted from a sole reliance on the UNESCO support or tourism revenues but from the collaborative endeavors of the government, the town residents, and international supports, especially well-exemplified by Japan’s Shirakawa-go and Gokayama. As for the four villages, striking a balance between preservation and developments for modernization and tourism is crucial. As this paper has demonstrated, historic villages are valuable assets – they are surely worthy of such efforts.


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