ultrasonic grain size measurement

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Ultrasonic Measurem ent of Mechanical Pro perties

R.

B.

Thompson

Ames Laboratory andCenter forNondestructive Evaluation

Iowa StateUniversity

Ames, 1A

5001

1

Abstract-The

current

status of one of the

"holy

grails" of

nondestructive

testing,

the

measurement of mechanical

properties s uch as the strength, form ing parameters or fracture

toughness of metal polycrystals, s asses sed Starting from he

perspective of materials science, the microstructural eatures

which controlariousmechanicalropertiesseviewed,

followed by aiscussion, fromhe perspective of

elastodynamics, of the degree to which hese microstructural

features can be sensed by ultrasonic measurem ents. Given this

background, the possibility of achieving the holy grail"

is

discussed. When the mechanical prop erty iscontrolled by

a

singlemicrostructural eature, the quest canbe fruitful,

as

is

illustrated by several examples. Howev er, more generally, there

will not be

a

one-to-one relationship between the

microstructural featuresensed by ultrasoundndhose

controlling the mechanical properties, and empirical correlations

which are restricted t o particular situations must be utilized. It

is suEested thathismpiricism will be most effectively

reduced if futureeffon isconcentrated on

understanding the

relationshipsetween the ultrasoniceasurementsnd

microstructural featuresand on developing new measurement

modalities which provide complementary information.

INTRODUCTION

Nondestructiveevaluation (NDE ) encompasses a variety of

measurement techniques that have been developed to ensure the

integrity of structural nd lectronic omponents,ncluding

measurements performed duri ng p rocessing, after manufacture,

and duringservice

[I].

Onemaj or objective s the detection,

characterization and sizing of discrete flaws, information that is

needed to determinewhether these flaws can be tolerated in

future service. However, the accepbreject decision depends not

only on he properties

of

the flaw but on he environment in

which it resides. Residual stresses, superimposed on the stresses

associated with appliedoads, can increase r ecrease the

driving orces caus ing he extension of he flaw. Changes in

material microstructure can modify the resistance

of

the m aterial

to crack growth an d or fracture. Thehrase mechanical

properties isften used to desc ribe particulararameters

quantifying this resistance to deformation and failure, a notable

example being he fracture oughness. T h i s is but one of a

number of mechanical properties, others being yield stress, bond

strength. formingparameters,hardness. and others. In many

applications in which one wishes to characterize the material,

rather than discrete flaws, it is the determination of one of these

mechanical propertieshat is he user's end bjective.hus

defining

a second majorbjective of NDE.

0-7803-3615-1/96/ 5.00

0 996

IEEE

However,atisfyinghis need can be uite difficult, and

achieving this goal has beco me one of the "holy grails" of the

field.

In

thispaper, the problem nd its challenges will be

discussed, examples will be given where notable successes have

been achieved, and areas which are believed to be fruitful topics

for future work will be note d

Bef ore turning to these technical details,

however,

it should be

noted that this

is

an area hat s ikely

to

become

increasingly

important in the comingdecades. Theaging of much of the

world's smctural infrastructure, including bridges,highways,

railroads,powergenerating tations, nd ircraft, all require

periodic assessment of serviceability

p].

Determination of

mechanical properties is a crucialstep in his assessment,

GENERAL STATUS

OF

ULTRASONIC MEASUREMENT

OF

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

In many cases,orrelations have beenoted between

ultrasonic parameters. such as velocity,ttenuation, and

backscattering,nd material properties.neneral, the

underlying cause

of

theseorrelations is that the same

microstructural feature which controlshe ultrasonic

measurement plays an important role in controlling the property

of interest.owever, there areenerallyultiple

microstructural features which controloth the ultrasonic

measurements and the

properties

of

interest.

Since the

functionalelationships are not

the same,nly

empirical

relationships, under controlled c onditions, have generally been

observed. As noted by

Vary.

"Ultrasonicmeasurementsgive

indirectndications of mechanicalropertyariations and

morphologicalonditions.mpiricalorrelationsnd

calibrations must be

established oreach material even where

theoretical bases exist

[3].

As an example,

Vary

reported a correlation between fracture

toughnessnd

a

parameterssociated with the ultrasonic

attenuation or variety of materials, inclu ding certain ow

carbon teels [4 ] , as hown in Fig. 1. Similar esults were

reported by Canella and Tadei

[5 ] .

However, in other material

systems, such as those showing a ductile-brittle ransition, no

suchcorrelation was observed [6-81. It was concluded by the

communityhat such techniques only work well when the

fracture toughness is strictly controlled by such microstructural

features as grain diameter and/or the sir e of various phases,

which interact with the ultrasonicavesia scattering

mechanisms, This isonsistent with thebsence of this

correlation in materialsxhibitinguctile-brittle

1996 IEEE ULTR SONICS SYMPOSIUM

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transitions, since the above microstructural features typically do

not change as one passes through the transition temperature.

The mechanisms of damage are considerably different during

neutron embrittlement.owever,gain,orrelations with

ultrasonic measurementshavebeenobserved. Figure 2 shows

the shifts in ultrasonic velocity and attenuation,

as

observed by

an acoustic microscope operating ata frequency of IS MHz,

Figure 1 Correlation etween ltrasonic ttenuation factor

photomicrographs s how decreasing grain s ize

and toughness for threeheats of low carbon steel;

associated w ith increased toughness and

attenuation

131.

1,

, # I

I , ,

1,

< S I., 78,

I

m e 1 111

,lc lr,lil

l l C ~LC , l ( , :

,,

l l l l l

l

I \ l < \

Figure 2. Rayleighwavevelocityandattenuation as a

function of neutron irradiation, measured at four

different levels in the same ontrol rod

[91.

i n 304L

stainless steel control rods

[91

The degree

of remainingatigue

lifes a performance

parameter of

considerable nterest i n

the operation Of Critical

structural componen ts. Numerous studies hav e demonstrated its

influence on ultrasonic elocity and attenuation. igure 3,

following the work of LeBrun an d Billy

[101,

provides a typical

k r e the time of flight of 4 MHz ultrasonic Waves

propagating in mild steeletween pair of transducers,

separated by a fixed distance, s hown as a function of the

736

996 IEEE

ULTRASONICS

SYMPOSIUM

fraction of fatigue ife. It can he seen hat the wave speed

decreases (time of flight increases) by 0.7% during the fatigue

life, with the m ajority of the chang e occurring in the early

stages. Although su ch measurement recisionsreasy to

obtain, it is clear that the technique faces significant difficulties

sincea)thericrostructuralariations can produce

comparable shifts, (b) most of the effect is

in

the early stages of

life and (c) care must he taken to discriminate the fatigue effects

from the effects of temperature changes.

s ~ , , , , , , ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ , ~ ~

~

~~ ~

11,112

I1 0 1 11 I

11.6

Il R

I

Damage

d c w h , p m c n l

( N N a )

Figure 3. Influence of fatigue

on

the time-of-arrival of

ultrasonic R ayleigh w aves prop agating on the

surface of mild steel samp les

[IO].

The measurement of residual

stress is a crucial ingredient

in

the prediction of performance.

There hasbeen considerable

effortdevoted to the development of ultrasonic tests for this

purpose [ l I] Th e physical principles are well understood. Via

anharmon ic effects, stress causes a small shift in the ultrasonic

velocity. Practical implemen tation is inhibited by aproblem

associated with inverting the data, sincemicrostructural changes

can produce compe ting shifts in velocity. This problem has

been pproached hrough theuse of multiplemeasurements

which allow the effects of stress and microstructure to be

differentiated

[12-14], or by obtaining

a

reference velocity from

a region of the c ompo nent n questio n which is believed to have

no Stress but the sam emicrostructure as the region in question.

THE

DEAL SCENARIO

Developingsatisfactoty solutions, which minimize the need

for such empiricism. is a highly interdisciplinary activity.

Figure 4 illustrateshat the developm ent of techniques LO

measure mechanical properties involves a substantial overlap of

the resulting expertise of materials science and

NDE.

In

a

recent

self-assessment, the formercommunityhas dentified tself as

being concerned with the study of the interactions of

synthesidprocessing, structuraYcomposition,roperties, and

performance [IS]. By analogy. we could include in the elements

of NDE the study of the interactions of nondestructive

measurements, microstructuralarameters and material

properties. To the extent that we can quantify and utilize these

interrelationships.we caneducehe degree to which the

differences between the microstructural features sensed by NDE

and hosecontrolling failurddefor mation lead to the need for

empirical correlations and calibrations.

In

the next section, we


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will present examples

in

whicht has beenossibleo

accomplish this objective.

Before doing

so,

however, itmust beemphasized that the

foundations of the N DE comp onent of this paradigm must be an

understanding of how elastic waves interact with microstructure.

Considerable progress along hese lines has been made n the

last decade, but much remains to be do ne. T he qu antities which

are observed in

a

classical ultrasonic measurement are velocity,

as inferred from an arrival time, attenu ation,

as

inferred from a

rate of decay of multiple echoes , and backscattered noise, which

produces a general backgr ound of signals between the discrete

signals associated with reflections from major discontinuities or

the surfaces

of

a component. Discussion s of the relationships of

these quantities to the miCroStNCture [l61 and of the underlying

theory necessary to quantitatively interpret these measurements

1171 may

be ound in the literature.

Speaking somewhat

generally,

it can be noted

that

the velocity is often independent

of

frequency

in

th e cases of interest and hence can be interpreted

in terms of th e ratio f

a

modu lus o density.Hence, the

relationship of velocityo miCrOstNcfUre canftene

interpreted in erms of static heories for he nfluence of the

microstructure

on

these quantities.ttenuation and

backscattering,

on

theotherhand, re onsequences of the

scattering of energy out of the beam by inhom ogene ities in the

material and must be interpreted in termsof lastodynamic

theories. For

a

number of simple cases, these relationships have

beenworked out

in

some detail,

as

will be illustrated by he

following examples.

Consider he case

of a polycrystalwith andomly oriented,

equiaxedrains.

varietyof uthors have considered the

relationship of attenuation to grai n size , with perhaps the most

sophisticatedcalculation being he workof Stankeand

Kino

[18].

Thes e theories show that heultrasound-microstructure

interaction can be described by a universal plot of cui versus

dh where

a

s the attenuation. d is a measure o f the grain size,

and

h

is the ultrasonic wavelength,

as

shown in Fig.

5

These

theories have been confirmed by careful experiments on copper

1191.

A

difficulty which limits

the use of attenuation

measurements

is the necessityhat the

componentsave

parallelaces,

sufficiency far apart hat a train ofechoescanbe observed

whose rate of decay defines he attenu ation. On thin sheet, an

alternate approach involves resonance echniques [ZO]. When

only one surface is available, one can infer the attenuation from

the rate of decay of he back scat tere d oise [211.

In theaterialssed for structuralpplications, the

microstructures are generally considerablymorecomplex. Of

particular interest inhe degradation

of

energy-producing

structures

is

the effectof porosity, e.g. as develop s d uring creep.

Thompso n, Spitzig. et al. [22-231 studied the effec tsof porosity

in the related problem o f monito ring the decrease of, porosity

during sintering.

It

was fou nd that heobservableultrasonic

properties were influenced by the scattering from both the grains

and ores,t was concluded that,or these sintered iron

samples, the porosityontrolled th e velocity throug h

its

influence on the static modulus and density, whereas the grains

controlled th e attenuation th roug h scatter ing effects, essentially

as described by Stankeand

Kino

(181.

In

these samples, he

contributions oft he pores to the attenuation were insignificant,

a

conclusion that is not general since it i s sensitive to the relative

sizes of the grains and pores

as

well as the elastic anisotropy o f

the crystallites

1241.

Thereare, of course,

a

variety of morecomplex situations

which have not yet been analyzed

in

such detail. Th ese include

many of the complex microstructures which have been

developed by metallurgistso achiev e particularly desira ble

mechanicalproperties. Resultssuch

as

thosedescribedabove

provide

a

generalstrategy and may giveconsiderable insight

into the influence

of

the microstructural features o f interest. The

specifics of aarticular caseetermine whetherurther

quantitative efforts ar e warranted.

RECENT ADVANCES

IN

MECHANICAL PROPERTY

MEASUREMENTS

In thisection, we will discuss examples

of

mechanical

property measurements in which the strategy presented in Fig. 4

has been followed.Thes e will be arranged in order of the

degree

to

which heterogeneity present

in

the microstructure must

be taken into account.

The

first two deal with metal polycrystals

while the last one deals with compos ites.

The

first exam ple given will be he prediction

of

sheet metal

forming properties from measurements of the

..

Figure

4.

Over lap of he nterdisciplinary Cou plings in

NDE and Materials Science.

anisotropy of the ultrasoni c wave speed. Form ing properties are

controlled by the plastic ani sotrop y of the sheet, which is in turn

strongly nfluenced by its texture (preferred grain orientation).

As shown

in

the opportion of Fig. 6 [ ] this exture

also

produces an anisotropy

in

elastic arameters which can be

determined either destructively through measurement of Young's

modulus or nondestructively t hroug h measurements

of

ultrasonic velocity.Asboth the plastic and elasticanisotropy

are controlled by the texture, there

is

reason to hope that sheet

metal formability parameters can be inferred from measurements

of the anisotropy of the ultrason ic velocity. Shou ld this be true,

it

opens

the way for on-line measurements, using non-contact

sensors such as electromagnetic-acoustic ransducers (EMAT s)

or lasers, for process control or 100 characterization purposes,

as show n at the bottom of Fig. 6.

Recent research has shown that a technique based on

measurement of the anisotropy of velocity of Lamb waves [26-

271 propagating

in

the

plane

of the sheet is quite successful [281.

Tw o modes are commonly used. Th e fundamental symm etric

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ULTRASONICS

SYMPOSIUM 37


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l 10 to3

Figure

5

Normalized plot of ttenuationversusgrain size

in iron [19].

Figure 6. Strategy of Ultrasonic DeterminationofSheet

Metal

Forming

Parameters [El.

(a)

Comm on Role of Texture in Determining

Elastic and Plastic Anisotropy

(b) Opportunity for On -Line Measurements

Lamb

(S


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Two ultrasonic

predictions

are shown in

Fig.

7, based on the

Mould-Johnson correlation

[38]

and the relaxed onstraints

(RC) model [39]. respectively. Ineach figure. he solid ine

indicates perfect agreement while the dashed lines represent the

expected variability in the tensile data. For the case of F . the

RC model appears

to

giv e the better results, particularly for the

higher valuesf

7

characteristic

of

IF steels.

The

two

approaches give about equivalent results for

Ar .

Figure 7. Experimentalredictionsf and Ar by

Measurements

1361

Ultrasonics, Diffraction andTensile

(a) Ultrasonics and Te nsile Predictions of

7

n

all Samples

on all Samples

(b) Ultrasonics and Tensile Predictionsof Ar

Aluminum s another widely used metal with a cubic crystal

structure. Textureontrols important in a variety of

applications, inclu ding the fabrication of beverag e cans. Hence

i t

is reasonable to consider he utility of usingultrasonics o

monitor texture i n a fashion analogous to the steel applications

discussed above.

There are, however, a numb er of differences. Becau se of the

difference in crystal structu re FCC versus BC C), here re

differences in (a) the deformation m odes (i.e. active slip planes

andirections, (b) processingequencendontrolling

parameters,

and

(c) formability arameters of interest. For

example, in the formation o f beverag e ca ns, the degreeof earing

IS an

engineeringparameter of particular nterest.From the

perspective of ultrasonic m easurements, the fact that the elastic

anisotropy

of

A I is much less than that of Fe means that more

precise measurements are required to achieve the same level of

accuracy in the prediction of texture and formability parameters.

Correlations of

ultrasonic anisotropy with degree

of

earing on

cold rolled sheet

have been reported. Figure 9 presentsdata,

based on a comb ination of the wo rk of Lu et al. 1411, Thompson

et al. (421. It can be seen hat a significant correlationexists

between the

%

earing and the texture parameter Uu.

In thebovexample,he materialas viewed as a

homogeneous medium and the mechanical property of interest

was inferred fro m the wave speed anisotropy. A t the next level

of complexity, one must consider heterogeneities in the m edium,

c.g. the grain structure of

a

metal. Becau se of the anisotropy of

theelastic con stan ts of the crystallites,waves will scatter at

grain boundaries, leadin g to attenuation and backscattered noise.

From th e analysis of the strength and spectral characteristics of

these phenomena, e.g.

as

illustrated in Fig.

5 one

can obtain a

Yo

E A R I N G

k r n ' b 0 . ,

Figure 8. Correlationof he Te xt ur e Param eter W,,, with

the Degree of Earing in Cold Rolled A luminum

1421.

measuref the grainize, which controls a number of

mechanicalroperties i n metal

alloys

with simple

microstructures. Oneexample sdescr ibed by the Hall-Perch

relationship. which states that the yield

stress Do

s given by

u0

= T ~ K D ~ I ~ 3 )

where D s the grain size and

0 1

and K are constants.

Important foundations for

understanding and measuring

attenuation include heworks

of Bhatia [45] Papadakis [46],

Evan et al. [471 andStanke

andKino

[IX]. A

variety of

techniqueshave beenconsidered

to

measure thc attenuation.

Basic measurement procedures are discussed by Papadakis

[48].

However, the interpretation

of

the ata an e somewhat

problematic, since the single crystal elastic constants, needed as

inputs for any of the

theories,

may not he known for alloys or

thecurrent theories

may

not

heapplicable

to

more

complex

microstructures where scattering at grain boundaries is not the

only significantmechanismof attenuation. Figure 10presents

on e alternative ap proach, the use of experimentally determined

calibration curves [49]. Fittinghese to the frequcncy

dependence

of t h e

attenuation providesa measure of grain size.

A econd approac h, particularly appro priate to thin heets,

involves the measurement of the rate of decay of resonances,

from which attenuation can he inferred . Based on a correlation

of this resulting attenuation with grain size, ultrasonicprediction

o f

grain size is realized. Figu re I I presents

a

comparison of the

ultrasonic and metallographically determined grain size for I OW

carbon steel 1201. As was noted previously, the attenuation

1996

IEEE ULTRASONICS SYMPOSIUM 39


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20 40 M eo

IO0

FREOUENCY

(megaherfzl

FREOUENCY

[megaherrzl

Figure 9.Use ofCalibration Curves to Infer Grain Size

Top: 99.99% Pure Copper

from Attenuation [49]

Left:99.5% Pure Nickel

can also be inferred from he rateofdecay of backscattered

noise, again providing

a

measure of grain size

21].

I t

is well know n that the ensile strength, yield

strength, and

hardness are interrelated

in po lycrystalline metals.

Based on the

Hall-Petch relationship,one would hen expect acorrelation

betweenattenuation and hardness. Figure 12presents ucha

result for the aluminum copper alloy 2024.T351A in which the

hardness varied as

a

result

of ge

hardenin g. As expected,

we

see that the sam ples with high attenuation (large grains) had the

lowest hardness

[SO].

However, in developinguch

applications, care must be taken to en sure that t is the grain

size, rather than somether microstructuralactor, which

controls the mechanical property.

Many m odem structural materials have a much greater level of

heterogeneityhan theingle-phase polycrystalsiscussed

above. and here thehallengesn mechanicalroperty

predictions are considerably greater. A very important example

is the case

of

fiber-reinforcedomposites, the mechanical

properties of which are often controlled by those of the interface

between the fibers and matrix. For xample, in metal and

intermetallicmatrix comp osites, specialnterphasialeaction

bamer coatings andompliantoatingsre introduced to

improv e chemical and thermal compatibility. In ceramic-matrix

composites, the interphase is designed oprovide frictional

sliding contact between fiber and m atrix to prevent fiber fracture

Figure 10. Com parison of the De structive and Ultrasonic

Measurements

of

Averag e Grain Size of teel

Samples [ Z O ]

due tomatrixracking.Amajor challenge to theNDE

community has been the develop ment of techniques to measure

and interpret the mechanical properties of the interphasial region

~ 5 1 1 .

Amo ng the important contributions in this area

is

the work of

Rokhlin et al.,

[51-53]

ho have studied the effects of fatigue on

interphasial properties of metal-matrix c om pos ites a nd of

oxidation on the interphasial properties of ceramic matrix

composites. As an example,Fig. 13 show s measurements

of

the

reduction of the interphasial moduli o f a ceramic matrix

composite after oxidation at variousimes and temperaares

[ W .

OUTSTANDING ISSUES IN MICROSTRUCTURAL

CHARACTERIZATION

In the above examples, we have discussedn detail techniques

to

infer formability fro m grain orientation measu rements.

hardnes s from grain size measurements, and oxidation induced

degradation ofinterf acial stiffness

in

composites. Although

significant progress has been made. there is much more to do.

Material scientists are constantly working o improve the

mechan ical properties of materials thro ugh the manipulation of

their miCrOSlNctUre. Included i n alloys are thecreation of

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r

355 36065707580

ULTRAS0 NlC ATTENUATION

(decibels per mete r)

Figure 11. Correlation of UltrasonicAttenuation with

Amounts

of

Ag e Hard ening [SO].

Hardness

in 2024T351A After Different

Figure12.CompositeModuli C3? and CJJ Versus Oxidation

Exposure Tim e inCeramic Matrix Composite

1541.

second phase particles, segregation of atomic species or

precipitation of secon d pha ses at grain boundaries, controlled

interstitial concentrations . and microstru ctures with multiple

dimensional scales such as hose produced by Martensitic

transformations. In composites, a wide variety of tailored

interphases are

of

interest. Som e encouraging preliminary

results have been obtained in each of these areas. As an

example, Mittleman et al have shown the ability to use

backscattering to detect second -phase shells in parts fabricated

by powder metallurgy routes [SS ] and Han and Thompson have

demonstrated the relationship between the frequency

dependence of backscattering and the features

of

a duplex

microstructure 1561. However, there is clearly much to

be

done

if we are to develop a comprehensive setof

tools

for mechanical

properly measurements.

E M ER G IN G M E A S UR E M E N T T E C H N I Q E S

To develop a full set of information needed to measure

mechanical properties, it is clear that new measurement

modalities are required. All of the above examples ar e based on

linear, elastic wave propagation nd can be nterpreted in terms

of such events as scattering processes. Although such

measu remen u can be extremely powerful, there

is

a limit to the

amount of information that can be ecovered.

Nonlinear measurements areemerging

tools

which have

shown considerable promise

n feasibility studies butfor which

a detailed understanding has not yet been developed. As an

example, Fig. 14 presents the dependence

of

ultrasonic

harmonic generation on fatigue for a metallic and composite

system [57]. The large ncrease in the nonlinear parameter seen

towards the end of the fatigue life is much greater than he

corresponding changes in the linear arameters, attenuation and

velocity. A candidate interpretation of this result involves the

opening and closing of the partially contacting m icrocracks.

which are much stiffer in compression [ 5 8 ] Other studies have

suggested that harmo nic generation can be sed

to

measure the

quality of interfaces [59] and adh esive bonds [60]. In a

preliminary interpretation, it is argued that a simp le summation

of the amplitudes of the harmonics is a measure of the binding

force at an interface 1591.

One important potential application

of

nonlinear

measurements is in the haracterization of dislocations,

microstructural elements which control many mechanical

properties. Th e understanding of the interaction of ultrasound

with the dislocation structures found in structural metals is not

well developed. However, progress is being made. Figure 15

presents ideas discussed by Buck [58], building on the work of

Grem aud and B ujard 1611. T he central idea is that, while

dislocation loop lengths

n

many commercial m etals are

sufficiently s hort that he interaction of ultrasound with the

dislocations is small, this situation can he changed by the

application of a stress which causes he dislocations to break

away from their pinning points, thereby increasing heir

loop

length. An examp le of a possible test based on this idea would

he high frequency ultrasonic attenuation measurementsmade

while the material is being insonified by a relatively low

frequency acoustic signalof sufficient power to unpin the

dislocations [62]. Recent progress in the understanding of

dislocation/ultrasound interactions includes the work of Cantrell

1631.

CONCLUSIONS

In general, ultraso nic tech niques to measure mechanical

properties have been basedon empirical correlations, and the

range of sam pleson which successful results can beobtained is

limited. However, as ourunderstanding of w ave-material

interactions matures, improved techniques are emerging.

Specific examples discussed included measurements f sheet

metal formability parameters basedon a determin ation of

preferred orientation, metal hardness based on a determination

of

grain size, and composite interphasial moduliwhich control

mechanical properties.

It is believed that futu re efforts sh ould follo w sev eral lines.

Th e continued development of techniques s uch as those

described here is required. Increased e mph asis should be placed

on

establishing mechanistic understanding of the observations

through the application of appropriate theories of energy-

material interactions. A number of the fundamental analysis

19 IEEE ULTRASONICS

SYMPOSIUM

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tools are in place, and the rangeof microstructural complexities

to which they can be applied is increasing as the power of

Q

1 8 1

,Ad

onltmar8:y

2 1 5 .

a

z

1 4

J

1

rA

D 1 2

A X j a l l D

UeiOC#ty

0 4

0 2

0

5

l0

Nnhe r

01 C Y C U I jlPY5a731

15

Figure 13.

fatigue [571.

Ultrasonic N onlinearity as a function of

(a) 2090 Aluminum

(b) Titanium M atrix Composite

modern computers grows. Increased attention needs to be given

to improved strategies for interpreting, through data inversion

strategies. the measurement results. A first step

is

the improved

mechanistic understanding that

s

discussed above. Such

understanding would provide abasis for combining

multiple

measurements, either basedon different parameters sensed with

the same modality or the use of information gained from

multiple modalities (i.e. data fusion), o suppress the

interference of competing microstructural effects with the

prediction of the quantities of interest. Finally, new

measurement techniques, such as those based on nonlinear

effects. should receive increasing attention.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Ames Laboratory is operated for he U. S . Department of

Energy by Iowa State University under Contract N o.W-7405-

ENG-82. This work was supported by the Director for Energy

Research, Office of Basic Energy Sciences

Figure 14. Aconceptu al view ofan experim ent to sense

dislocatlons with ultrasound . Superim posed bias

stress, as mightbe produced by high amplitude,

low frequency insonification. leads to the

dislocation structures and attenuation as shown at

the right [58].

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