Tsui 2011

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Teacher Education and Teacher Development

Amy B. M. TsuiThe University of Hong Kong

By: Amirhamid Forough Ameri [email protected]

May 2016

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Overview Important Developments and Trends

Emergence of L2 Teacher Education as a Field of Inquiry Theoretical Underpinning and Knowledge Base of L2 Teacher Education Major Research Strands

Teacher Cognition Teacher Knowledge Teacher Learning and Teachers’ Professional Development Teacher Identity

Issues for Future Research Pedagogic Content Knowledge of L2 Teachers Teacher and Learner Knowledge and Beliefs Student Learning

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Important Developments and Trends Emergence of L2 Teacher Education as a Field of Inquiry

Early work on L2 teaching in the 1960s focused on methods. In the 1970s and 1980s, the discussion was broadened to approaches.

The emergence of applied linguistics with a focus on how theories of language, language development, and language use can be applied in solving problems in the real world.

the core curriculum of L2 teacher education programs consisted of courses on linguistic analysis, sociolinguistics, and psycholinguistics, in particular SLA.

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Important Developments and Trends However, the emergence of L2 teacher education and development as a field of inquiry

is much more recent than the emergence of applied linguistics.

The first book-length publication devoted to L2 teacher education appeared in 1990, when Richards and Nunan (1990) : conceptual basis of L2 teacher education program designs, the practicum and models of supervision, observations of teaching, reflective teaching, and action research.

So, the concept of skills-oriented teacher training was replaced by cognitive-oriented teacher education

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Theoretical Underpinning and Knowledge Base of L2 Teacher Education

Major sources influencing L2 teacher education

The paradigm shift from a behaviorist view in the 1960s and 1970s, to a cognitivist view in the 1980s, and a sociocultural perspective in the 1990s

General teacher education and its theories

A shift from the cognitive processes of teachers in the classroom to the situated nature of teachers’ action and knowledge. In Lave’s words, the teacher as “the whole person in action, acting withthe setting of that activity” (1988, p. 17).

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Freeman and Johnson (1998) called for a reconceptualization of the knowledge base of L2 teacher education stating that “language teacher education is primarily concerned with teachers as learners of language teaching rather than with students as learners of language. Thus teacher-learners … as distinct from language learners.”

They proposed a tripartite framework: First, “the core of the new knowledge base must focus on teaching itself;

it should center on the teacher, the contexts, and the pedagogy.” Second, “this knowledge should include forms of knowledge representation that document teacher

learning within the social, cultural, and institutional contexts’’ Third, “the knowledge base of L2 teacher education needs to account for

the teacher as a learner of teaching, the social context of schools and schooling, and the activities of both language teaching, and language learning”

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Drawbacks of Freeman and Johnson’s (1998) model: central to the field are two aspects of teacher knowledge:

knowledge of the subject matter and knowledge of language systems, applied linguistics, and SLA.

Tarone and Allwright (2005): this framework lacked a key element, namely, the secondlanguage learner.

Furthermore, they maintained that SLA is an important component of the knowledge base of L2 teachers because most of the research findings of SLA are directly relevant to teachers when they make decisions.

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Richards (1998) also defined the scope of L2 teacher education:1. the knowledge base of teachers, the beliefs and principles that teachers hold, 2. the professional development of teachers and the influence of experience and3. the impact of teacher education on teachers’ classroom practices.

Richards (1998): the knowledge base of L2 teacher education is constituted of:• general theories of teaching;• teaching skills;• communication skills;• subject matter knowledge;• pedagogical reasoning and decision-making; and• contextual knowledge.

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Major Research Strands

Freeman (2009): the scope of L2 teacher education encompasses three dimensions: “substance, engagement and outcomes”.

The substance of the field has shifted from knowledge and skills to social activity, the processes in which teachers are expected to engage have shifted from application of

professional input to a complex interplay between context, teaching, and learning. The measuring of outcomes of teacher education activities or program designs is a

highly controversial area for policy makers.

Most of the research studies on L2 teacher education pertain to the first two dimensions: substance and engagement. The third dimension, outcomes, is perhaps the least developed and researched.

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Major Research StrandsTeacher Cognition

The investigation of teaching behaviors and classroom processes became a focus in the late 1960s and early 1970s. These processes were referred to as “teacher thinking” at the time and subsequently the

broader term teacher cognition was used. Early studies focused on teachers’ planning thoughts, their classroom decision-making

processes, and their implicit theories. An information-processing model was adopted for analysis. Findings:

teacher cognition was highly complex and teachers’ classroom decision-making processes and other dimensions, such as teachers’

beliefs, attitudes, and knowledge were important in shaping their classroom practices.

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The cognitive processing model was challenged for its decontextualized and fragmented approach to cognition. It was pointed out that teacher cognition must be understood within the teachers’ immediate and wider contexts of work, their personal biographies, and experiences.

Studies of teacher cognition also turned to sociocultural theories of learning.

Definitions: Some researchers have defined teacher cognition as referring to teacher thinking and beliefs, as distinct from teacher knowledge.

However, a number of researchers have pointed out that teacher thinking, beliefs, and knowledge are interwoven.

More recently, values and the ethical disposition of teachers have been considered.

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Studies of L2 teachers’ cognitive processes began in the early 1990s, with the bulk of the work appearing after the mid-1990s (Borg, 2006).

Two Strands: the general cognitive processes of L2 teachers specifically focusing on L2 teaching (mostly on the teaching of grammar).

Studies of L2 teachers’ non-subject specific cognitive processes have been conducted on the following:1. teachers’ planning thoughts and classroom-decision 2. teacher beliefs, sources of influence, and the ways in which they shape classroom practices 3. the relationship between teacher cognition and classroom practices, 4. the impact of teacher education on teacher cognition change.

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Findings:

Prospective and practicing L2 teachers’ pedagogical philosophies, classroom practices,

and decisions were shaped by their prior L2 learning experience.

teachers’ teaching experiences also impacted on teacher cognition.

Context of work (such as a prescribed curriculum, a lack of resources, or the school

culture) was found to be another source of influence. teacher cognition not only shapes but is also shaped by classroom practices and the

contexts in which teachers work. Teacher cognition is evolving and fluid.

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Major Research StrandsTeacher Knowledge

The systematic study of teacher knowledge took center stage in the in the 1980s and early 1990s, and pertained to the nature of teacher knowledge and teacher knowledge domains.

The Nature of Teacher Knowledge: It is inspired by Schön (1983, 1987) who has heavily criticized the widely accepted

model of professional knowledge, in which professions such as medicine and law were classified as “major” professions, and professions such as nursing and teaching as “minor” professions.

Schön argued that what professionals do in practice is not knowing and acting as two distinct processes, but an integrated process of “knowing-in-action.”

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Shulman (1986): a missing paradigm in teacher knowledge research at the time was teachers’ knowledge of the subject matter they teach. Basic knowledge domains: pedagogic knowledge, content knowledge (i.e., knowledge of the subject matter), pedagogic content knowledge (i.e., the effective representation of content knowledge to

students). knowledge of learners, context, and the curriculum.

Investigations of the nature of L2 teacher knowledge have been conducted through teacher interviews focusing on their planning thoughts, interactive classroom decision-making, and their reflections on their teaching.

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Teacher Knowledge Domains: Subject Matter Knowledge and Teacher Language Awareness:

Prior to the 1990s, teachers’ knowledge about language was neglected in L2 teacher education research. The focus had not been on teachers’ subject matter knowledge, that is, teachers’ knowledge of the underlying systems of language (including phonological, lexical, grammatical, and discoursal features of L2).

It was not until the late 1990s that more attention was given to this area. The research focus of this area, however, has been mostly on

teachers’ declarative knowledge of grammar, their beliefs about grammar teaching, and their procedural knowledge about grammar

The latter has also been referred to as “teacher language awareness” (TLA).

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Major studies:

Gap in Literature: the bulk of the work pertained to grammar knowledge. Other aspects of the language system and

language skills remain largely neglected. Only a few studies deal with teacher cognition in L2 writing.

Study Findings

Andrews’ study on prospectiveand practicing NS and NNS L2 teachers

NNS scored substantially higher than the former in a test on knowledge of grammar

Prospective L2 teachers’ KAL (knowledge about language) in the UK

A very low level of meta-linguistic knowledge was found among NS teachers

Teachers’ knowledge and beliefs about grammar,Grammar teaching, and the impact of these on their actual classroom practices

Teachers’ beliefs about grammar and grammar teaching may or may not be borne out in their classroom practices.

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Major Research StrandsTeacher Learning and Teachers’ Professional Development

Research in this area belongs to the engagement dimension in L2 teacher education (Freeman, 2009), namely, the process of professional learning for teachers

Courses such as reflective teaching, classroom research, and action research are now standard courses.

Three research strands are important: teachers as reflective practitioners, teachers as researchers, and the development of teachers’ expertise in teaching.

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Teachers as Reflective Practitioners The concept of reflective action was first proposed by John Dewey: teachers are not

just passive curriculum implementers but that they can also play an active role in curriculum design and educational reform (Dewey, 1933).

This notion was further developed by Schön: teachers are not “technical experts” but “reflective practitioners” (1983, p. 332).

Reflective practice = a mediational tool for teachers’ professional learning.

writing reflective journals and autobiographies One of the concerns in reflective practice is how teachers can move beyond descriptive

accounts of their work (Jarvis, 1992) to reflect on their practice critically.

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Teachers as Researchers The notion of “teacher as researcher” was developed in the late 1960s and early 1970s by

Stenhouse’s (1975): curriculum development should involve testing educational theories through application

in practice, hence the term action research. To be more effective, action research should be undertaken by teachers, not researchers.

The concept of action research developed from a somewhat linear and fixed sequence of planning, action, observation, and reflection to a dynamic and cyclical model that allowed for feedback, modification, and re-trial.

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Burns (2009) summarized the purposes of action research in L2 teacher education as follows:1. to address specific issues in teaching or learning situations;2. to investigate curriculum innovation and the change processes;3. to facilitate teachers’ professional development;4. to enhance teachers’ knowledge of conducting research and to equip them with researchskills;5. to enhance the development of their personal practical theories; and6. to provide a vehicle for reducing the gap between research and practice.

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Teaching Expertise It has been motivated by the need to understand the special form of knowledge held by teachers

and to demonstrate that experts in teaching possess sophisticated skills and knowledge. Early studies of teaching expertise adopted an information-processing approach (often quasi-

laboratory in nature), using simulated pedagogical tasks through expert–novice comparisons.

Findings: Expert teachers have a complex but integrated knowledge base; they are capable of recognizing patterns very quickly; they have better improvisational skills than novice teachers they are able to justify their classroom actions in a principled manner; and they have better self-monitoring and meta-cognitive skills than novice teachers.

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Two views towards expertise: Static: characterizes expert performance as effortless, efficient, and automatic Process: characterizes expertise as a process of continuous search for excellence, in

which practitioners work “at the edge of their competence.” Tsui (2003) concludes:

first, expert teachers’ ways of thinking and ways of learning can serve as a reference for both novice and experienced teachers

second, case studies of expert teachers can help to raise experienced teachers’ awareness and to make their implicit theories of teaching explicit;

third, understanding the critical differences between expert and non-expert teachers can help teacher educators, mentors, and school leaders to identify the emerging characteristics of expertise in young teachers early on.

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Teacher Identity Teacher identity is an emerging theme. Centrality is given to teacher identity formation as an integral part of teacher learning. Identity formation involves

Not only acquiring the competence that is valued by the community but also being able to engage in and contribute to the construction of meanings.

Thus, identity is not just relational (i.e., how one talks or thinks about oneself, or how others talk or think about

one), it is also experiential (i.e., it is formed from one’s lived experience).

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Wenger’s theory of learning as social participation and the concept of legitimate peripheral participation proposed by Lave and Wenger (1991) have been drawn on by many studies.

Research on teacher identity clusters around three major themes (Tsui, 2007): the multi-dimensionality of professional identity the personal and social dimensions of identity formation the relationship between agency and structure in identity formation.

Most definitions of identity state identity as relational. Others define identity as discursively constructed and context bound.

Wenger’s theory of identity formation is perhaps the most powerful, in that it argues for identity formation being relational and experiential, as well as social and personal.

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Issues for Future ResearchPedagogic Content Knowledge of L2 Teachers Few studies have focused on

the ways in which L2 teachers are able to effectively represent subject matter knowledge to students,

the difficulties students have in understanding how the language works, and how they could be helped.

The work of Andrews (2007) is an important addition to the literature.

More work of this nature is needed, as well as more work on other aspects of the language systems, including phonetics, lexis, and discourse.

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Issues for Future ResearchTeacher and Learner Knowledge and Beliefs A number of studies have been done on learner and teacher beliefs. However, so far

these studies have largely been conducted separately, and the interrelationship between learner and teacher beliefs has been under-researched (Kiely, 2001).

Kiely’s work shows that the student’s response to the teacher has a powerful impact on the latter and that it can lead to resistance, reflection, and/or reframing on the part of the teacher.

The few studies that have elicited data from both teachers and students show that there is a gap between the two sets of beliefs.

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Issues for Future ResearchStudent Learning To date, research on L2 teacher education has been focused on the teacher, which is to

be expected as the teacher is at the center of field of inquiry.

However, as Tarone and Allwright (2005) pointed out, claims made about teacher knowledge, pedagogical practices, and teacher change have so far made little reference to learners.

Whereas much attention has been paid to teachers’ voice, students’ voice has largely remained silent.

Tsui 2011

Education

Transcript of Tsui 2011