Turkmenistan Dairy Farming Handbook Farming Handbook.pdf · SARD III . SARD III was launched by the...

November, 2018

Turkmenistan Dairy Farming Handbook

SUPPORT TO FURTHER SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT IN TURKMENISTAN

SARD III

SARD III was launched by the European Union in September 2016 to support the Government of Turkmenistan in achieving national policy objectives for sustainable agriculture and rural development, as well as strengthening supporting institutions for the agri-food sector.

The Project’s objectives are to increase the productivity and competitiveness of the agro-food sector through activities aimed at improving agri-food production and marketing and to strengthen the capacity of supporting Turkmen agricultural institutions in fulfilling their roles to achieve this objective. Find out more on the SARD III website (http://sard3tm.org/)

Information exchange is an important aspect of the SARD III Project. This publication forms part of a series of SARD III publications that has been introduced to help encourage such information exchange.

This publication focuses on the best practices and methodologies of dairy farming. Other publications can be

downloaded from the SARD III website’s Downloads1

section and a List of Projects activities2 contains many

examples of SARD III assistance to rural development initiatives.

Manuscript text finalised during February 2019. Original version is the English text.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

SARD III Contact Point editorial input: David Pepper Cover photograph: © SARD III

© - 2019 – Support to Further Sustainable Agriculture and Rural Development in Turkmenistan – SARD III. All rights reserved. Licensed to the European Union under conditions.

This project is implemented by a consortium led by Cardno Emerging Markets Belgium s.a.

1 http://sard3tm.org/downloads 2 http://sard3tm.org/activities

http://sard3tm.org/

http://sard3tm.org/downloads

http://sard3tm.org/activities

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Contents Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 1

Setting up a New Dairy Unit -Considerations ........................................................................................ 1

Planning .............................................................................................................................................. 1

Sourcing Livestock ............................................................................................................................... 2

Expansion ............................................................................................................................................ 2

Sexed semen ....................................................................................................................................... 2

Dairy unit buildings, design, layout and equipment ........................................................................... 2

Feed sources and feed production ..................................................................................................... 4

Herd management ................................................................................................................................. 4

Identification ....................................................................................................................................... 4

Recording ............................................................................................................................................ 5

Grouping ............................................................................................................................................. 6

Management through the production cycle ....................................................................................... 7

Milking .................................................................................................................................................. 11

Milking Plant ..................................................................................................................................... 11

Milking Staff ...................................................................................................................................... 12

Pre-Milking Tasks .............................................................................................................................. 12

Milking Routine ................................................................................................................................. 13

Footbaths .......................................................................................................................................... 13

Post–Milking Tasks ............................................................................................................................ 14

Mastitis.............................................................................................................................................. 14

Summer Mastitis ............................................................................................................................... 14

Herd Health .......................................................................................................................................... 15

Welfare ............................................................................................................................................. 15

Health Checks .................................................................................................................................... 15

Herd Health Recording ...................................................................................................................... 16

Common Troubles and Disorders ..................................................................................................... 16

Feeding ................................................................................................................................................. 23

Principals of Feeding ......................................................................................................................... 23

The Digestive System ........................................................................................................................ 23

Feed Requirements and the ME System ........................................................................................... 24

Dry Matter Intake ............................................................................................................................. 26

Calculating a Ration .......................................................................................................................... 26

Protein Degradability ........................................................................................................................ 27

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Mineral Requirements ...................................................................................................................... 28

Vitamin Requirements ...................................................................................................................... 28

Conclusion on Feed Principals .......................................................................................................... 28

Calf Rearing ........................................................................................................................................... 29

Colostrum .......................................................................................................................................... 29

Calf housing ....................................................................................................................................... 30

Methods of Calf Rearing ................................................................................................................... 30

Husbandry Tasks ............................................................................................................................... 33

Some Calf Rearing Problems ............................................................................................................. 35

Herd Replacements .............................................................................................................................. 36

Rearing Policies ................................................................................................................................. 37

Age at Calving .................................................................................................................................... 37

Calf Rearing Stage ............................................................................................................................. 38

Breeding AI and Bulls ........................................................................................................................... 39

Infertility............................................................................................................................................ 40

Post-calving Management ................................................................................................................ 40

Breeding Records .............................................................................................................................. 40

Heat Detection and Service .............................................................................................................. 40

DIY Artificial Insemination ................................................................................................................. 41

Pregnancy Diagnosis ......................................................................................................................... 42

Selecting Sires ................................................................................................................................... 42

Sexed Semen ..................................................................................................................................... 42

Bulls, Rearing, Housing, Feeding, Working and Bull Health .............................................................. 43

Conclusions ........................................................................................................................................... 44

Adequate Knowledge ........................................................................................................................ 44

Adequate motivation ........................................................................................................................ 44

Adequate facilities ............................................................................................................................ 44

Final Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 45

Annex 1 ................................................................................................................................................. 46

Annex 2 ................................................................................................................................................. 47

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Introduction This handbook is produced to provide basic information to the new Turkmen Dairy Farmers

that are about to, or already have begun milk production It is the result of requests from dairy

farmers visited during SARD III consultations supported by the Union of Industrialist and

Entrepreneurs (UoIE) of Turkmenistan and the results of the Value Chain Review (VCR) of

Turkmen Dairy Production carried out by the Project Technical Assistance Team (TAT). The

new Turkmen dairy farmers face many challenges and this handbook by itself is not enough

but it will present the main basics to successful planning, construction and population of new

dairy units, managing profitably, expanding, producing high quality milk for liquid

consumption, processing and provide a basis for training that new dairy farmers need to be

aware of. Friesian Holsteins are used to illustrate this manual (they are in the majority in

Europe and North America), however the comments and points hold good for other dairy

breeds and dual purpose breeds.

Currently none of the milk produced in Turkmenistan is of good enough quality in terms of

safety (total bacterial count (TBC), somatic cell count) and compositional quality to be used

in processing for yoghurt, cheese production (except locally produced soft cheese of much

lower quality compared to imported, but affordable for domestic consumers) or

confectionary meaning total reliance on imports. With some effort there is no reason why

this situation cannot be reversed and dairy products from Turkmenistan be exported via the

route of import substitution as the first step. Milk is the only naturally occurring food in nature

that fulfils all human nutritional requirements, so there is a basic need to have good quality,

safe milk available to the whole of the country’s population, particularly for young children.

Establishing and developing a dairy unit producing high quality and safe milk is a long term

process that requires full time commitment. It contrasts sharply with for example broiler

production where turn-key units can be bought, imported and produce the first crop of

broilers in 40 days. Milk production is on-going it can take 5 years to establish a dairy herd

and 10 years for plans to reach maturity. The milk production process is necessarily complex

a holistic approach has to be adopted as lack of attention to just one facet of production can

result in a large drop in output and/or milk compositional quality and safety. Although new

technology and computerisation has taken a lot of handwork out of dairy farming the

successful dairy farmer knows “what makes cows tick” and has the ability to carry out the

right job at the right time.

Setting up a New Dairy Unit -Considerations Planning – it is vitally important before construction of the dairy unit begins that there is a

clear detailed vision of the dairy unit in its aims and totality, herd size, source of foundation

cattle stock, cow accommodation, milking parlour type and size, degree of automation, forage

production and storage, concentrate feed source, market for the milk and milk products.

Possible future expansion of the dairy unit should be built into any plans that are drawn up

as it is difficult to predict what may be needed in 5 or even 10 years. Once a dairy unit is built

and the herd is producing milk being a 24/7 operation it is extremely difficult to make any

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substantial changes, hence the need for detailed and careful flexible planning before

proceeding with the dairy unit.

Sourcing Livestock – for new Turkmen would-be dairy farmers this is probably the most

difficult task, international dairy equipment and building manufacturers can provide turn-key

dairy units on a green field site at a price of course, but populating the new diary unit is

entirely another problem that has to be faced from the beginning. How best to go about it?

There are many options all with their different problems that need to be assessed. Firstly

using locally sourced livestock, this has the disadvantage that currently local cows perform

poorly, may have endemic disease problems but may be more adapted to Turkmen

conditions. However it will take a very long term breeding program to raise production to

respectable levels even using high merit AI bulls. The more attractive alternative from the

production point of view is to import high merit in-calf heifers from a recognised source

(Austria, Germany, Holland) to set up a nuclear herd, then keeping the herd closed to avoid

bringing in disease as far as possible to expand the herd using only artificial insemination (AI).

However this is very costly in comparison to local sourcing of livestock with a number of

difficulties in paying for livestock to be imported into Turkmenistan, health certificates,

paperwork generally and transportation by either road or air (air freight being prohibitively

expensive adding another 2500 USD per animal to the price). Sourcing livestock from

neighbouring countries of former soviet states may be less expensive than Western Europe

but there may be problems with quality of livestock and possible importing of disease with

the stock. As founding a dairy herd is a long term commitment it should not be skimped in

terms of cost and the best livestock possible should be purchased to found the herd.

Expansion – as mentioned previously in this section expansion of the dairy unit should be

built into any planning before the unit is set up. Expansion in terms of the cow

accommodation and milking parlour being able to accept higher numbers of dairy cows. And

expansion of herd numbers and how that may be achieved using own resources or buying in

more livestock. Expansion of herd numbers can only succeed using own resources when the

herd replacement ratio is under control being 20-25% so between a fifth or a quarter of the

herd is replaced on average every year.

Sexed semen – is a useful tool for herd expansion and achieving higher herd numbers more

quickly while at the same time improving herd milk output and quality. Sexed semen is a

recent innovation but has found favour as a way of producing high merit herd replacement

heifers from the best performing cows, its use can also speed up herd expansion as there are

little or no dairy bull calves produced that have no place in the dairy herd. It can also be used

to produce beef cross bull calves from the dairy herd cows not used for replacement breeding

so making a useful addition to income from the dairy unit.

Dairy unit buildings, design, layout and equipment - establishing a new dairy unit on a

green field site is a huge advantage as there are no restrictions caused by existing buildings.

There are a large number of “off the peg” milking parlours and cow accommodation building

designs that are more than suitable for dairy production. However once the buildings have

been completed if any design mistakes have been made it is practically impossible to correct

them. So attention must be paid to how the dairy cows will circulate through the new

buildings with provision to take individual cows out for specific attention. Herd

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accommodation should be airy, well lit, if cubicles are used (the obvious choice for

Turkmenistan) then suitable bedding for the cubicle must be decided upon – sand, rubber

mats or chopped straw along with automatic muck scrapers for passageways. It is a fact that

very few cows have died through being too cold, many more have died through respiratory

diseases caused by poor ventilation, so light, airy accommodation is a must. Clean potable

water and water access is of prime importance for dairy cows, water should always be

available in the cubicle areas, loafing areas and collecting yard.

A large well designed cubicle house with good ventilation

The milking parlour and milking equipment should allow for upgrading as and when required.

Herringbone is currently probably the most suitable design for Turkmenistan, rotary parlours

while having a higher throughput are too complex and require too much expert maintenance

so are not suitable at present. The milking parlour should also include automatic cluster

removal (ACR), inline teat dip, inline warm water udder wash and a minimum degree of

computerisation in the way of cow recognition and cow feeding that can be coped with by

staff at the time the system allowing for future updating and expansion as staff become more

proficient in its use.

A modern herringbone parlour with low-level jars and automatic cluster removers

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Feed sources and feed production – dairy cows are not scavengers they need to be fed

good quality forage either fresh or preserved as silage or hay in quantity as the basis of their

diet for milk production. Therefore, sufficient and good quality arable land needs to be

available to grow forage crops; grass, maize and Lucerne being the forage crops required. A

rule of thumb is that a dairy cow needs a minimum of 10 tonnes of silage a year to carry her

through the winter months, this does not include the fresh forage feed she will be getting in

the summer months. So it is essential to carry out the calculations to ensure enough forage

feed is produced and enough land is available. Concentrate fed to balance the dairy cow diet

can be bought in as can minerals. Alternatively concentrate fed can be produced on farm with

a suitable mill-mix plant. Components of concentrate feed can be wheat, soy bean (protein)

vitamins and minerals bought separately or as a pre-mix. It is a mistake to feed combi-corn in

the form of mineralised milled wheat as the protein content will be too low. Concentrate

rations should be at least 16% protein.

Herd management Identification – All cattle but especially dairy cows and young-stock need to be clearly marked

for easy and accurate identification. In most developed countries it is a statuary requirement

for health and control reasons cattle are permanently tagged with a metal ear tag having a

unique number one side and the herd number the other before the animal is more than 14

days old. Large plastic ear tags can be a useful way of identifying replacement young-stock

before they are bought into the herd and a suitable size to be permanently marked. Different

coloured tags can be used for progeny of different bulls to identify “similar” animals. Freeze

branding is one of the most common ways of identifying cattle especially for

Holstein/Friesians, this being preferred to plastic collars, neck-chains or ankle straps. The

branding should be on the hind quarters or rump of the animal if the cows are milked through

a herringbone milking parlour. With the advances in electronics an electronic ear tag or

transponder is the most advanced means of identification. The ear tag/transponder is

interrogated on the cow entering the milking parlour, the out of parlour feeding stations

and/or walk through weighbridge. More advanced transponders such as the Moo-Meter™

can be interrogated via Wi-Fi using a handheld tablet. Not only will the Moo-Meter deal with

the aforementioned aspects it will also give details of the cow’s behaviour and inform the

cowman if the cow is coming into oestrous and so ready to be served by AI. All this is obviously

very helpful when dealing with a large dairy herd and can help the cowmen very much. Other

temporary marking can be necessary in situations where a cow is being treated for mastitis

and her milk needs to be discarded or she requires drying off this can be achieved by coloured

aerosol marker sprays or coloured tape wrapped round the tail is very effective (provided it

is removed afterwards and not fitted too tightly affecting the blood supply). Or of course the

electronic ear tag/transponder can be programmed to identify the cow as being treated for

mastitis when she comes into the milking parlour.

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Different ways of cow identification – transponders can provide much more information than just a number

Recording – follows on naturally from identification as accurate, effective recording is not

possible without first identifying the animal concerned. Recording is necessary for a number

of reasons:

Livestock inventory - it is essential to accurately know the number, class and location of

every animal in the dairy unit. In many countries it is required by law, but is of valuable

general use in the day to day management of the herd, at the very least a livestock

inventory should be taken on a monthly basis.

Output (sales) – daily recording of milk produced and sent to the dairy processor even

if the processing plant is part of the same complex, also usage of milk by calves. Sales

of calves, culls or cross-bred beef animals should be recorded. Details should include

numbers, age and sex. Deaths should also be recorded, with all the above only then can

a true picture of output be arrived at.

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Inputs (purchases) – deliveries of concentrate feed (even from an on-farm feed mill)

should be recorded along with other consumables teat dip, disinfectant, drugs and so

on. Ideally hay, straw and silage stored on-site should be known quantities as well.

Breeding and fertility - the effective use of records is essential to a successful breeding

programme. A simple desk diary may be enough for a small herd to record daily events

such as calving and servicing but for a large herd a much more comprehensive system

of breeding records is required involving visual aids such as boards as well as written

records. However, now with increased computerisation and electronic tagging of cows

the most obvious way to keep breeding records is in the dairy unit’s computer where

they can be accessed with a few clicks of the mouse.

Health records – all health problems should be recorded on an individual cow basis as

an aid to management of feeding, breeding and culling. The record should begin with

the calf and be maintained throughout the lifetime of the cow. Computerised recording

can drastically reduce the time involved in analysing health data. Mastitis records in

particular are valuable as an aid to culling problems cows with recurring mastitis that

are never properly cured and whose presence in the herd only serves to raise the overall

cell count in the milk tank.

Milk recording – the most important of all recording activities in a non-computerised

system, at the very least milking cows should be recorded once a month morning and

afternoon milking to get an accurate daily output figure. Better still if individual samples

of milk are taken and analysed for BF (butterfat), protein and SNF (solids not fat), these

combined with the yield figures can give a very good idea of the total milk yield of the

cow over a lactation and the kilos of butterfat and protein produced, again, helping with

making breeding and culling decisions. Also any changes that take place in milk yields

and changes in milk composition can be an early indicator of a diet deficiency so changes

to the feeding regime could be needed. With computerisation of course it is possible to

record all the individual cow yields in real time and for them to be automatically logged

into the dairy unit computer giving very accurate lactation records.

Grouping – being herd animals the social ranking within a herd has a marked effect on

behaviour, some animals are more aggressive than others and there is an aggressive

ranking or “bunt order” within a group with the boss cows at the top and timid ones at the

bottom. The larger older cows tend to be of high rank and younger first lactation heifers

lower rank. Sub-division of a large group into smaller groups is a management practise that

reduces bullying. A milking cow group of no more than 80 seems to be able to readily

recognise the ones in the “bunt order” and move aside and let them pass. In groups over

100 such recognition is not possible and so much more bullying occurs with negative

results for the timid and younger cows. In large herds (200+) grouping of cows has much

to offer in terms of stage of lactation and when in-parlour concentrate feeding has been

replaced by block feeding. Grouping also allows one or more dry cow groups to be formed

perhaps one of first lactation heifers that need a higher feeding regime as they are still

growing. A herd of 300 cows could have a group of five groups of 60 cows for example.

Ideally grouping should be in multiples of milking parlour capacity where possible e.g. for

a 16 place per side herringbone groups can be 64 (4 x 16) or 80 (5 x 16). The most debatable

point is whether to group cows by milk yield or date of calving. Moving cows from one

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group to another if grouped by milk yield is acceptable if it is done during a period of low

herd activity and several cows are moved at once.

Management through the production cycle – it may seem odd to begin at the late

lactation stage in the production cycle, however it is now clearly understood that this

period is the most critical period in the production cycle.

Late lactation - it is a well-known fact that moderate to high yielding dairy cows in the

early stages of lactation “milk of their back” since their appetite is depressed after

calving, they are at peak lactation yield and cannot consume enough food to meet their

nutritional demands (this will be dealt with in more detail in the Feeding Section).

Following on from this it has been found by many managers of “top herds” that it is in

late lactation that the most effective influence on the production cycle can be

undertaken. During the second half of lactation cows should be restored to their ideal

body condition. For a mature Holstein/Friesian type cow this will require a gain of 100

kg comprising 50 kg for the new calf and uterine fluids and 50 kg to restore the weight

loss of early lactation, which in 150 days is 0.66kg per day. For a young cow that is still

growing a further 50 kg will need to be put on in the last 150 days of lactation (a

standard lactation is 305 days) increasing the gain to 1 kg per day. Research has shown

that it is much more efficient in the use of nutrients for the cow to obtain this live weight

gain while milking rather than when she has dried off. Once the ideal condition is

reached it should be maintained by adjusting the feeding regime, excess body condition

is associated with fatty liver problems and is detrimental to milk production, so it is

important not to overfeed even in late lactation. With high yielding Friesian/Holsteins

it is better to avoid any dramatic changes in body weight but to try and maintain body

condition throughout lactation.

Dry cow management – the period should extend for 40-70 days to allow the udder

tissue time to regenerate before the next lactation. It is preferable to dry cows abruptly

at the end of lactation, treating all quarters with long acting antibiotics, this controls

persisting mastitis infections and prevents the majority of infections that would

otherwise take place during the dry period. At the last milking, the udder should be

thoroughly milked out, the teats cleaned with white spirit and antibiotic infused. The

teat should then be dipped in iodophor solution and the udder left to stock up. Feeding

for next few days should be aimed at minimising milk production by providing a bare

field or straw and low quality hay. If any udder quarter becomes swollen and hard, it

should be milked out and the process repeated. Dry cow therapy is particularly

important in summer months when there is a risk of summer mastitis it is worth

changing the antibiotic used regularly. During the dry period the energy concentration

of the diet should be kept low and there should be a high forage intake to keep the

rumen extended, this is considered to be an ideal preparation for a good appetite after

calving. “Steaming up” before calving with concentrates is a practise that now has

largely been dropped with body condition maintained by feeding good quality forage

and feeding a mineral rich supplement just prior to calving to reduce the chances of

milk fever. A rule of thumb is that a typical Holstein/Friesian cow requires around 40%

more metabolisable energy (ME) for maintenance and pregnancy each day of the dry

period. This means a 600kg dry cow requires 70 mega joules (MJ) for maintenance plus

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(70 x 40 ÷100) = 98 MJ of ME/day for maintenance and pregnancy. (See chapter on

feeding and the section on the metabolisable energy system)

Calving - is a critical time for both cow and dairy farmer, the process needs to be well

understood if appropriate care and attention is to be provided. Although calving is a

natural process and ideally takes place unassisted a close watch needs to be kept.

Heifers calving for the first time tend to have more problems that older cows. Animals

that calve naturally and expel the after-birth satisfactorily settle better into lactation

and re-breed with fewer problems. Inexperienced stockman can sometimes interfere

with the calving process trying to hasten it along, this is a mistake that can lead to tissue

being bruised and torn leading to later genital infections and complications – patience

is required. Housing a cow close to calving in a loose box is most convenient if

complications arise and the cow has to be restrained for examination and further

assistance. The dairy unit should have enough loose boxes available to allow each cow

to calve on its own. Before and after use the box should be thoroughly cleaned and

disinfected ideally by power washing and well bedded with straw. Cows that are about

to calve show increasing distension of the udder, stiffening of teats, in some cases

“running” of the milk, increasing signs of discomfort and the animal tends to detach

herself from the herd. 12-24 hours before birth there is a loosening of muscles around

the tail and sunken areas appear between the tail root and each pin bone. When calving

is imminent the cow is uneasy and often in pain, she tends to stay on her feet, but

continues to eat and drink. At this time the uterus is contracting the water bag pushes

through the cervix, this stage can take 2-3 hours with a cow but as long as 6 hours with

a heifer. With vigorous straining the next stage starts, the calf twists a quarter turn the

head comes through the cervix, the water bag may burst and the feet can usually be

seen, this stage can take up to 4 hours even longer with a heifer. As the chest come

through the cervix mucus is squeezed from the mouth and nostrils and clears the

respiratory passages for the calf to breathe. Once the calf is born the cow normally gets

to her feet and licks the calf vigorously. The calf staggers to its feet and soon begins to

suckle – which helps the afterbirth to be released. Close observation is required during

the birth but so long as some progress is being made there is no need to interfere. The

foetus continues to receive nutrients and oxygen via the navel cord until this is ruptured

in the final stages of calving. Pulling the calf too soon is the main cause of torn tissue as

the cervix may not be fully dilated, it is the intermittent pressure of the calf’s head that

stimulates dilation. If following several hours straining no feet are in evidence then an

examination is justified. Arms and hands should be scrubbed with soap and antiseptic,

lubricating jelly can be used, the area around the cow’s vulva cleaned and hand and arm

inserted without bursting the water bag, if the head and feet are there then all is well

and more time needs to be allowed. It goes without saying that a “calving kit” clean and

ready for use should always be available and help from other unit staff who are “on

standby”. Complications and mal-presentations are possible especially for older cows

who can suffer milk fever during calving. One should therefore watch for an unsteady

gait, padding of the hind feet and if in doubt inject Calcium Borogluconate, labour

usually then will proceed within 30 minutes. If assistance is to be given e.g. the tongue

is beginning to swell it is best to attach calving ropes to the fetlocks of the calf and pull

gently downwards. If the head has to be roped it should be placed behind the calf’s ears.

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If a calving jack is used because of lack of assistance great care must be exercised, it

should only be used by an experienced operative as misuse can result in irreversible

damage to both cow and calf, it is essential to ensure that the calf is in the correct

position before use. Posterior presentation is quite common i.e. back legs first

recognised by the calf feet being upside down, once the hips are through a firm steady

pull is required as delay in this position will lead to the calf suffocating. Head out and

legs back is a complication which will require veterinary assistance. These are just some

of the more common calving complications undoubtedly the dairy farmer will

experience other less common ones.

Above calving proceeding normally, below assistance using sterile ropes

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Care of the new-born calf – following birth it is important that the calf starts to breathe;

otherwise smart action must be taken of which there are several possibilities;

o Push a piece of straw into the nose

o Briskly rub the calf with a handful of straw

o Slap briskly on the side of the rib cage

o Throw a bucket of cold water over the calf’s head

o Artificial respiration – laying the calf on its side and working the upper leg round in a

circular motion

o Kiss of life – blocking the mouth and one nostril, blowing into the other whilst

alternately pressing on the ribs to delate the lungs

o If the birth has been protracted and there has been any possibility of placental fluid

being inhaled, the calf should be lifted by the back legs and swung round to drain

such fluids

To prevent infection through the navel it is necessary to dip it in iodine solution or to spray

with an antiseptic spray after licking by the mother is completed. The afterbirth should be

expelled 12-24 hours after the calf, retention can lead to infection in the genital tract, if it is

not expelled after 3 days veterinary assistance should be sought, on no account should the

membranes be pulled on as they may break and the portion remaining in the uterus can cause

inflammation.

Early lactation – The birth of the calf is certainly critical, but in terms of the cow settling

into lactation and achieving a high peak and total yield the few days after calving are

equally if not more critical. It should be noted that milk yield lost at this time is not

regained in later lactation. As calving is a natural process it should ideally involve

minimal interference from farm staff. It is controlling feeding, milking and general

management that is important, avoiding stress in general is a high priority, not

allowing the cow to spend more than 24 hours with the calf and moving her into a

relatively small group of animals (with a large herd it may be worthwhile forming a

group of freshly calved cows). It is important that the cow attains her potential

appetite as soon as possible, she will require sufficient time to obtain her food and

there should be no physical restrictions to eating, it is important to keep the rumen

working well so at least 6 kg dry matter (DM) from good quality forage is required

daily. Concentrates feeding should be controlled starting at 3 kg per day and building

up to as much as 12 kg (dependent on daily milk yield) after 14 days or so. It is easier

to feed fresh calved cows separately if they are grouped and not in the main herd.

Complete diet feeding gives few problems in this area as fresh calved cows will eat

less. To avoid digestive upsets and the possibility of low butterfat (BF) the concentrate

to forage DM ratio should be in the region 3:1 and not over 4:1. Body condition will

drop in the first 6-8 weeks of lactation with a loss of some 50 kg as mentioned earlier

as the cow lacks the ability to eat enough food to meet her increased nutritional

needs. It is important to note that if the care and attention required as mentioned

above is to be given to freshly calved animals especially heifers then extra time and /

or help must be allocated. Note: For the first 3 days post calving the milk should be

fed to calves or discarded as it will contain antibiotic residues from dry cow

treatment under no account should it be put in the bulk tank.

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Mid lactation – after conception is confirmed few problems should arise in managing

the cow through mid-lactation, to gain weight without falling in milk yield more than

2 ½ % a week. Appetite is now at its peak so the full potential of background feeds

should be exploited.

Milking Milking is a major activity of any dairy unit, the skills and understanding of milking operatives

understanding cow behaviour in performing the job have a considerable influence on the

overall success of the dairy enterprise. Cows that are handled gently and are content at

milking time and are not stressed will let down milk much more effectively, whereas if they

are stressed their yields will be reduced and their full potential feeding and breeding will not

be realised. Milking can be undertaken by a wide range of people on a large unit from those

staff that milk regularly and know the cows very well in detail to the occasional relief filling in

a holiday gap who is unfamiliar with the cows as well as the milking plant, so that person

needs to be very well briefed or informed beforehand. Often only one person will be carrying

out the milking even in large dairy herds this is now possible with the high degree of

sophisticated automation that is available. There are many designs and types of milking

facilities that exist and can be bought today from simple cowshed milking equipment enabling

cows to be milked in situ through to large complex rotary parlour installations. In the centre

of all these options the herringbone parlour is still the most popular and can be had in many

different sizes with many different possibilities of equipment, degrees of automation and

computerisation to suit every requirement and budget. In this author’s opinion rotary

parlours are currently too complex for Turkmen conditions, this allied to the fact that there

are no agents in the country counts them out at present. The hallmarks of good stockmanship

are attention to detail where disease or infection are concerned, coupled with patience and

care for all animals in all stages of their daily round and a desire to see the appropriate plant

operating efficiently at all times, and they are nowhere more important than in the milking

routine.

Milking Plant – a well-designed and efficiently installed milking plant is essential to good

milking, regular and effective maintenance is equally important. Some of the maintenance

can be carried out by milking operatives such as replacing worn rubbers but people with

specialised knowledge and equipment need to be called to undertake more complex

maintenance and tests for instance vacuum drop correct pulsator operation. When planning

a new milking plant extreme care must be taken to “get it right” first time, once installed and

working being used every day it is very difficult to make any major changes. A herringbone

parlour for a large dairy unit say a 12 : 12 i.e. 12 cows each side and 12 clusters should at the

very least include; automatic cluster removal (ACR), inline warm water udder wash, inline teat

dip and remote controlled gates all these are the basic components you need for efficient

milking of a medium / large herd. Provision should be made for possible expansion so allowing

enough space for instance to make the parlour into an 18 : 18 herringbone if the dairy herd

becomes larger. On top of the above it is possible to add as much automation and

computerisation as you require or the budget will stretch to, so automatic cow recognition,

automatic yield recording for every milking and in-line detection of mastitis cases in the milk

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line and so on. The main point with automation and computerisation being is it reliable, can

it be repaired if necessary and can it be added to and upgraded if required. As a rule of thumb

a single milking session should not extend beyond 3 hours, much longer and the staff do not

have time to complete other necessary daily tasks properly. This then will partially dictate the

size and capacity of the milking plant. Research has shown that mechanised barriers / gates,

automatic cluster removers, automatic teat disinfection automatic cow entry and exit can

double the throughput of cows milked in a herringbone parlour with all of the above

compared to no automation. The plant and the building it is in need to be kept neat and tidy

and there should be effective internal and external cleaning of the equipment after each

milking session, in a large unit standards need to be set that all staff adhere to.

Herringbone parlour layout

Milking Staff - It is a basic requirement of satisfactory milking performance that operators

are able to concentrate on the job in hand, the milking and observation of the animals. They

need therefore to have confidence in the equipment, be sure how it operates and know what

to do if there is a problem, also there needs to be a clear procedure agreed to deal with

problems when they arise. If more than one operative is required for milking then there is an

opportunity to train younger and/or relief staff members by an experienced operative.

Pre-Milking Tasks – There are several tasks that need to be undertaken before cows are

brought into the collecting yard prior to milking, these apply more to the afternoon milking

than the morning, assuming that milk from the previous afternoon milking and the morning

milking has been removed to the dairy plant or processor. Following collection of milk from

the tank it should be cleaned and disinfected, most milk tanks these days have automatic

washers, nevertheless there should be a visual check of the inside of the tank to make sure it

has been cleaned properly, the level of cleaning chemicals for the system should be checked.

Filters for the milk line into the tank should be checked and where present in-line milk coolers,

milk should be cooled down to at least 4.5 degrees C so the bulk tanks should have a good

ice-bank. Supplies of routine milking items paper towels, teat dip should be prepared, a list of

those animals needing AI or veterinary treatment so they can be diverted out after milking.

Parlour and collecting yards walls and floors should be well wetted at this time so dung is

removed more easily. Bringing the cows into the collection yard is a key job that shouldn’t be

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rushed it is an opportunity to observe the animals especially if there is more than one milking

operative, one can observe the cows coming into the collecting yard as they arrive noting any

showing signs of oestrous (bulling), ill health such as lameness and so on.

Milking Routine – once the herd is in the collecting yard milking should proceed without

delay so as to minimise the time that the cows are away from food, water and rest, in may

high yielding hers forage as well as water is provided in the collecting yard to reduce this

problem. It is worth noting that the hierarchy that exists in dairy hers means that the cow

very often come into the parlour in the same order a cow not in her usual place is a sure

indication that something is wrong with her. Before the first cows enter the parlour the

vacuum level in the system should be checked the sound from the pulsators should be regular

then milking can commence. With smaller herds in parlour concentrate feeding is still

practised, this tends now not to be the case with increasing herd numbers and complete diet

feeding based on grouping cows. In the cows are wearing ear tags/transponders then they

will be recognised as they come into the parlour and their data from the milking updated and

sent to the unit computer. The first operations and good practice are to spray the teats and

take foremilk from each teat into a strip-cup, any animal showing signs of clinical mastitis with

clots in the foremilk or abnormalities should be marked and receive separate treatment

outlined in the later mastitis section. Teats and soiled parts of the udder should be washed

with a warm water in-line jet. Milking operatives should wear disposable rubber gloves.

Handling the udder and the warm water stimulates milk let down due to the release of a

hormone into the bloodstream. Following washing the teats should be dried individually with

a paper towel one for each teat, then the teat-cups should be attached usually with the back

teats first. Many animals have a short let-down period so a delay in attaching the cups will

reduce milk yield. Once the teat-cups are being held in position by the vacuum milk begins to

flow and the operative can move onto the next cow repeating the same procedure staying

alert to any sound for any noise indicating a teat-cup is coming off or indeed if a cluster drops.

In parlours fitted with ACR it should not be necessary to return to the cow once the teat-cups

are applied. It is however necessary to observe that cows are milked out properly. If ACRs are

not fitted then clusters need to be removed as soon as milk flow has finished. Over milking is

to be avoided as it can cause udder damage. After teat-cup removal all cows should have their

teats dipped with disinfectant before being released. This can be done using a simple

handheld teat dip cup or an in-line teat dip spray on an extending hose or automatic spray

triggered as the cow leaves the parlour. In between batches of cows being milked the

standings should be washed to remove any dung left behind. Quiet and confident handling of

the cows should prevent disturbance and too much kicking, problems do arise with heifers or

an animal with a sore teat, this can often be reduced by holding up the tail in a near vertical

position while at the same time scratching the rump, an alternative is a special spring loaded

bar which fits over the backbone and under the flank. Milking sessions should be timed to be

12 hours apart as far as possible if milking twice a day.

Footbaths – the regular use of a footbath is common on farms where foot problems are

prevalent due to such factors as soft feet in winter or unsuitable track surfaces. Allowing the

animals to walk through a propriety biocide (if no biocide is available then feet should be kept

as dry as possible). The foot bath should be in two sections, the first part has water to clean

the feet the second part has the treatment solution separated by a raised concrete area.

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Post–Milking Tasks – it is preferable to allow the herd to move directly back to housing,

loafing yard or pasture as soon as they leave the milking parlour. The parlour equipment stalls

and building should be washed. The first task is to brush the outside of the clusters and jetters

in hot detergent – disinfectant solution. Checks should be made for worn or perished liners

and replacement undertaken before the next milking. Note: Teat cups should be replaced

every 6 months as a matter of course. Where an acidified boiling water (ABW) cleaning system

is used the temperature should not be less than 96 degrees C and at least 15 litres of water.

If circulation cleaning is used, then the temperature should be 85 degrees C using

manufacturer’s recommendations regarding the quantity of detergent – disinfectant. At least

once a week air pipelines and interceptors.

Mastitis – the most common problem with dairy cows, it is always present in any dairy herd,

so a mastitis program is a must, dealing with clinical cases, sub-clinical cases and dry cow

therapy all the dairy unit staff need to be vigilant looking for its occurrence all the time. Any

cow with a clinical infection of the udder should be milked out with care and the milk not put

into the bulk tank on any account. The infected milk can be used for calf feeding however.

After dealing with the infected cow the operative’s hands should be thoroughly disinfected

before moving on to other animals. If consistent results have been achieved with a “proven”

antibiotic in the past then treatment can proceed immediately. If there is uncertainty over

treatment and mastitis is rare then it will pay to have sample of milk analysed by a laboratory

to see what treatment may be the most effective whether it is a streptococci, staphylococci,

coliform or mycoplasmas infection. A full course of treatment must be carried and accurate

record kept, which can also aid culling decisions later. The use of long-acting antibiotics during

the dry period is another recommended procedure for mastitis control. A number of other

practises can be helpful to minimise udder infection, these include letting the cows back to a

feeding area before letting them go to a housing (cubicle) area, this allows time for the teat

spray to dry and block the teat sphincter before the animal lies on bedding

Summer Mastitis – is a serious infection first seen as a hardening of a quarter or stiffening

of a teat and loss of appetite. It is mainly fly-borne and is usually found in dry cows and heifers,

careful inspection at least once a day is essential, if infection is suspected then speedy

treatment is essential to avoid loss of the infected quarter and even death of the animal.

Summer mastitis note how the infection has burst through the rear of the udder and the swollen painful teat

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Herd Health Welfare of the herd is of paramount importance, this is enshrined in the “five freedoms” that

are backed worldwide by many animal welfare organisations, ASCPA, RSPCA just to name two.

They all consider that the welfare of an animal includes its physical and mental state and

consider that good animal welfare implies both fitness and a sense of well-being. Any animal

kept by man, must at least be protected from unnecessary suffering. The five freedoms are:

1. Freedom from hunger and thirst – be ready access to fresh water and diet to maintain

health and vigour

2. Freedom from discomfort – by providing an appropriate environment including

shelter and a comfortable resting area

3. Freedom from pain, injury or disease – by prevention or rapid diagnosis and treatment

4. Freedom to express normal behaviour – by providing sufficient space, proper facilities

and company of animals own kind

5. Freedom from fear and distress – by ensuring conditions and treatment which avoid

mental suffering

In consideration of the above herd health is an area where the dairy unit staff have a major

influence upon the performance and productivity of the dairy herd. There is no such thing as

a disease free dairy herd. Therefore staff have a vital role in observing the livestock,

identifying problems and, most of all nursing the sick back to health by carefully implementing

a control program. Diseases are seldom due to a single cause but rather two or more factors

often including housing conditions and nutrition quality. Along with the farm veterinary

surgeon farm staff need to work together as a team in the detection and treatment of disease

which once identified an agreed programme of treatment should be implanted and be

recorded in detail for future reference.

Health Checks An animal that wanders away from the herd may be in ill-health, she may be standing – ears

and head held low and back arched. In general healthy animals are alert and if disturbed

respond quickly. Cattle that are dull and listless should be watched for metabolic disorders,

acute mastitis or a foreign body in the stomach wall. Very loose or very firm dung indicates a

possible digestive upset. Strong smelling or blood stained dung and/or urine are

abnormalities as are coloured discharges from the genital organs. The nostrils of a healthy

animal are moist and free of mucus and the eyes should be bright. Holding the ear of an

animal is another good health check it should feel “warm”. Any sudden drop in milk yield

should be investigated as an indication of something being wrong.

There are three particular health checks which the stockman can use:

Temperature - amongst many functions the blood system of an animal regulates the

heat of the body in a healthy cow the temperature is between 38-39 degrees C it

rarely varies more than one degree. It can be checked using a rectal clinical

thermometer. Body temperature can be raised by bad housing, exertion of the

animal, or by fear from bad handling but the main cause is fever. Veterinary

assistance should be obtained if the temperature is more than 39 degrees C.

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Pulse - measures the rate that the heart is beating and is taken using the index finger

of the right hand with gentle pressure on the artery underneath the tail, the normal

rate is 45-50 per minute and a rate over 80 is dangerous.

Respiration - can easily be obtained by counting the number of chest movements

occurring in one minute. The rates vary widely; animals breathe faster when young,

following exercise, in hot weather and when frightened. The rate for a resting cow is

12-20 per minute.

Herd Health Recording As mentioned earlier all health problems should be recorded on an individual cow basis as an

aid to management of feeding, breeding and culling. The individual record for each cow

should start with the calf and be maintained throughout her time in the herd, computerised

record keeping can allow detailed analysis of the herd data identifying trends and highlighting

problem areas that require action. As mentioned earlier detailed mastitis records for each

cow is a must and can help with culling decisions.

Common Troubles and Disorders Below is a summary of common problems likely to be encountered and suitable treatment:

Bleeding - can be stopped with a pad of cotton wool or lint moistened in warm water

and held firmly over the wound until a bandage can be applied. If blood spurts out

then an artery has been damaged, a tourniquet should be applied and veterinary help

sought.

Wounds – it is necessary to clip the hair from around the wound before cleaning up

the area with salt solution (2 teaspoonful of salt to one litre of boiled water). Damaged

teats are a particular problem and can require stitching by a veterinarian. If wounds

cannot be conveniently bandaged then a dusting of sulphanilamide or antibiotic

powder will reduce the risk of infection.

Bruises – including swollen joints should be bathed with cold water followed a few

hours later by warm water to simulate blood circulation.

Choking – if an animal has an obstruction in its gullet caused by for example a potato

it is advisable to locate the obstruction by feeling along the length of the underside of

the neck on the left side of the windpipe, massage towards the throat will in most

cases dislodge the obstruction but more difficult case may require veterinary aid.

Never use a broom handle or the like to push the obstruction down.

Downer cow – over the years, dairy unit staff will inevitably have to deal with and

therefore care for recumbent cows. It can be very rewarding to see such a cow get to

her feet after careful nursing but equally saddening to have to see one destroyed

following days of attention. The most common cause is milk fever (see below) but

others include acute mastitis, severe blood loss, and nerve damage following a difficult

calving. If a cow goes down on concrete she should if at all possible be moved to a soft

bed in a yard, it is wise to tie her back legs together before attempting to move her to

stop her “doing the splits” and damaging her pelvis as she could well have a damaged

obturator nerve – the one controlling the muscles that hold the back legs together. A

downer cow can be moved using a gate or large door with care taken to avoid damage

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to head, udder or lower legs. Special harnesses are available that can be used with a

tractor fore-end loader or a telescopic handler. Good nursing involves regular turning

and generally keeping the cow as comfortable as possible until she is back on her feet.

Downer cow showing a special harness, note the back legs of the cow are restrained by shackles to

prevent her doing the “splits”

Eye problems – cattle sometimes get small pieces of chaff or other objects in their

eyes causing inflammation and discharge. It is usually a tricky job to remove the chaff,

the corner of a clean handkerchief can be easier with a little eye ointment on the end.

If after several attempts the foreign body remains then veterinary assistance must be

sought.

Bloat – is a condition caused by gases building up in the cow’s rumen due to abnormal

fermentation usually caused by lack of fibre in the diet. The left side of the animal

becomes distended between the last rib and backbone or hip joint, breathing becomes

laboured and prompt action is required. A drench should be carefully and slowly given

of 28ml turpentine in 0.6 litres of boiled linseed oil (often purchased as a proprietary

drench already mixed). Gentle massaging of the extended rumen may help in the

expulsion of gas by belching. If the drench doesn’t work then it will be necessary to

puncture the rumen wall. Traditionally a trocar and cannula is used but a wide bore

syringe needle can be just as effective and leaves a smaller wound. Care needs to be

taken to locate the correct position for making the puncture on the left side

equidistant from the last rib the point of the hip and the bottom of the spine.

Prevention should be the key factor in this disorder avoid giving animals lush, fresh

fodder without first making sure they have received a good feed of fibrous material

such as hay or straw. Fresh clover and Lucerne can easily cause bloat so it may be

necessary to cut them and wilt these crops before feeding them to cattle.

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The correct site for puncturing the rumen wall

Displaced abomasum – is an increasingly recognised ailment which involves the fourth

stomach or abomasum moving from its normal site on the lower right-hand side of

the abdomen to the left, under the rumen. The specific cause is not known but it is

thought that the abomasum is displaced during the first 6 weeks of lactation. The cow

is usually off her foods that secondary symptoms of acetonaemia can confuse.

Veterinary advice is necessary and it can only be cured by surgery that in the West has

a high success rate with the cow eating again within 12 hours of the operation.

Grass Staggers – is caused by a deficiency of magnesium in the blood and is also known

as hypomagnesaemia. Magnesium helps control muscle function and an animal with

deficiency becomes unnaturally alert, its muscles twitch, it develops a staggering gait

and may soon collapse, convulsions follow, death will take place quickly unless

treatment is given i.e. a subcutaneous injection of magnesium solution. The disease is

most likely to occur in spring and autumn when a sudden drop in temperature occurs

and when herbage tends to be low in magnesium content. Preventative measures

involve the supply of an adequate daily level of the mineral which can be conveniently

provided in 60 gm of calcined magnesite mixed with molasses or rolled cereal or in

purchased concentrates at a specific inclusion level.

Milk Fever – is a metabolic disorder caused by a low level of calcium and often

magnesium in the blood. Known as hypocalcaemia it usually occurs in older cows

(third calves and above) around the time of, or in the few days after calving. First

symptoms are paddling with the feet followed by loss of control of the limbs. The cow

is off her food and ears are cold to the touch but the temperature is normal. An

injection with Calcium Borogluconate should be given under the skin of the neck, it is

advisable to call for veterinary help as there may also be additional deficiencies such

as phosphorous or magnesium. Routine injection after calving maybe a wise

precautionary measure.

Acetonaemia – is basically a digestive problem caused by the presence of excessive

ketone bodies in the blood. These are by-products resulting from the mobilisation of

body fat reserves that the cow has to undertake when the diet is low in in readily

available energy. First signs are a drop in milk yield and loss of appetite. The breath

and milk of the cow have a sweet smell of acetone (pear drops). Temperature is

normal but the cow is constipated. Treatment involves the injection of simple sugars

with drenches of laxative or sodium propionate, which helps the production of natural

sugars in the rumen, it is useful to feed carbohydrate-rich materials such as flaked

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maize. This is another disease where prevention is particularly important and involves

the feeding of a balanced and acceptable diet containing not only sufficient digestible

energy and proteins but adequate fibre. Skilled feeding of concentrates in the early

weeks of lactation to avoid digestive upsets but still obtain peak yields minimises the

number of cases of acetonaemia.

Lameness – This is a problem in most herds and can be a major one if not treated

promptly. There is a saying “no foot, no cow” which is very true, as because of pain a

lame animal is reluctant to move to obtain food and water, as well as causing reduced

yield lameness also leads to premature culling of a valuable breeding animal.

Lameness is caused by many factors including, faulty nutrition, poor buildings and

badly laid concrete, as well as the genetic make-up of the animal. However 9 out of 10

cases are due to inflammation or injury to the hoof or skin between the hooves. The

remaining cases are caused by arthritis, swollen knees, hocks or leg and muscle

injuries. Sound feet and legs should therefore be a factor in the selection of breeding

stock. Day to day management of feet is a key task for unit staff. Regular feet trimming

should be undertaken as hooves grow continuously and although some wear naturally

many need to be trimmed. Special cattle handling crushes are available that can make

the job of trimming hooves much easier by supporting both the cow and the foot that

needs trimming. To trim a hoof first it should be brushed and washed then hoof

clippers and a double edged curved hoof knife can be used so the hoof is trimmed that

each side takes the weight evenly.

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Causes of lesions in the foot can include;

o Foreign bodies – a nail or sharp stone can penetrate the sole, infection often

follows, can be removed with a hoof knife

21

o Foul of the foot – a bacterial infection that enters through skin cracks between

the two claws causing pus and putrid smell, Veterinary treatment with

antibiotics is usually necessary

o Sole ulcers – appear as soft bruised areas at the junction between sole and

heel of outer claw due to excessive weight on the area caused by overgrown

solar horn, tend to be associated with laminitis, excessive standing and feeding

of very acidic silage. Hoof needs trimming and copper sulphate is used as

treatment. If necessary a wooden block can be glued to the good claw to

protect the damaged one.

o White line abscesses – caused by damage perhaps by a stone to the tissue

(known as the white line) at the junction of the sole and wall of the hoof. The

tissue becomes infected causing pus eventually to break out of the surface, the

trapped pus causes pain and severe lameness an antibiotic aerosol spray can

be used coupled with a padded plaster.

o Other afflictions – can include sand-cracks, underrun heel, interdigital growths

and dermatitis

Skin problems – the skin of cattle occasionally become infected so treatment is required.

Lice causes un-thriftiness particularly in young cattle, simple dusting with louse powder

is effective control. Ringworm occurs most frequently in young calves and yearlings in

poor condition caused by fungal spores picked up from wooden fixtures such as pens and

gateposts. Annual cleaning and creosoting of wood is necessary as well as ensuing the

stock receive adequate nutrition. Drugs that can be used include as feed supplements or

in aerosol form are helpful e.g. Natamycin, Eniconazole.

Worms – the young stock rearing section describes the problem in more detail. Dosing of

young cattle with anthelmintic is recommended in early July. Dosing of adult cattle can

sometimes be justified in some situations usually immediately after calving. Note: milk

may have to be withheld and not put in the bulk tank if an anthelmintic is being used.

Other ailments include –

o Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis (IBR) nose and windpipe are the chief sites of

virus infection by the disease is seen in several forms causing eye lesions and

eve abortion can be controlled by vaccination

o Leptospirosis is of increasing concern not only because it causes mastitis and

abortion but can be passed onto man. Infection is by urine splashing into eyes

mouth or cuts. Cows lose appetite, milk yield drops sharply, the udder

becomes “flabby” antibiotics help recovery vaccination is recommended if only

to protect the staff

Ailments subject to control by legislation in many developed countries include:

o Sudden Death - should always considered to be Anthrax and therefore highly

dangerous. The carcase of such an animal should not be interfered with or

disposed of till veterinary advice has been sought. Sudden death can also be

caused by poisoning (plants, chemicals, lead paint) or various bacteria

o Foot and mouth disease – is highly infectious which spreads very rapidly to all

cloven foot animals, symptoms are lameness, sudden milk drop, high

temperature and loss of appetite. Later there is dribbling from the mouth and

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blisters form on the tongue, gums and muzzle teats and feet. The disease is

controlled in many countries by culling, identification and slaughter of infected

herds, there is no cure.

o Tuberculosis (TB) – a notifiable disease in many countries that has been

practically eliminated. Tested for by injecting avian and bovine vaccines the

double intradermal comparative skin test that although it has imperfections is

rapid and cheap to perform and has been used to eradicate TB in many

countries. Available vaccination is not effective so the best policy is “remove

and destroy” to control TB in cattle herds

o Enzootic Bovine Leucosis (EBL) – infectious viral disease that can be found in

small numbers of imported cattle identified by a blood sample, the virus

produces tumours in lymph nodes, weight loss is marked, there may be chronic

bloat, there is no treatment and animals slowly die. Calves are born free of the

disease but become infected via the colostrum during the first hours of life.

The disease has largely been eliminated in the West.

o Brucellosis (Contagious Abortion) – is caused by a bacterium infection Brucella

abortus its preferred sites in the body are the uterus (most important),

testicles and joints. Infection is only in animals of breeding age, usually

contracted by licking aborted calves. Brucella grows on the placenta leading to

damage and loss of function this causes death of the calf and abortion

commonly in sixth or seventh month of pregnancy. In non-infected herds it can

cause an “abortion storm” if it is introduced through an infected cow that leads

to a tremendous loss of calves and milk, so care need to be taken that any

purchased cattle are free of the disease before being introduced into the herd.

Current testing in the West uses a monthly ring test on bulk milk and abortion

veterinary investigations. Early identification and removal of infected cows is

vital. In the UK it has not been seen since 1993. In humans it is known as

Undulant Fever and is very difficult to kill with antibiotics.

o Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE) – first identified in Britain in 1985

BSE is a disease similar to scrapie in sheep that affects the nervous system,

particularly the brain – symptoms occurring over many years after the initial

infection. Symptoms usually start with a usually quiet cow becoming nervous

then aggressive. Lack of coordination of the hind when walking, especially

under stress, is the test used by the veterinary surgeon. Epidemiological

studies indicated that all infected cattle had been given feed containing

ruminant protein as meat and bone meal a practice that had been undertaken

for many years, however, a change in processing and higher sheep numbers

had meant that probably cattle had been exposed to more scrapie in their

feed. There is no treatment animals should be destroyed by incineration as

soon as the diagnosis is made and should not under any circumstances enter

the food chain. Strict rules concerning this and the processing of offal

eliminated the disease in the UK by 1997 and other European countries that

also had a smaller number of cases.

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Feeding

Principals of Feeding A major factor affecting the profitability of a cattle enterprise is the provision of feed for the

stock which is adequate in both nutritional and economic terms. Over many years carefully

controlled feeding experiments have been undertaken to obtain the precise nutritional

requirements of all classes of cattle. Computer costing programmes when provided with

nutritional information and cost of available feed components/ingredients can work out least-

cost optimum feed rations. In order for unit staff to undertake feeding of the dairy herd with

confidence it is necessary to understand at least some of the principals the science behind

scientific feeding

The Digestive System Cattle use their food for two main purposes; first to provide the means of maintaining life and

normal activity, this is known as maintenance requirements. Secondly, for the production of

milk, meat and development of the unborn calf. Following digestion, the food provides the

body tissues with energy, protein, minerals, vitamins and some water (especially grass kale

and silage). Briefly the digestive tract can be considered to be a long feed tube passing from

the mouth to the anus. The food is broken down in a series of processes, firstly mechanical

action, primarily chewing, secondly microbial fermentation particularly in the rumen, and,

thirdly biochemical digestion involving enzymes, that takes place in various part of the gut.

The nutrient products of digestion pass through the wall of the digestive tract into the blood

stream for transport to other organs such as the udder for the production of milk. Food is

taken to the mouth by a grasping and tearing action using the lips, teeth and tongue. The rear

molar teeth then grind the food before swallowing as they do again when a bolus of

regurgitated food is further chewed during rumination (cudding). From the mouth food

passes down the oesophagus to the first of the four stomachs known as the rumen and lying

to the right is the small round omasum which is followed by the abomasum or true stomach.

The reticulum and rumen work together as the main fermentation site, the vessel contains

millions of microbes that are involved in breaking the food down into a fine liquid mass. Some

of the larger pieces of food are returned to the mouth during rumination by reverse action of

the muscles. Fermentation is a continuous process, hence the need for regular feeding to

keep the microbes working to the full. Large amounts of saliva are required produced from

glands in the mouth (up to 150 litres/day) this provides water to assist the chewing process

and salts to buffer the acids formed from the breakdown of carbohydrates. Gases such as

methane and carbon dioxide are produced during fermentation and are removed by belching

or during rumination. Bloat becomes a problem in an animal which is unable to remove gases

in this way, a regular supply of fibrous food helps prevent bloat. Most of the carbohydrates

(energy supplying substances) are broken down in the reticulo-rumen to volatile fatty acids,

simple sugars are broken down rapidly whereas cellulose and hemi-cellulose from plant cell

walls are degraded more slowly, modification of oils and fats also takes place and some

products of fermentation are absorbed into the blood stream, but most feed the microbes

that then pass down the alimentary tract for subsequent digestion. The omasum has a lining

of tissue similar to the pages of a book, its main function is to remove surplus water from the

material before it flows into the abomasum where the main biochemical digestion takes

place. The abomasum secretes large amounts of acidic gastric juices that kill the microbes and

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start the process of protein digestion. The material then flows into the U-shaped duodenum

where it receives enzymes from the pancreas and bile from the gall bladder to neutralise the

gastric juices. The small intestine is extremely long (46+ metres) it is the main area of protein

adsorption and the site for some glucose production from the digestion of carbohydrates. The

colon or large intestine is shorter than the small intestine but has a larger diameter, excess

water is removed from the gut contents at this point so concentrating the faeces. Further

fermenting of fibre particularly in the caecum goes on which acts as a secondary fermentation

chamber. The liver acts as a store of energy, deals with ammonia in the blood and coverts

numerous complicated chemicals into much simpler ones for use by other body organs. The

kidneys have an important role taking waste products from the blood these being discharged

as urine. Apart from eating, defecating and urinating, digestion is a continuous process, any

part that suffers from upset creates problems for the whole system. Therefore it is important

to provide feed, water and the right environment so efficient digestion takes place.

The digestive tract of the cow

Feed Requirements and the ME System Since 1975 the method of expressing feed requirements adopted by most developed

countries is the metabolisable energy (ME) system as a basis for formulating rations, it has

largely replaced the previously used starch equivalent system. The ME is the energy remaining

after the loss in faeces, urine, gases and body heat. The basic unit used to measure the energy

is megajoule (MJ).

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Fate of food energy within the animal is given below:-

The basis of a rationing system is to meet the energy needs of the animal from the foods

provided but also taking into account the digestible crude protein (DCP) requirements. See

tables below.

Table 1 gives requirements for maintenance only

Live weight kg ME MJ/day DCP g/day

300 36 200

350 40 250

400 45 250

450 49 300

500 54 300

550 59 350

600 63 400

650 68 430

700 74 460

Table 2 gives requirements for the production of 1 kg of milk of different breeds

Type of milk BF % Protein % ME (MJ/day) DCP g/day

Holstein/Friesian 3.6 3.2 4.98 60

Ayrshire 3.8 3.3 5.17 65

Channel Island 4.8 3.7 5.93 70

26

Annex 1 shows how energy requirements (MJ ME/litre) for milk solids (butterfat (BF) and

protein percentage increase with milk solids levels.

Table 3 gives live weight change gain and loss ME and DCP considerations

Gain / loss MJ (kg/day) DCP (g/day)

+1kg 34 320

-1kg 28 -

Dry Matter Intake Dry matter intake is an important consideration being the amount of food an animal will eat.

Appetite varies with the size of the animal, its level of production and digestibility of the

ration, its palatability and manner in which the food is presented. Also the stage of lactation

can have an effect as early on in lactation appetite can be depressed.

Table 4 Probable dry matter intake in early lactation (weeks 1-10)

Milk Yield (kg/day)

L.wt. (kg) Dry 10 20 30 40 50

350 4.8 8.3 11.8 15.3 18.8 22.3

400 5.4 8.9 12.4 15.9 19.4 22.9

450 6.0 9.5 13.0 16.5 20.1 23.9

500 6.6 10.2 13.7 17.2 20.7 24.2

550 7.3 10.8 14.3 17.8 21.3 24.8

600 7.9 11.4 14.9 18.4 21.9 25.4

650 8.5 12.0 15.5 19.0 22.6 26.1

700 9.1 18.0 21.0 24.2 25.7 27.2

Intake is dependent on the speed at which food passes through the digestive tract. Low-fibre

laxative types of diet such as spring grass pass through so quickly that digestion is inefficient

and the animal may lack sufficient nutrients. High-fibre diets on the other hand can be so

indigestible that again the requirements of energy and protein are not met.

As a rule of thumb typical Holstein/Friesian cows can eat approximately 3-3.5% of their

bodyweight in dry matter each day. This means a 550 kg cow has a dry matter intake of around

550 x 3 ÷ 100 = 16.5 kg/day or 550 x 3.5 ÷ 100 = 19.25 kg/day that agrees closely with the

above table. Higher yielding cows in early and mid-lactation may consume 3.5 – 4.0% of their

bodyweight in mid lactation.

Calculating a Ration Using the above tables a Friesian cow of 550kg live-weight is producing 30kg of milk at 3.6%

BF and 3.2% protein. She is in early lactation and is losing weight at 0.5kg/day.

See composition of feeds table Annex 2.

27

Requirements

ME (MJ) DCP (gm/day)

Maintenance (550kg) 59 350

Milk production (30kg) 149 1800

Live-weight loss (-0.5kg) (14) 0

Total 194 2150

Probable dry matter intake 17.8kg 2150

Ration

Fresh weight

DM (kg) ME (MJ) DCP (gm)

Maize silage (high digestibility) 45 9.5 103 665

Lucerne hay 3 2.6 21 431

Concentrates (standard) 8 6.9 86 1104

53 17.7 210 2200

This diet adequately meets the energy and DCP requirements of the cow and achieves this

within the probable level of dry matter intake.

Protein Degradability Although as explained above the DCP method of calculating the protein requirement for cattle

is widely used, there is a more complex superior system that takes into account the

degradability of protein, it is of particular use with higher yielding cows that have been shown

to benefit from protein which escapes degradation in the rumen and is absorbed as amino

acids in the hind gut. This is known as un-degradable protein (UDP), good sources being fish

meal, decorticated ground nut meal and beans. Foods with medium degradability are dried

grass, soya bean meal and maize silage, these are degraded in the rumen and known as rumen

degradable protein (RDP) used by the micro-organisms, common sources being, grass, hay

and silage without additive. The rumen micro-organisms can also utilise non-protein nitrogen

(NPN) such as urea which can be incorporated into both beef and dairy cattle diets. If

sufficient RDP is not available the rate of fermentation of fibrous as well as concentrate rich

diets will be reduced, this leads to a reduction in feed intake, lower energy supply and reduced

milk yield. It is therefore important to have the optimum balance of UDP and RDP in the diet.

The figure below illustrates the increasing requirements for both as milk yield increases.

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To obtain appropriate levels it is necessary to calculate the total energy and energy

concentration in the diet for the desired level of yield. Then determine how much total

protein is required to match that energy. After calculating how much can be provided by the

microbes, the remainder has to be provided in an un-degradable form. There are

commercially available computer programs that can easily deal with this aspect of ration

formulation.

Mineral Requirements The major requirements for the dairy cows are calcium and phosphorous, the calcium to

phosphorus ratio is important, as an imbalance can cause infertility. The requirements for

maintenance and production of a 6000 litres lactation are 50gm calcium and 70gm of

phosphorous per day. There are considerable reserves of both elements in the skeleton,

however, winter diets can be short of calcium and deficient in phosphorous. With farm mixed

foods a mineral mixture needs to be incorporated. Most oil cakes are rich in phosphorous

relative to calcium, whereas hay, silage, sugar beet pulp are rich in calcium and low in

phosphorous. Usually compound cake is fortified with these and other minerals. Shortages of

sodium can be solved with salt licks. Magnesium is frequently required at the rate of

50gm/day to prevent hypomagnesaemia. It may be worth having a soil analysis carried out to

identify low soil mineral status if this is considered a possibility as such a soil will produce

forage with low minerals content.

Vitamin Requirements The two vitamins likely to be in short supply are A and D in the winter months. Vitamin A is

stored in the body tissue from summer feeding of fresh forage. Vitamin D is provided from

well-cured hay and concentrate supplemented with A & D. Vitamin E and/or Selenium

deficiency due to feeding poor hay to calves can cause muscular dystrophy. When the animals

are turned out they suddenly take more exercise and can develop a stiff gait. Veterinary

advice on Selenium supplementation should be taken as it is very toxic.

Conclusion on Feed Principals It is necessary to stress the long-term effects of feeding a dairy cow. The feeding level at any

one point in the lactation can have a marked effect upon yield and body condition, not only

later in the lactation but also in subsequent lactations. This is well illustrated by good feeding

29

in late lactation which increases body condition at calving so that a higher peak yield is

achieved as well as a higher total lactation yield.

The figure below demonstrates the relationship between milk yield, body weight change and

appetite.

The shape of the lactation curve is affected by genetic potential and also by feeding and

management. The peak yield is critical because for each litre obtained at peak yield the overall

lactation increases by 200 litres. Rate of decline after peak is normally 2.5% per week so that

the yield around the 100th day of lactation is often a better indicator of total yield than peak

yield. Appetite is lowest at calving and increases to a peak around the fourth month of

lactation before declining as the development of the foetus takes up body space. The energy

deficit from feed in early lactation can be compensated by mobilisation of body fat in the 2

months after calving, it is necessary then to ensure the cows are in good condition at calving.

The regaining of weight before calving is more efficiently undertaken when the cow is still

milking rather than when dry. Overfeeding during the dry period can cause Dystokia. Finally,

correct feeding is a major determinant of profit total food costs it has been calculated that

fresh forage, conserved bulk foods and concentrates account for more than 50% of all costs

of producing milk so efficient feeding is a prerequisite for profitability in milk production.

Calf Rearing After birth it is preferable to leave the calf with its dam for 24-36 hours to enable it to suck

the first milk called colostrum. The need for satisfactory suckling in the early hours of life

cannot be overemphasised, if the calf fails to suckle unaided it should be guided to the teats

and encouraged to suck. If following encouragement it still does not suck then it should be

given hand-milked colostrum from a bottle.

Colostrum Colostrum has a high nutritive value, it is rich in protein and a laxative that helps remove dung

that has accumulated in the gut before birth. The protective substances contained in

colostrum are most important, they give the calf immunity from bacteria that are inevitably

present on the farm. These are known as immunoglobulins or antibodies and are carried in

the fat globules of the colostrum, research has shown that the rate of adsorption of these by

the digestive tract of the calf into the bloodstream peaks some 3 to 6 hours after birth, this is

30

why early suckling is so important. Following separation from the cow whole milk should be

fed twice a day for the first week in life. Surplus colostrum can be stored by deep freezing

before subsequent feeding to bucket fed calves. The simple laboratory zinc turbidity test can

indicate the level of antibodies in bought in calves which can be a useful rearing aid.

Calf housing Following removal from the dam the calf should be placed in a clean, dry, well bedded

individual pen. This should be in a well-ventilated but draught-free building where the

temperature doesn’t drop below 8 degrees C (it should be remembered that a new born calf

is effectively a simple stomached animal so does not benefit from the heat of fermentation

from its rumen). The relative humidity of the air should be kept low by avoiding washing feed

buckets or using excess water within the actual calf house. Where there are a large amount

of calves produced throughout the year it may be preferable to have a number of smaller calf

houses operated on an “all in all out” system to operate with cleaning and disinfection

between batches of calves which helps to control disease. The use of slatted boarding under

the bedding of the pens can be a help in reducing straw usage. Natural ventilation is usually

adequate providing condensation does not build up in winter conditions, if that is not the case

and condensation occurs then controlled fans must be used to achieve a satisfactory

environment as air movement must be maintained even in cold weather. The ideal system is

one that heats the incoming air when the outside temperature drops to a set level.

Having suckled colostrum from its dam, this new born calf has been placed in a clean dry individual pen for

bucket rearing

Methods of Calf Rearing Single Suckling

This is the simplest system really only suited to low cost beef production on marginal land.

The calf stays with and suckles from its mother till 9-10 months of age and then is weaned.

The cow is usually of pure beef breed or it is a beef x dairy cross e.g. Angus X Friesian put in

calf to a pure bred bull. The cow will produce enough milk for one calf, natural insemination

is used for re-breeding. This system is not suitable for producing and rearing dairy herd

replacements.

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Multiple Suckling

This system involves suckling several batches of calves on a cow during a lactation. The

number reared will depend upon the cow and number of weeks each batch is allowed to

suckle. Using a dairy bred it can be as many as 15-20 calves per lactation. This system is

currently the most suitable system for rearing dairy replacement calves in Turkmenistan given

the absence of milk replacer powders in the market and feeding machines. Suitable cows can

be dairy cows with some defect that makes them unsuitable for a milking parlour e.g. wide

placed teats or loss of a quarter due to mastitis. It can be quite difficult to make a batch of

calves take to the cow, considerable patience is required by the herdsman when persuading

the cow to take to her calves, especially a new batch following weaning of the previous group.

Hand milking maybe necessary initially to prevent mastitis in the cow. It can help if a cow is

tied when mothering new calves it may be necessary to put a rope around the abdomen in

front of the udder to prevent kicking. It is advisable not to include the cow’s own calf in the

first batch.

Bucket Rearing

In the West this is the most widely used method of rearing calves though automatic systems

of ad-lib and controlled feeding of milk replacer are fast catching up in popularity. The system

is based upon the use of purchased powdered milk replacers mixed with the appropriate

amount of water and fed from the age of 7 to 10 days until weaning at 5 weeks. There are a

wide range of replacers to choose from with added fat, sugars and minerals to lower cost

vegetable based products. Individual penning of the calves is ideal as the intake can be

monitored and controlled. Contaminated buckets are an obvious source of infection so that

thorough cleaning and disinfection are essential at least once a day. Often calves have to be

taught to drink from a bucket, especially if they have been suckling their dam for a few days.

Traditionally milk replacer is fed by bucket twice a day at around blood temperature there is

some advantage in raising the temperature to 40-42 degrees C the calf drinks more readily as

the flow of saliva is stimulated and the rennet in the stomach that clots the milk is more active

at this temperature. Consumption should build up over the first week, full intake of a Friesian

calf is 4 litres per day in two equal feeds. Once a day feeding is an alternative using the same

level of powder but less water, another alternative is to use cold tap water, calves still seem

to thrive but can shiver after a feed.

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A batch of calves on and all in / all out early weaning system. The building will be cleared, disinfected and

rested between batches

Ad-lib systems

Numerous ad-lib systems of feeding milk replacer have been developed in recent years

particularly to save labour on large dairy farms. They involve various types of dispensing

machines or simple storage vessels connected to a number of rubber teats. Rapid growth

rates can be achieved due to the high levels of milk intake coupled with little and often

suckling. Animals can be group housed saving on costs of individual penning. Nutritional

scours may be seen in the first week but usually clears without treatment. Machines that are

commonly used in the West mix milk on a demand basis so it is always fresh. Now additional

control of calf feeding can be undertaken by calves wearing neck collars with transponders

that controls access to the milk teats station and at the same time records the amount of milk

fed to each individual calve per day despite the fact that they are grouped. This reduces the

possibility of nutritional scours and at the same time keeps track of individual calves feeding.

33

An automatic calf feeding machine that mixes powdered milk (it could use fresh milk) warms it for feeding.

The calf wears a transponder that records the amount of milk it takes and doesn’t allow it to over-feed so

reducing the possibility of scours

With all feeding systems water should be offered from the second week also an early weaning

concentrates should be offered from the second week of high nutritional content these can

be in the form of small pencils, or a home mixed ration. Such a ration could be the following:

%

Flaked maize 50

Crushed Oats 20

Fish Meal 10

Linseed cake 10

Dried skim milk 10

Plus minerals and vitamins A and D

Molasses and dried sugar beet pulp can be included to increase palatability and make the

ration attractive to the calves, availability of a little soft hay is also a good idea as it helps

rumen development.

Husbandry Tasks Supernumerary Teat Removal

One of the earlier husbandry tasks to be performed is the removal of supernumerary teats

from heifer calves destined to be herd replacements. This should be undertaken in the first

month of life (no later than 3 months) cutting off any surplus teats with a pair of sterilised

sharp curved surgical scissors, great care should be taken to identify the correct teats to be

removed. If not removed supernumerary teats can sometimes become patent i.e. produce

milk when the cow is lactating leading to mastitis.

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Supernumerary teats are best amputated at horn disbudding when the calf is only a few weeks old

Castration

Castration of young bull calves destined for beef is undertaken in many countries not least

because of regulations concerning keeping of bulls meaning more expensive cattle

accommodation. A common reliable method is bloodless castration using rubber rings that

should be undertaken in the first week of life. A rubber ring is stretched open by a special 4

pronged pair of pliers, both testicles are passed through the ring and the pliers gently

released, care needs to be taken to avoid the small teats. An alternative bloodless method is

to crush the cord of each testis using a Burdizzo castrator, to ensure success each cord should

be crushed in two different places. Castration with a knife is effective but is really a job for a

veterinary surgeon.

Disbudding

If cows are milked through a parlour and housed in cubicles then disbudding of herd

replacement heifer calves is necessary. If on the other hand the cows are kept and milked in

a cowshed then horns are necessary for the neck chain restraints to work effectively.

Disbudding should be only carried out using an anaesthetic (the law in many countries) unless

using chemical cauterisation. The most satisfactory method is to cauterise the bud with a

special hot iron heated by electricity of a flame from a bottled gas supply. This task should be

undertaken before 3 weeks of age but there needs to be sufficient growth of horn to hold

cauteriser in position. Local anaesthetic is first given to freeze the nerves running to the horn

buds, the site of injection is in the soft tissue just below the ridge of bone halfway between

the eye and the horn bud. Hair around the horn bud should be clipped back to expose the

buds while the anaesthetic takes effect (5-10 minutes) it lasts for an hour so a group can be

injected and disbudded together. The cauteriser should be held on the bud for 10 seconds

and with a twisting action the bud is pushed out by pressing firmly inwards and downwards

with the edge of the cauteriser.

35

The sequence as described above for disbudding using a gas heated hot iron

Some Calf Rearing Problems Scouring

Although this is a common disease of the young calf its effect on an enterprise can be

controlled by good husbandry. It can be caused by over feeding and dirty feeding equipment,

but it is often associated by infectious bacteria viruses or mycoplasma organisms. The

particularly virulent strains and the ones causing most serious loss are as follows:

Salmonella – is a bacterial infection that can affect cattle of all ages but is

particularly important as a potential problem in calf rearing. There are a number

36

of strains but S. typhimurium (which can also infect man) is the most common.

The symptoms are a yellow diarrhoea, high temperature and possibly death

within a day. Some calves only suffer from a chronic infection, being unthrifty

while others carry the infection without showing any health problems. These will

have levels of antibodies and will against the bacteria and at times will shed

salmonella in the dung. This may be caused by stress e.g. transport by digestive

upset or poor housing. Prevention is preferable to cure by purchasing healthy

calves from a known source, vaccination is possible for both S. typhimurium and

S. dublin but it is advisable not to vaccinate an animal already showing signs of

the disease. Salmonella can spread from saliva so milk-feeding buckets need to

be kept clean.

Virus infections – these generally affect calves during the first week of life and

cause watery diarrhoea. The virus destroys cells lining the intestinal wall, so

affecting water reabsorption. The calf is therefore suffering from dehydration so

liquid intake is important. Antibiotics have no effect on the virus but they may

prevent further bacterial attack. Scouring caused by rotavirus and coronavirus is

reduced when replacement heifers are reared in the same environment as the

cows, not on a separate farm so that the antibodies build up and pass onto the

calf via the colostrum. Bovine viral diarrhoea (BVD) can be a particular problem,

especially if the dam of the calf is infected during pregnancy when the infection

passes to the unborn animal.

Respiratory Infections – calves housed in badly ventilated buildings are liable to

suffer from respiratory disease often called calf pneumonia. The cause is

complex; it involves the environment as well as micro-organisms and stress.

Improved ventilation is an obvious control method. Vaccination is difficult swabs,

need to be taken and the correct infection strains identified.

Abnormal Calves – occasionally calves are born with hereditary defects such as

dropsy or as bulldog calf. One such abnormality is a freemartin heifer which, as

a twin to a bull calf suffers an arrest of sexual development before birth, such a

heifer cannot be kept as a potential herd replacement animal.

Herd Replacements The average productive life of a dairy cow in many developed western countries is a little less

than 5 lactations so for a 100 cow dairy herd, some 20-25 replacement heifers are required

every year. The actual replacement rate in a dairy herd is affected by many factors. The

retention of “borderline” culls for an additional lactation can have a positive effect on cash-

flow in the short term as it avoids buying or rearing replacement heifers but as a long-term

policy cannot be maintained. In many herds high levels of enforced culling takes place as

disease problems override management decisions, typically chronic lameness, mastitis and

the most common, failure to conceive (get back in-calf). Profitability of the dairy herd then

can be very much affected by herd health status that needs to be kept high to avoid large

numbers of cows being culled for reasons other than milk yield. The returns from rearing

replacements are less than for milk production, so high replacement rates create an

37

additional cost burden. In a herd with a normal culling rate and using non-sexed semen or

natural service and allowing for the birth of bull calves, half the herd will be required for

breeding replacements. In a situation of all year round milk production it is the cows with

highest yields and best conformation that should be used for breeding replacements. Another

method of obtaining replacements is to breed heifers from heifers using sexed semen this

method gives the biggest increases in genetic improvement in the herd, care has to be taken

to ensure that the AI bulls used do not cause calving problems.

Rearing Policies There are three main alternative methods of obtaining replacement livestock, namely to

purchase, to home rear and to employ a contract rearer. At present in Turkmenistan it is home

rearing that is most likely to be used given the current situation. Purchase of down-calving

heifers is the usual method for keeping a “flying” herd, replacements are bought as and when

needed, all calves male and female leave the farm as soon as possible. No extra management,

labour, land or forage production is involved, the only costs are those of travel to view

potential replacements and transport back to the dairy unit. There are of course risks,

importing disease being the major one for example mastitis. Many farms refer to rear their

own heifers to avoid disease risk and to see the results of a planned breeding programme

come to fruition, it does however involve the use of considerable resources both in money

and time. Contract rearing although not generally widely practised in dairy producing

countries does offer advantages to farmers lacking in resources on their own farm. The home

bred replacement heifer calves are reared under contract and bought back to the farm near

to calving. One advantage is that as the activity is contracted the heifers are a known cost,

however the quality of the down-calving heifer will be largely determined by the skill of the

contract rearer, so care must be taken when choosing the rearer and a detailed contract

drawn up itemising who is responsible for details like veterinary charges and animal

medicines.

Age at Calving The next factor to be considered by farmers rearing heifers or having them contract reared is

the optimum age of calving. It is an important factor because not only does it determine the

resources involved in rearing, but it also affects the calving pattern and long-term production

of the herd. There is considerable evidence to suggest that so long as satisfactory growth

takes place, heifers calving at 2 years old rather than 2 ½ and 3 years have a higher lifetime

production. Although the yield is slightly less in the first lactation, younger-calved heifers are

on the whole retained in the herd for a longer period of time, so produce more milk. Research

shows it is unsatisfactory to grow heifers on a high plane of nutrition and calve them at less

than 22 months Dystokia being a major problem. The target should be with good feeding and

management to produce a heifer weighing 500kg just before calving at 2 years of age. To

achieve this target growth rates need to be set on a monthly basis, the major tasks being to

ensure the necessary nutrition, health and environment are maintained at satisfactory levels.

Target growth rates need to be met at every stage of rearing as trying to “catch up” in later

periods is not only expensive as more concentrates will have to be fed but results in over fat

heifers leading to more dystokia. Basically you are looking at an average live-weight gain of

around 0.68 - 0.7 kg/day to produce a 500kg heifer at calving. This should be checked by

regular weighing of the replacement heifers. Good stockmanship is essential to ensure this is

38

achieved, in particular health problems that can occur are warts on teats that can be a

problem transmitted by flies so fly control must be used, summer mastitis in heifers close to

calving should also be watched for.

The result of good health and nutrition management during the rearing of a replacement heifer to calve at

24 months weighing 500 kg

Calf Rearing Stage In the case of an autumn born calf, targets are more easily met with the earlier-born animal

that are born in September rather than December. Older calves being fed fresh forage in the

following spring have a greater appetite and so can make better use of it. During the calf stage

early weaning is ideal using bucket rearing as previously described.

Yearlings Housing and Service

Target weight at service for a Friesian heifer is 330 kg for the heifer to calve in early autumn

the next year service has to be in December, so it is essential that high quality conserved

forages and concentrates are fed until service. The bull used for service should be selected so

as to avoid difficult calving. Traditionally in the past it was usual to use Aberdeen Angus or

Hereford bulls on dairy heifers for ease of calving. Now with the introduction of sexed semen

and detailed AI bull assessment tables it is possible to select dairy bulls that don’t cause

calving problems so the heifer produces a valuable dairy heifer calf – a potential herd

replacement of high merit at her first calving. The use of prostaglandins has proved to be a

convenient way of bringing a group of heifers into oestrous together so AI can be used without

oestrous detection. Satisfactory conception rates are achieved when the animals are on a

rising plane of nutrition. Apart from a routine pregnancy check at 2 months after the end of

mating minimal management input should be the norm. Care needs to be taken however with

regular weighing minimising disturbance when checking that targeted growth rates are being

achieved. If a heifer calves down at well below the 500kg target then it is very likely that

problems will occur in the future, if she is still underweight in her first lactation she will be

trying to grow, producing milk and get back in calf, often what happens is she doesn’t get back

39

into calf so ends up being culled. It is important to make sure replacement heifers are well

looked after so they come into the herd and are able to stay.

Diagram above shows growth rates at different ages required to achieve a 500 kg heifer calving at 24 months

Breeding AI and Bulls The major objective of profitable dairy farming is to get 85-90% of the herd in calf each season

with a calving interval of no more than 370 days. Survey results show that failure to conceive

is a major reason for cow culling. Good herd feeding, housing freedom from disease and bull

selection are factors that contribute to successful breeding, but there is no doubt that good

husbandry practice is a key factor. Regular calving increases the output of milk and calves, it

reduces veterinary costs and the loss of good cows through slaughter, with delays in

conception having a marked economic effect on the enterprise. As levels of feeding and

management improve, it becomes increasingly important to have animals with a high genetic

potential, so the selection of suitable sires becomes more vital. Breeding is a long-term

process with no guaranteed results, although by careful selection of bulls improvement can

be expected with heifers performing better than dams. The comparison indices available from

international AI semen suppliers in their sire catalogues are detailed wide ranging and cover

40

a multitude of transmitted characteristics for each bull, so it is possible to use sires that can

improve a particular identified herd weakness as well as improving yields of milk, fat and

protein.

Infertility Some infertility problems arise from infections of the reproductive tract, these are usually

localised on-specific types of infection, although others such as venereal disease are spread

by natural service. Brucellosis was until its eradication in W Europe a major infection of the

genital tract that seriously affected fertility. Animals that have difficult calvings, torn or

bruised tissue or a retained placenta can commonly develop infection of one or more sections

of the tract. These animals produce abnormal discharges of yellowy or white colour

commonly known as the “whites” this problem requires veterinary treatment with inter-

uterine antibiotics. “Whites” should not be confused with a slightly cloudy often blood-tinged

discharge that sometimes appears 2 or 3 days after oestrus, this is quite normal and even if

the cow has been served does not mean she has failed to conceive.

Post-calving Management A cow which calves and cleanses normally and is well fed in early lactation should come back

into oestrous within 3 or 4 weeks after calving. Cows not seen in oestrous after 40 days should

be examined by a vet, this is particularly important, the length of gestation is on average 280

days so that to produce a calf at exactly a one year interval the animal needs to conceive on

the 85th day of lactation. A useful guide is to serve the animal at the next oestrous after 50

days of lactation assuming she has already had an oestrous, attempting to serve at the first

oestrous reduces the chance of conception, because the uterus has not yet returned to

normal after the previous pregnancy and will not accept the embryo. Research has shown

that the chance of conception is improved if the cow at service has started to regain the

weight she will usually have lost in the early weeks of lactation. Well-fed cows especially in

energy terms at the time of service, have shown improved conception. The diet needs to

provide adequate energy for maintenance, milk production and 10-20 extra MJ for live-weight

gain.

Breeding Records Recording has already been dealt with earlier, it is however worth stressing that an efficient

recording system is a key factor in successful breeding. Any dairy herd justifies a

comprehensive system of recording.

Heat Detection and Service For herds using AI it is a vital part of successful breeding management that herdsmen are

skilled and effective in heat detection. It is not a simple task as studies have shown that

individual animals are in oestrous –mature cows only 30 minutes to 25 hours with maiden

heifers seldom more than 12 hours. Understandably a few animals will be missed if oestrous

occurs at night but nevertheless the aim should be to identify 85% of predicted heats (a simple

calculation can be undertaken weekly). If there are no heat detection aids being used on the

farm (more about this later) then during the breeding season 3 or 4 periods of at least 30

minutes should be set aside each day solely for this purpose, preferably when the herd is

settled one session being late at night so adequate lighting in the cowshed is essential. A cow

is right for immediate insemination only when she stands to be mounted. In a large herd it is

41

possible to have several animals in oestrous at the same time, this can make accurate

detection challenging. It is necessary for stockmen to be able to recognise the behaviour of

animals coming into and going off heat so as to arrange appropriate times of insemination. It

is necessary to have an appropriate cut off time so any animal coming into heat is not served

but saved for the next day. Tail paint or paint capsules glued to the pelvic area of cow are

simple aids to heat detection Progesterone testing of milk can be used as a method of

pregnancy testing (and also of oestrous detection). The basis of the test is to measure the

varying level of progesterone – which is almost zero at oestrous increasing to a peak 17-20

days later and falling suddenly again – the next oestrous (but not if the animal is pregnant).

In principal a small sample of milk is taken (not the foremilk) and from all 4 quarters of the

udder, a refrigerator is required to store the sample and test kit, the system works on a colour

change of the test sample. In some circumstance replacement heifers being kept elsewhere

“off-farm” it may be preferable to use prostaglandins to synchronise heat to enable

insemination to be carried out together. Finally, “sweeper bulls” can be used to get cows in

calf that do not hold to AI inseminations. Animals should be securely and safely restrained for

insemination, commonly now most dairy farms use a yoke system combined with where the

cattle are fed by the feed passageway, so cattle can be fed and then yoke ready for

insemination rather than handling them and taking them to a crush which is all added stress.

DIY Artificial Insemination Large herds often purchase semen, store on farm and carry out their own AI. In the case it is

necessary for a number of staff (at least two to cover sickness and holidays) to undergo

training in insemination. It does mean cattle can be served at the optimum time and double

inseminated if necessary. Conception rates will depend very much on the skills of the farm

staff with re-training sessions being necessary on a regular basis before each breeding season.

Diagram above shows best time for service even more critical when using sexed semen

42

Pregnancy Diagnosis For pregnancy diagnosis (PD) it is advantageous to arrange for the vet to carry out (PD) as

soon as possible after service, for many this will be around 90 days although highly

experienced vets can make an accurate assessment at 40-50 days. The milk progesterone test

as outlined above can be used between the 18th and 24th day following service, accuracy being

95+% for negative results and 85+% for positive (pregnant) results.

Selecting Sires This is a challenging task, nevertheless it can be a very rewarding for farm staff to be involved

with management in selecting sires to use on both cows and maiden heifers. A wide range of

bulls of many different breeds are available from international AI semen supplying

companies. In a “flying herd” where all herd replacements are purchased a beef sire that

produces high value beef cross calves without undue risk of calving problems may be a more

profitable path to follow. (It should be noted at present that is not a possibility in

Turkmenistan as dairy herds have to produce their own replacements, it may be possible in

later years). Using normal AI service it will be necessary to put at least 60% of the better cows

in the herd in calf to suitable top proven high merit sire(s) to produce high merit dairy

replacement heifers, the remaining 40% being put in calf to beef sires. Of course the use of

sexed semen from companies like Cogent, UK would mean that only 30% of the herd would

need to be put into calf to produce replacement heifers assuming a replacement ratio of 25%

and the rest (75%) could be put into calf to beef bulls. In order to evaluate potential sires

production figures for their progeny are vital milk output, fat and protein percentage and

output. International semen companies provide a host of additional information concerning

their bulls at stud including udder conformation ratings, shape, attachment, teat shape,

placement as well as legs and feet. Most provide a useful summary of typical daughters of the

bull, e.g. large cattle Canadian type with good udders, legs and feet just above average.

Usually when picking bulls it is best to go for yield not percentages only if there is a for

example a protein deficiency in the herd would you look at percentages and choose sires on

that basis. (You need at least 3% protein to make hard cheese). A word of warning be careful

when picking bulls from different company catalogues as the assessment systems used are

not always the same, also pay attention to the weighting as which is an indication of the

confidence in the figures given the more daughters a bull has had assessed the greater the

weighting. Common in the UK is the (improved contemporary comparison) system that is used

by several companies so bulls can be compared and assessed with some validity, but

remember results are not guaranteed with bull selection there is always an element of luck.

Sexed Semen Sexed semen has already been mentioned, it is a relatively new technique whereby semen

can be guaranteed to have a 95+% chance of producing a heifer calf for dairy heifer

replacements or a bull calf for beef production both of which are more desirable that the

reverse. On average a normal semen straw contains 10M sperm cells sexed semen straws

contain 4M so more care has to be taken to ensure insemination takes place at the optimum

time, also it costs more per straw. The best results are obtained putting maiden heifers in

calve or second-calvers not cows that are going to the end of their useful life. Sexed semen

allows dairy herds to increase production of saleable beef animals either to be sold as calves

43

or reared and fattened at the same time eliminates the production of less useful animals,

dairy bull calves and beef heifers.

Bulls, Rearing, Housing, Feeding, Working and Bull Health

Rearing bulls within the dairy herd - it is often common practice to foster the bull calf

destined for the herd onto a dairy cow but bucket rearing can provide a satisfactory

start to a bull calf. It can be weaned at 7 to 8 weeks. A bull should be handled

frequently from a young age, taught to lead on a halter, spoken to so that his

confidence is gained. A ring needs to be fitted at 9 months usually using a self-piercing

ring into the septum of the nose or better to use a punch to locate the ring more

accurately. When handling an older bull it is essential to use a staff and keep his head

up high. After sexual maturity at 9-10 month of age it is necessary to pen bulls

separately but also to maintain regular exercise and handling on hard ground to keep

the feet in good shape.

Housing for bulls – especially of dairy breeds it is essential to have properly designed

boxes with adjacent exercise yards, a feeding hatch incorporated to make feeding

easier and safe. Attached to the exercise yard should be a service crate where the cow

can be served. Arrangements such as sliding doors separating box from yard to allow

cleaning of the yard, a yoke to catch the bull at the feeder should all be in place.

Feeding the bull – the aim is to keep him fit without getting fat, if he gets too fat he

may have to be slimmed down to work effectively. Unless he is working hard a forage

based diet maybe adequate, good quality hay fed at 1.3 kg per 100kg live-weight and

2-3 kg of concentrates per day when in active use is a guide.

Working the bull – a young bull should not be overworked in the early part of his life,

he can be turned into a yard with a small group of heifers to play around and arouse

his sexual desires. Once he has successfully served a few heifers he can be used on

bigger animals. At all times slippery floors should be avoided, older bulls often become

slow in service owing to lameness in a hind foot or pain or injury. Loneliness and

confinement often lead to a deterioration in temper and when the new breeding

season begins he may need to serve a cow more than once as his semen will initially

be of low quality. If cows are not holding to his services then a vet should check a

sample of his semen.

Bull health – one of the main difficulties with natural service is the risk of transmitting

infection in the herd. Genital vibrosis is spread in this way and can be a cause of

abortion at 4 to 5 months. It is important to keep the feet of a bull in good shape and

trimming may be necessary. Lice can be a problem in winter and it is worth applying

louse powder and clipping out the top of the neck.

It can be seen for a successful breeding programme to operate, considerable time, effort and

skill are required from herdsmen and farm staff. As herd health and nutrition are closely

involved in fertility, team work is require, so herdsmen need to work effectively with

veterinary surgeons advisers and management.

44

Conclusions The object of this closing section is to summarise briefly the major points raised above. The

continued trend towards mechanisation, automation, computer and wireless technology in

dairy farming leads one to think that perhaps the days of the herdsman as we know him are

numbered. Nothing could be further from the truth, although the nature of the job is

changing, herdsmen will continue to have a vital role in profitable milk production. Indeed

the skills and aptitude required now goes beyond dealing with cows and includes handling

machinery, paperwork, records and computers, in short there is a constant background of

change in the job.

Two final thoughts:

A successful cattle enterprise involves team effort all the “players” must communicate

effectively, herdsmen, stockmen, managers, other farm workers, the vet, advisers and

so on.

A herdsman’s time must be managed effectively it is a critical factor in the success of

the enterprise, there should be effective coordination between team members, where

there is poor use of time something will be bound to be neglected causing problems

later.

Apart from timely action taken by the herdsman in carrying out a wide range of tasks on a day

to day basis such as feeding, treating sick animals, and keeping records there are 3 critical

points that can be crucial to the performance of the herdsman.

Adequate Knowledge – As the level of technology increases on the farm so do the training

needs of the staff. Learning therefore has to be an on-going process for all farm staff. Despite

new technology the basic skills of observation and caring for animals remain the number one

priority. The role of skilled, older staff in helping new entrants cannot be over-emphasised.

Knowledge and practise of scientific feeding has been highlighted earlier and is possibly the

most essential factor of being a successful herdsman understanding cows’ feed requirements

and being able to make adjustments to feeding as and when necessary to maintain milk

output and quality.

Adequate motivation – Herdsmen need to be happy in their work and not feel isolated and

lacking in interest. Effective communication between team members and management is

important to understand the farm’s goals and objectives so everybody involved is in full

agreement how the dairy farm is expected to run.

Adequate facilities – there is rarely any correspondence between capital spending and

financial performance of a dairy enterprise. Good herdsmen appreciate good facilities but use

their varied skills to “make the most” of what is available. Owners and employers have a

responsibility to provide functional buildings and reliable equipment at a cost the enterprise

can afford. Often facilities provided of minor cost can make be highly beneficial in improving

moral by demonstrating management cares, for example the provision of protective clothing

that can be hosed down so the herdsman doesn’t return home with cow spattered clothing.

45

Final Conclusion The success of the dairy enterprise, the skills and abilities of the herdsman and farm staff will

be reflected in the milk in the bulk tank, the health of the herd and the breeding record.

46

Annex 1 Energy requirements for milk production with increasing milk solids in MJ ME/litre

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Annex 2 The composition of some common cattle feeds

Feed Dry Matter (g/kg)

ME (MJ/kg DM)

DCP (g/kg DM)

Grasses and Legumes Grazing - extensive grass 200 10.0 124 Lucerne – early flower 240 8.2 130 Alhagi – desert plant * 500 6.0 28 Silages Grass silage - medium 250 9.8 102 Maize silage 210 10.8 70 Lucerne silage 250 8.5 113 Hays Grass Hay - medium 850 9.0 101 Lucerne Hay – half flowering 850 8.2 166 Straws Winter wheat 860 5.7 1 Spring Barley 860 7.3 9 Grains Wheat 860 14.0 105 Barley 860 13.7 82 Soya bean ** 900 14.9 328 Sunflower seed 900 16.6 138 Maize 860 14.2 78 Miscellaneous Sugar Beet pulp - wet 180 12.7 66 Brewer’s grains - wet 220 10.0 149 Fish meal 900 11.1 631 Wheat husk (chaff) 860 5.9 13 Rice Husk 900 2.5 5 Cotton cake non-decorticated 900 8.7 203 Concentrate High energy dairy compound 860 14.0 180 Standard dairy compound 860 12.5 160

Notes:

* Estimated values

** Requires treatment to remove trypsin inhibitors

SUPPORT TO FURTHER SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT IN TURKMENISTAN - SARD III

www.sard3tm.org

93/1 AtaTurk Str, Ashgabat Turkmenistan Tel: (+993 12) 48 34 81/ 48 34 62 E-mail: [email protected]

The Project was launched by the European Union in September 2016 to support the Government of Turkmenistan in achieving national policy objectives for sustainable agriculture and rural development, as well as strengthening supporting institutions for the agri-food sector.

Timeframe September 2016 – September 2020

Find out more SARD III Activities Webpage www.sard3tm.org SARD III Publications Webpage http://sard3tm.org/downloads EU Technical Assistance Projects in Turkmenistan - EUTAP http://eutap.tm/ru/ EUTAP Info Centre News Webpage – SARD III http://eutap.tm/agriculture/

This publication was produced with the financial support of the European Union. Its contents are the sole responsibility of Cardno Emerging Markets Belgium s.a. and do not necessarily reflect the views of the European Union.

http://www.sard3tm.org/

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