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8/16/2019 Translate Referat Interna http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/translate-referat-interna 1/5 recover from a simple febrile illness, a small but significant proportion go on to develop the dengue shock state, with associated fatalities. In affected areas, the case fatality rate of the more severe infections is 1% or higher, particularly in children and young adults.7 Traditionally thought to affect children, significant numbers of adults are also affected,8 resulting in considerable economic impact. The difficulty in controlling dengue infection stems from three root causes non!availability of specific treatment, lack of an effective vaccine, and difficulties in vector control Pathogenesis of dengue The pathogenesis of severe dengue is poorly understood. "ne factor that is thought to cause the dreaded shock syndrome is antibody!dependent enhancement, resulting in increased viral replication#$,,1& however, many other virus and host factors are thought to contribute.11'1$ (uch of the evidence points to severe manifestations of dengue having an immunological  basis,,1)'1* rather than being due to direct tissue damage by the virus. +ariations in virulence in the infecting strain may contribute, and higher viral loads correlate with disease severity.17,18 +ascular endothelial cell dysfunction, induced by cytokine and chemical mediators, is thought to be an important factor leading to plasma leakage. urrent limited evidence suggests that transient disruption of the surface glycocaly- lining the vascular endothelium takes place.1 The cytokines tumor necrosis factor alpha, interleukin I/0!, I/! *, I/!8, I/!1&, I/!1, and interferon gamma are significantly elevated in severe dengue when compared with uncomplicated dengue fever.17 omplement activation is a feature of severe dengue, and complement levels correlate with disease severity. orticosteroids in high doses are potent modulators of the immune system and are of proven  benefit in many conditions with deranged immunity. Their clinical use in septic or inflammatory shock has, however, been fraught with controversy. 2uring the last decades, studies showed much promise regarding their benefit in septic shock in patients with sepsis! induced adrenal suppression.& 3owever, this controversy is yet unresolved, and currently the guidelines for the treatment of severe sepsis recommend corticosteroids in low doses ie, hydrocortisone && mg daily by continuous infusion0 only in patients with refractory shock, and, furthermore, do not recommend the differentiation between patients with and without an ade4uate adrenocortical response.1 5onetheless, in sepsis, corticosteroids are generally safe, with hyperglycemia and hypernatremia the only clinically significant adverse effects. Though there have been concerns

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recover from a simple febrile illness, a small but significant proportion go on to develop the

dengue shock state, with associated fatalities. In affected areas, the case fatality rate of the

more severe infections is 1% or higher, particularly in children and young adults.7

Traditionally thought to affect children, significant numbers of adults are also affected,8

resulting in considerable economic impact. The difficulty in controlling dengue infection

stems from three root causes non!availability of specific treatment, lack of an effective

vaccine, and difficulties in vector control

Pathogenesis of dengue

The pathogenesis of severe dengue is poorly understood. "ne factor that is thought to cause

the dreaded shock syndrome is antibody!dependent enhancement, resulting in increased viral

replication#$,,1& however, many other virus and host factors are thought to contribute.11'1$

(uch of the evidence points to severe manifestations of dengue having an immunological

 basis,,1)'1* rather than being due to direct tissue damage by the virus. +ariations in

virulence in the infecting strain may contribute, and higher viral loads correlate with disease

severity.17,18 +ascular endothelial cell dysfunction, induced by cytokine and chemical

mediators, is thought to be an important factor leading to plasma leakage. urrent limited

evidence suggests that transient disruption of the surface glycocaly- lining the vascular 

endothelium takes place.1 The cytokines tumor necrosis factor alpha, interleukin I/0!, I/!

*, I/!8, I/!1&, I/!1, and interferon gamma are significantly elevated in severe dengue when

compared with uncomplicated dengue fever.17 omplement activation is a feature of severe

dengue, and complement levels correlate with disease severity.

orticosteroids in high doses are potent modulators of the immune system and are of proven

 benefit in many conditions with deranged immunity. Their clinical use in septic or 

inflammatory shock has, however, been fraught with controversy. 2uring the last decades,studies showed much promise regarding their benefit in septic shock in patients with sepsis!

induced adrenal suppression.& 3owever, this controversy is yet unresolved, and currently

the guidelines for the treatment of severe sepsis recommend corticosteroids in low doses ie,

hydrocortisone && mg daily by continuous infusion0 only in patients with refractory shock,

and, furthermore, do not recommend the differentiation between patients with and without an

ade4uate adrenocortical response.1 5onetheless, in sepsis, corticosteroids are generally safe,

with hyperglycemia and hypernatremia the only clinically significant adverse effects.

Though there have been concerns

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 previously that corticosteroids may increase the incidence of superinfection and

gastrointestinal bleeding, these are largely unsupported.,$ The beneficial effects of low!

dose corticosteroids in septic shock are presumed to be due to restoration of vascular 

reactivity to vasopressor agents and not their immunosuppressive effects. /ack of vascular 

reactivity to vasopressors is not considered to be the main mechanism of shock in dengue,

and thus the evidence from severe sepsis cannot be directly e-trapolated to dengue.

In acute respiratory distress syndrome, high!dose corticosteroids reduced the levels of 

cytokines tumor necrosis factor alpha, I/!1, I/!*, and I/!8#) however, de-amethasone was

shown to have no effect on reducing I/!8 levels in dengue.6 In another recent study, which

was part of a randomied controlled trial conducted to determine the effects of high!dose

corticosteroids given early in the course of dengue illness, there was no attenuation in the

levels of acute phase plasma cytokine concentrations with the administration of 

corticosteroids.* Interestingly, this study did not demonstrate markedly elevated levels of 

 plasma cytokines in response to dengue, which is in contrast to the previous body of 

evidence.

Clinical manifestations

The natural history of dengue infection is fairly straightforward. The incubation period

following inoculation of the virus is around )'7 days. eginning as an acute febrile illness,

characteried by high temperature, malaise, retro!orbital headache, myalgia, backache,

nausea, loss of appetite, and vomiting, the hallmark of severe dengue is capillary leakage,

which occurs during the third to seventh day of illness. This coincides with reduction in

viremia,7 suggesting its immunopathogenic basis.,1) The symptomatic phase of dengue is,

for management purposes, divided into three phases the febrile phase, the critical phase, and

the recovery phase.6 2uring the febrile phase, patients have constitutional symptomsdescribed above, but are generally hemodynamically stable# dehydration can occur due to

severe vomiting.

9latelet counts decline, leukopenia is a feature, and varying degrees of hemoconcentration

can occur. (any patients make an uneventful recovery, with abatement of fever and constitu!

tional symptoms, and the patient is then considered to have had simple dengue fever. :evere

dengue occurs in a minority, and is often heralded by defervescence, improvement of 

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leukopenia, and the occurrence of severe thrombocytopenia, with platelet counts dropping

drastically below 1&&;1&</. 5onetheless, low platelet counts often do not result in overt

hemorrhage. It is capillary leakage that gives rise to serious

sembuh dari demam, sebagian kecil namun signifikan terus berkembang men=adi dengue

shock, dengan korban =iwa. 2i daerah yang terkena, tingkat kasus kematian dari infeksi yang

lebih parah adalah 1% atau lebih tinggi, terutama pada anak!anak dan dewasa. 7 muda

tradisional diduga mempengaruhi anak!anak, se=umlah besar orang dewasa =uga terpengaruh,

8 mengakibatkan dampak ekonomi yang cukup besar. >esulitan dalam mengendalikan infeksi

dengue berasal dari tiga akar non!ketersediaan pengobatan khusus, kurangnya vaksin yang

efektif, dan kesulitan dalam pengendalian vektor 

Patogenesis Demam Berdarah

9atogenesis demam berdarah kurang dipahami. :alah satu faktor yang diduga menyebabkan

sindrom syok ditakuti adalah peningkatan antibodi!dependent, mengakibatkan peningkatan

replikasi virus, $,,1& 5amun, banyak virus dan tuan faktor!faktor lain yang diduga

contribute.11!1$ anyak poin bukti untuk manifestasi parah dengue memiliki dasar 

imunologi, ,1)!1* bukannya karena kerusakan =aringan langsung oleh virus. +ariasi

virulensi strain yang menginfeksi dapat berkontribusi, dan viral load yang lebih tinggi

 berkorelasi dengan penyakit kerasnya.17,18 +ascular disfungsi sel endotel, yang disebabkan

oleh sitokin dan mediator kimia, diduga men=adi faktor penting yang menyebabkan

kebocoran plasma. bukti yang terbatas saat ini menun=ukkan bahwa gangguan sementara dari

glycocaly- permukaan lapisan endotel pembuluh darah membutuhkan waktu place. :itokin

tumor necrosis factor alpha, interleukin I/0 !, I/!*, I/!8, I/!1&, I/!1, dan interferon

gamma secara signifikan meningkat pada dengue berat bila dibandingkan dengan denguetidak rumit fever.17 (elengkapi aktivasi fitur demam berdarah yang parah, dan tingkat

komplemen berkorelasi dengan keparahan penyakit.

>ortikosteroid dalam dosis tinggi adalah modulator kuat dari sistem kekebalan tubuh dan

yang terbukti bermanfaat dalam berbagai kondisi dengan kekebalan gila. penggunaan klinis

mereka shock septic atau inflamasi, bagaimanapun, telah penuh dengan kontroversi. :elama

dekade terakhir, penelitian menun=ukkan banyak =an=i mengenai keuntungan mereka syok 

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septik pada pasien dengan sepsis yang diinduksi suppression.& adrenal 5amun, kontroversi

ini belum terselesaikan, dan saat ini pedoman untuk pengobatan sepsis berat

merekomendasikan kortikosteroid dalam dosis rendah yaitu, hidrokortison && mg setiap

hari dengan infus kontinu0 hanya pada pasien dengan syok refrakter, dan, further?more, tidak 

merekomendasikan diferensiasi antara pasien dengan dan tanpa response.1 adrenocortical

memadai (eskipun demikian, di sepsis, kortikosteroid umumnya aman, dengan

hiperglikemia dan hipernatremia yang effects. (eskipun ada kekhawatiran

sebelumnya bahwa kortikosteroid dapat meningkatkan ke=adian superinfeksi dan perdarahan

gastrointestinal, ini sebagian besar unsupported.,$ @fek menguntungkan dari

kortikosteroid dosis rendah dalam syok septik yang diduga karena pemulihan reaktivitas

vaskular untuk agen vasopressor, bukan efek imunosupresif mereka . >urangnya reaktivitas

vaskular untuk vasopressor tidak dianggap sebagai mekanisme utama syok pada demam

 berdarah, dan dengan demikian bukti dari sepsis berat tidak bisa langsung diekstrapolasi

untuk demam berdarah

2alam sindrom gangguan pernapasan akut, kortikosteroid dosis tinggi mengurangi tingkat

sitokin tumor necrosis factor alpha, I/!1, I/!*, dan I/!8# ) namun, deksametason terbukti

tidak berpengaruh pada pengurangan I/!8 tingkat di dengue.6 dalam penelitian terbaru yang

lain, yang merupakan bagian dari u=i coba terkontrol secara acak dilakukan untuk mengetahui

efek kortikosteroid dosis tinggi yang diberikan pada awal per=alanan penyakit demam

 berdarah, tidak ada pelemahan di tingkat konsentrasi sitokin fase plasma akut dengan

administrasi corticosteroids.* (enariknya, penelitian ini tidak menun=ukkan tingkat nyata

sitokin plasma dalam menanggapi dengue, yang berbeda dengan tubuh sebelumnya bukti.

Manifestasi Klinis

:e=arah alami infeksi dengue cukup mudah. (asa inkubasi setelah inokulasi virus adalah

sekitar )!7 hari. 2imulai sebagai penyakit demam akut, ditandai dengan suhu tinggi, malaise,

retro!orbital sakit kepala, mialgia, sakit punggung, mual, kehilangan nafsu makan, dan

muntah, ciri demam berdarah yang parah adalah kebocoran kapiler, yang ter=adi selama

ketiga untuk hari ketu=uh penyakit. Ini bertepatan dengan penurunan viremia, 7

menun=ukkan basis.,1) immunopathogenic nya Tahap ge=ala demam berdarah adalah, untuk 

tu=uan mana=emen, dibagi men=adi tiga tahap fase demam, fase kritis, dan phase.6 pemulihan

:elama fase demam , pasien memiliki symp?toms konstitusional yang di=elaskan di atas,

tetapi umumnya hemodinamik stabil# dehidrasi dapat ter=adi karena muntah yang parah.

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Aumlah trombosit menurun, leukopenia adalah fitur, dan berbagai tingkat hemokonsentrasi

dapat ter=adi. anyak pasien membuat pemulihan yang lancar, dengan pengurangan demam

dan ge=ala constitu?tional, dan pasien kemudian dianggap memiliki demam berdarah

sederhana. dengue yang parah ter=adi di minor?ity, dan sering digembar!gemborkan dengan

 perbaikan, peningkatan leukopenia, dan ter=adinya trombositopenia berat, dengan =umlah

trombosit menurun drastis di bawah 1&& ; 1& < /. (eskipun demikian, =umlah trombosit

yang rendah sering tidak mengakibatkan perdarahan yang =elas. 3al ini kebocoran kapiler 

yang menimbulkan serius