Transformational Leadership and Cross Cultural Communication
Transcript of Transformational Leadership and Cross Cultural Communication
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SHP 3393
CROSS CULTURAL MANAGEMENT
Topic: Effective Transformational Leadership across Cultures: The Role of Cross
Cultural Communication Competence
LECTURER:
ASSOC. PROF DR ROZEYTA OMAR
DATE: March 2011
GROUP MEMBERS :
Ananya Raka Chakraborty AH073041
Liu Shao Long AH0
Nurzatul Izzaty Bt Kamal Bakri AH080136 89022304 - 5060
Sakinah Binti Zakaria AH0801 89061813 - 5706
Tay Ke Yin AH080163 88122508 - 5432
Semester 2/2011
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Pages
1.0Introduction 3 - 42.0Transformational Leadership 5 - 83.0Cross Cultural Communication Competence 9 - 124.0Case Study 13 - 18
4.1China4.2Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.4.3Japanese Vs. United States4.4United States in Mexico
5.0Conclusion 196.0References 20
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1.0IntroductionCertainly, we are trying to preserve all of that culture, and get the advantages of being a
large company with a broad product line, with stability, worldwide presence, great
support, and yet have the advantages that a small software company has. (Bill G ates,American Entrepreneur and Founder of Microsoft Co.)
This group assignment is about to discover the importance of having a cross
cultural communication competence to be an effective transformational leadership
across cultures. Globalization does bring a huge impact in making cross cultural
communication happens in organization. Being in the 21st
century makes leaders to be
aware of the need to have new leadership competencies and one of them is cultural
intelligence.
As companies are expanding to other countries and nations, the companies are in
an increasing demand for new leadership competencies and behaviours in order to cope
effectively with global conditions. Managers with high culture intelligence can
communicate well with subordinates or other people from different cultures. Therefore,
an organizational change is a must in order to have successful leaders of cultures in
organization. You must be the change you wish to see in the world, said Mahatma
Gandhi (1869-1948), Preeminent leader of Indian Nationalism. So, taking from the
quote, the leaders should change by not only having emotional intelligence and
intellectual intelligence; leaders too are vital to have cultural intelligence.
Globalization means the organizations have increased in workforce diversity and
the social environments. The marketplace has been joined by many nations which have
different operating systems. A good culturally intelligent leader will be aware of the
systems be it in negotiations or pattern of thinking or ways of communicating. As the
world is constantly changing, leaders should never stop learning; especially regarding
culture.
Cultural differences can be a problem for organizations which vary on the way
people communicate, negotiate, make decisions, and team work. It is a big mistake for
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any organizations that put aside cultural- related challenges because to sustain the
organizations competitiveness, cultural differences should be managed well. Therefore,
every organization must train their leaders in cross cultural competence especially in
communication to succeed globally because the larger the organization, the more
vulnerable it is to the breakdown of communication.
Culture is developed, transformed and transmitted through the conscious and
unconscious activities of every member in the organization. It is however, the leader's
driving force and ability to facilitate preferred mind-sets as well as preserve, create, and
transmit the essence of existing culture as he leads his subordinates to new challenges.
Culture and leadership augment each other in bringing excellence to the enterprise.
(Schein,1997).
According to Schein, (1997), there is a relationship between leadership and
organizational culture. It is really vital to learn and understand culture that is evolving
with globalization. Therefore, it is emphasized that leaders should have culture
intelligence whether in the scope of ethnic, racial, and national cultures. Moreover, the
diversity of workplace is the more reason for leaders to learn culture. Organization
should enhance their training programs by including culture as one of the topics in the
program designed for the leaders and subordinate alike.
This assignment will explain about transformational leadership and the
difference between transformational leadership and transactional leadership. Next, cross
cultural communication will be explained thoroughly and three Hofstedes cultural
dimensions. Afterwards, to make things clear, four case studies is provided which justify
about the difference of leadership in Mexico and China, Japanese and United States and
Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. as an example of a transformational leader. This assignment
attempts to summarize transformational leadership in having communication
competence cross culturally.
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2.0 Transformational Leadership
Before viewing the relationship between transformational leadership and culture,
let us look further into details about transformational leadership. A comparison between
transformational and transactional is discussed for a clearer picture of what
transformational leadership is all about. Transactional and transformational is another
interesting issues uprising in business world regarding leadership. As you will see,
because of transformational leaders are also charismatic, there is some overlap between
this topic and the preceding discussion on charismatic traits.
But first, let us look on the transactional leadership. Most leadership models
address transactional leaders. These leaders guide or motivate their employees in the
direction of established goals by clarifying role and task requirements. It seems that
leader is doing everything for subordinates. In basic assumptions, people are motivated
by reward and punishment. Social systems work best with a clear chain of command.
When people have agreed to do a job, a part of the deal is that they give up all authority
to their manager. The prime purpose of a subordinate is to do what their manager tells
them to do.
The transactional leader works through creating clear structures whereby it is
clear what is required of their subordinates, and the rewards that they get for following
orders. Punishments are not always mentioned, but they are also well-understood and
formal systems of discipline are usually in place. The early stage of transactional
leadership is in negotiating the contract whereby the subordinate is given a salary and
other benefits, and the company gets authority over the subordinate.
When the transactional leader allocates work to a subordinate, they are
considered to be fully responsible for it, whether or not they have the resources or
capability to carry it out. When things go wrong, then the subordinate is considered to be
personally at fault, and is punished for their failure. The transactional leader often uses
management by exception, working on the principle that if something is operating to
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define and expect performance then it does not need attention. Exceptions to expectation
require praise and reward for exceeding expectation, while some kind of corrective
action is applied for performance below expectation.
Another type of leader inspires followers to transcend their own self interests for
the good of the organization, which is called transformational leaders. They pay
attention to the concerns and development needs of employees. People will follow a
person who inspires them. A person with vision and passion can achieve great things.
The way to get things done is by injecting enthusiasm and energy. This is the basic
assumptions under transformational leadership.
Diagram 1: Differences between Transactional and Transformational Leadership
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Both of these terms are different in many ways. Above is a diagram that shows a
general picture about the differences between both terms. Red side of the diagram
explained about transformational leadership and green side is about transactional
leadership. Their catalysts for change is the same, only differ in the way they do it.
Transactional leadership is based upon a trade of value and upon authority relationships.
The leader has something of value or benefits for subordinates, such as salary, or
promotion, which is given to the employee in exchange for performance of certain
services. The flip side of the exchange of value in transactional leadership is the
implication that failure to deliver value can result in negative consequences such as
reduction in salary or dismissal. I am the boss, and I tell you what to do. You do it, and I
reward you. Fail to do it, and suffer the consequences. It is a zero-sum game. This is the
simplest term that can be used to describe transactional leadership.
On the other hand, transformational leadership is based upon the unrestricted
acceptance of workers as individuals. The transformational leader creates a bond with
his followers. The leader encourages them to take ownership of their work environment
and create their own value. As contrasting to transactional leadership, which is
authoritative, transformational leadership allows followers to have input into the
decisions that affect their lives. Transactional leaders work within the organizational
culture, ensuring enforcement of the organizational rules and behavioural norms. In the
meanwhile, transformational leaders change the organizational culture and inspire
everyone within the organization to continually grow and develop.
Working for a transformational leader can be a wonderful and uplifting
experience. They put passion and energy into everything. They care about employees
and want them to succeed. This is what currently happening in University Technology
Malaysia, Skudai (UTM). The Vice Chancellor of UTM, Professor Datuk Dr. Zaini
Ujang has a vision in him, to transform UTM into World Class University. UTM has
become a research university as appointed by our prime minister, Y.A.B. Dato' Sri
Mohd Najib Tun Razak recently. The Vice Chancellor of UTM changed the traditional
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autocratic leadership applied in UTM and changed it into transformational leadership,
where it is a good start for UTM as a stepping stone towards success.
Transformational leadership starts with the development of a vision, a view of
the future that will excite and convert potential followers, where I have provide an
example of UTM Vice Chancellor earlier. This vision may be developed by the leader,
by the senior team or may emerge from a broad series of discussions.
The next step, which in fact never stops, is to constantly sell the vision. This
takes energy and commitment, as few people will immediately buy into an essential
vision, and some will join the show much slower than others. The transformational
leader thus takes every opportunity and will use whatever works to convince others to
climb on board the bandwagon.
In order to create followers, the transformational leader has to be very careful in
creating trust, and their personal integrity is a critical part of the package that they are
selling. In effect, they are selling themselves as well as the vision. In parallel with the
selling activity is seeking the way forward. Some transformational leaders know the
way, and simply want others to follow them. Others do not have a prepared strategy, but
will happily lead the exploration of possible routes to the vision.
The final stage is to remain up-front and central during the action.
Transformational leaders are always visible and will stand up to be counted rather than
hide behind their troops. They show it by their attitudes and actions how everyone else
should behave. They also make continued efforts to motivate and rally their followers,
constantly doing the rounds, and listening. Overall, they balance their attention between
action that creates progress and the mental state of their followers. Perhaps more than
other approaches, they are people-oriented and believe that success comes first and last
through deep and sustained commitment.
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2.0Cross Cultural Communication CompetenceThere are many cultures around the world with many different forms, rules,
values, and beliefs. Communication is important in workplaces for it has shaped the
culture and has also been influenced by culture through interaction of people from
different ethnic background. When cultural norms are integrated well and promote
people respect among themselves and their involvement, then communication will be
very efficient and continued participation will be achieved at both sending and receiving
ends. There are four categories of cross-cultural communication competence; which are
knowledge, motivation, and skills, and non-verbal expressions.
First is knowledge that refers to those who should understand the purpose of
cultural communication object, context and people's demands for decent behaviour and
other information. The correct interpretation of knowledge is communicative language
of communication objects and non-verbal communication; are the basis of information.
Lack of cross-cultural communication knowledge, a person would not be able to
determine their own communicative behaviour in a particular context for the purpose of
cultural propriety and effectiveness.
Cross-cultural knowledge includes the broad cultural knowledge (relating tonational cultural knowledge) and narrow cultural knowledge (relating to a particular
culture, knowledge) for example, in understanding the national cultures, there are
different cultural patterns and rules of engagement that can help the organisations to be
aware of the importance of cultural differences to enhance the sensitivity of cross-
cultural phenomenon. By understanding the cultural patterns of interpersonal
communication, it can help those who understand the impact of cross-cultural
communication in the context of communicative behaviour of an object orientation.
Cross-cultural communication competence also needs to have a particular culture,
knowledge and common sense, such as: the culture is different from the characteristics
of other cultures, as well as its mainstream cultural patterns and strengths and so on.
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Specific cross-cultural communication objectives and requirements of those who
master the specific context of communication of knowledge, such as: cross-cultural
business communication and communication are required to master the purpose of
business activities related to culture, knowledge, study abroad and learning to master
and living related cultural knowledge and so on. There is a framework for cross-cultural
engagement (see Figure 1) diagrammatically illustrates the process involved in cross-
cultural engagement.
Secondly is motivation which refers to cross-cultural communication activities
and the emotional associations. Different factors influence the emotional effect of cross-
cultural communication such as human emotions, including feelings and intentions.
People are always confused between emotions and thoughts, and feelings are not
ideological, but rather people's ideas and experience emotional and psychological
reflection. Happiness, anxiety, sadness, madness, nervousness are some of the examples
of emotional experiences felt by people cross culturally. Some people are not used to
things that are not familiar with other cultures unfamiliar scenery, sound, taste so that
they retreat. The organization need to increase the motivation of the workers who work
in different countries to experience strange things help to improve cross-cultural
communication competence.
People from different cultural backgrounds tend to hold a certain trend of view;
such a view can help in reducing the communication range of options to take response
measures. If before the occurrence of communication, a person holds a negative view of
other culture, and then in communication, this negative view of the object will affect the
cross cultural communication. Likewise, if the communication intent or purpose is
positive, communication between the parties from different countries will be more
effective.
In the cross-cultural communication skills are manifested in decent, effective
communication behaviour. This is the third must-have competence in cross cultural
communication. Communication is only required to master the necessary knowledge and
cross-cultural communication, holding a positive communicative motivation is not
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enough to complete the cross-cultural communication task, the person must be able to
use certain behaviour techniques such as empathy, human warmth, charisma, and the
ability to manage anxiety and uncertainty. It is like a person who wants to swim, he will
read many books on how to swim and master the knowledge of swimming skills, he has
a strong motivation to swim, but he still could not swim, because he has not mastered
the skills of swimming.
Non-verbal expression is an important mental activity. Communicators should
pay attention to each other's culture, body language, time, language, colour, spatial
language, and other non-verbal symbols-assisted language tone. Therefore, before
leaving the country one should deliberately do some special exercises to improve the use
of non-verbal symbol systems. For example, if you are ready to go to Japan, you should
bow to his family and friends. This can be done through learning Japanese culture first.
In addition, the taste is also a very important non-verbal symbols, before leaving the
country, one should understand the purpose of culture on the taste preferences and daily
habits, some countries, such as: the United States, like to use perfume or other cosmetics
to cover up the body's natural taste, and in many countries people are not used to
wearing perfume.
Apart from the cross-cultural communication competence, one should learn
about Hofstedes culture dimensions to leadership. First is the power distance which is
defined as the extent to which a society accepts the fact that power in institutions and
organizations is distributed unequally. It has a high impact on the management policies
such as in group efficacy and team performance, for example, in low power distance
cultures, group members efficacy were equally related to collective efficacy. Power
distance in society is also directly related to leadership. For example, subordinates in
high power distance societies are more reluctant to challenge their supervisors and more
fearful in expressing disagreement with their managers. Managers from low power
distance countries tended to use more communication behaviors and were perceived as
more approachable than managers from higher power distance countries.
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Uncertainty avoidance (UA) is another dimension identified by Hofstede. UA
refers to the degree to which members in a society feel uncomfortable with ambiguous
and uncertain situations, and take steps to avoid them.This has several implications for
societies. It is found that uncertainty-accepting societies are more innovative than
uncertainty avoiding societies. Furthermore managers from high uncertainty avoidance
countries, tended to be more controlling, less delegating and less approachable compared
to those from low uncertainty avoidance countries.
Individualism and Collectivism (IC) were found to vary across cultures.
Individualism is people taking care of themselves and looks after their own interests and
those of their close family only which is different from people having collectivism
culture. Group efficacy and group performance were positively related when
collectivism was high for instance, being autonomous, unique, and independent are
found to contribute to outstanding leadership in some, but to be undesirable in other
cultures. Meanwhile, collectivists tend to have a stronger attachment to their
organizations and tend to be more willing to subordinate their individual goals to group
goals. Thus, learning these three dimensions which are power distance, uncertainty
avoidance and individualism and collectivism is really important in understanding what
leadership behaviors, styles, and traits will be useful in various kinds of cultural setting.
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3.0The Communication Competence Frame in Transformational LeadershipA case study was conducted in China to find out how to enhance effective
interaction between foreign managers and their Chinese employees. The case study was
about cross cultural leadership where it was focused mainly on goal interdependence and
leader-member relations in foreign ventures in China. As by UNCTAD (2002) it is
found that China has become the largest receiver of foreign direct investment (FDI)
during the first years of the 21st century. Since it is not much costly in China and easier
to participate in global market many companies are developing subsidiaries and joint
ventures in China. To make these organizations effective, multi-national managers must
successfully lead local employees who are Chinese. According to Mason and Spice
(1987) managers culture strongly influences his/her behaviour. It can be difficult to
develop an effective relationship between managers and employees especially if they
have diverse culture. According to Adler (2002), an action that appears very reasonable
to the manager can appear bias, illogical, and unfair when viewed from the perspective
of an employee from another culture.
Theory of Leader-Member Exchange
In this case study three theories was used to define effective leadership among
cross cultural communication between managers and employees. The first theory is
theory of leader-member exchange. This theory proposes that the quality of the
relationship between a leader and individual employees determines leader effectiveness
(Graen and Uhl-Bien, 1995). Garen and his colleagues suggested that leaders tend to
develop and maintain LMXs with their subordinates that vary in quality, ranging from
in-group to out-group. Wakabayashi et al(1988) argued that recently hired Japanese
employees who have developed high quality LMX with their immediate supervisors
were positioned as in-group member that made them central to the management system.
In contrast those who fail to develop high quality LMX were positioned as out-group
members and outside the core of the management system. These studies suggested that
LMX theory is both useful in western and eastern contexts.
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Cross-Cultural Leadership
Another theory which is about cross-cultural leadership highlighted that the
human resource implications of cultural differences, researchers have argued that the
most common cross cultural management challenge is to facilitate how culturally diverse
people work together. (Adler, 1983; Adler et al., 1986). Effective management of
culturally diverse labor forces and maintaining good relationship very much contribute
to the success of joint venture. Following the seminal work of Hofstede (1980, 1991),
researchers have argued that individualism and collectivism values distinguish society.
According to Chatman and Flynn (2001), individualism is social pattern that individuals
view themselves as independent and motivated by their own preferences, needs, rights
and contacts. On the other hand, collectivism is a social pattern in which individuals
regard themselves as belonging to one or more collectives and motivated by norms,
duties and obligations that are imposed by collectives. When people from collectivist
and individualistic work together, they are likely to experience misunderstanding and
frustration. The reason is they have different logical reasoning and preferences for how
they should discuss issues. Now, the employees in China are more into collectivist
society whereas the managers from western part are from the society which follows
individualism. There might be fewer difficulties between Chinese employees and Asian
managers comparing to Chinese employees and western managers.
Theory of Cooperation and Completion
The last theory which is theory of cooperation and completion suggests the ways
to enhance interaction between foreign managers and their Chinese employees. It
proposes that this theory suggests major conditions that affect whether foreign managers
and local employees develop quality LMX relationship. In cooperation, goals are
considered positively related. People pursue a common vision and shared rewards, so
that the success of one helps other succeed. According to Deutsch (1989), in belief that
their goals are compatible, people discuss their opposing position open mindedly and try
to integrate their ideas, and work for a mutually acceptable solution, that in turn results
in high quality solutions to problems and productive work. In competition, goals are
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believed to be negatively related. People pursue win lose rewards, believing others goal
attainment interferes with their success. Studies have specifically have documented that
managers with considerable ability to assist employees do so especially when they had
cooperative goals (Liu et al., 2004). Managers with cooperative goals provided support
and assistance and developed trusting and friendly attitude. Overall, this study tests the
role of cooperative goals on LMX relationships between foreign managers and Chinese
employees. Cooperative goals between Chinese employees and American managers are
expected to strengthen their LMX relationship and contribute to leader effectiveness,
employee commitment to the organization and future collaboration. Competitive and
independent goals are expected to weaken their LMX relationship.
Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.
There was another interesting case study conducted based on transformational
leadership. The purpose of this paper is to explore the leadership of Dr Martin Luther
King Jr. in relation to four characteristics of transformational leadership. The research
finds that Dr King personified the four characteristics of transformational leadership. It
also illustrates King's leadership legacy through modern works on leadership. The
analysis presented assists our understanding of the qualities of and the way we think
about, transformational leaders. It emphasizes the importance of building follower
confidence; challenging taken-for-granted assumptions; developing follower needs and
upholding high moral values.
The development of close relationships between transformational leaders and
followers is critical to bringing about successful change. By demonstrating trust through
understanding the struggles, needs and capabilities of followers, transformational leaders
show that they care and value their followers maintains that social similarity between
leader and follower can form the basis for a relationship based upon trust, while Shamir
et al. (1993) maintains that transformational leaders often point to similarities in
background and experience in order to demonstrate belonging to the same collective and
to portray themselves as a representative character or role model to that community.
In figure 1, here is the transformational leadership process used in the case study to
compare with Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.s leadership style.
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Dr Martin Luther King was a great leader is without question. The more
outstanding issue revolves around the qualities that King possessed that made him a
transformational leader. Such a characterization ascribes a set of personal traits to King:
that he inspired followers, built confidence, and empowered them to face difficult
challenges; that he encouraged divergent thinking and innovative strategies and
solutions; that he catered for the developmental needs of his followers and that he had a
high moral standing and engendered trust and loyalty amongst followers.
As a transformational leader, King not only inspired legions of followers with his
powerful rhetoric, but challenged the status quo and proposed a vision of a better, more
inclusive, tolerant future for all citizens. With the framing his vision of a beloved
community in the social values and experiences of the people, King provided both hope
and meaning to his followers. The importance of inspiring followers and carefully
framing messages is clearly understood by modern business leaders. They understand
that the message must inspire followers and the delivery of the message must be
inspirational.
Japanese versus United States
Besides verbal communication and language, there are many communication
factors that contribute to the successful of cross cultural business such as the countrys
core value, beliefs and religions that shaped how the people of the country behave, act
and think. It is vital to emphasize on their culture before foreign investors can come to
business and management because every country has their own culture in conducting
their business. The most noticeable culture in managing business is the way Japanese do
their work. The workers there make decision cooperatively and they want to be
rewarded as a group. It is contradicted to the United States culture which encourage
individual to do decision making, everyone is given equal chance to improve themselves
and be rewarded. Thus, when a manager from United States transferred to Japan, he
needs to learn Japans culture to adapt with their organizational behavior. It is also
applied to Japanese if they want to work in the United States, they need to be low
uncertainty avoidance and able to work independently. The different cultures between
America and Japan have affected their way of communication, for an American
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businessman who deals with Japanese, they must understand when the Japanese close
their eyes during the American presenting his marketing strategy, and it shows that the
Japanese is digesting the information delivered by the American. If they do not know the
culture of the Japanese, they may feel it is rude to not have eye contact while having
conversation.
To be an effective transformational leader across the globe, there are several
aspects that should be emphasized. According to Howell et al (2003), in order to be
comfortable, confident, and be attracted to one another while communicate with, the
leader should own some of the similarity in demographic such as age, race, gender and
regional origin. By having demographic similarity, it would help the employees to feel
the connection and more comfortable to make conversation. Thus, before posting a
manager across the country, the organization should determine the demographic and
background of the employee. For example, if Americans company wants to put an
American manager at their branch in Japan, they should emphasize on the age of their
subordinates, as they are prone to age and seniority. The senior the manager, the more
respect they put to the manager but if the manager is younger than them, they will feel
demotivated and respect the manager less. Thus, some company even provides a class
for their employee to learn about the culture of the country that he will be served to
facilitate the manager to adapt with the culture and avoid misunderstanding.
Leadership Style in Mexico
Nowadays, we can see the transformational leadership style has become global.
In example, in Mexico the leadership style is autocratic; the leaders behaviour in
supervising their subordinates is directive to increase job performance, organizational
loyalty and decreased ambiguity. Furthermore, decision making is centralized which
only employer make the decision and if the leader asking for their subordinates opinion
in decision making, it is seen that the employer is weak. But few years back, as the
number of maquiladoras is raising across the country the leaders become more
supportive and their leadership style resemble transformational leadership. Maquiladora
is factory run by the United States company in Mexico to take the perks of cheap labour
and lax regulations. The increasing number of Americans company in their country may
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result cultural change in the way they do their job because when the Americans
company open their branch in Mexico, they also brought values and cultures from the
originated company in the United States to serve as template in running the business
there. These include the transformational leadership style which encourage two ways
communication and participating of the subordinates in decision making which is oppose
to the prior leadership.
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4.0ConclusionGlobalisation has given a huge impact on leadership across culture as worldwide
webs of communication, trade and travel and the international transfer of technology
contribute to the convergence of requirements and role models for leadership. Culture
changes and become more alike as less developed cultures change as a consequence of
the diffusion of ideas and practices from more developed cultures. This is also due to the
fact that English has been one the worlds language of business and nowadays, many
master of business administration program from English speaking countries has gone
global.
Thus, in order to interact effectively with diverse followers in given situations,
whether they be task or relationship activities, effective global leaders require emotional
intelligence and intellectual intelligence; leaders too are vital to have cultural
intelligence. Cultural Intelligence, can affect leaders communication effectiveness,
strategic planning, decision-making, negotiation, conflict resolution, team building and
information sharing, while working with diverse cultural groups and in new global
settings. Therefore, to be a competitive player in the global scene, incorporating
emotional intelligence and intellectual intelligence and cultural intelligence
competencies is a necessity.
Hence as we discuss about communication, language is not the only barrier in
managing globalization. There are many factors that hinder effective communication
that need to be clarified and clear in order to gain mutual harmony when dealing with
the other party that originated from different countries. Iceberg Culture Model can best
describe this situation, the visible tip of an iceberg in the ocean can be seen as language,
but under the ocean there is the big part of iceberg which is the cannot be seen from the
above that contribute to the language. To be an effective leader across the cultures, the
managers need to spend their time and actively participate in the culture so that they can
learn the internal part. By understand the inner part of the culture, the leaders will get to
know the behaviour of the people, therefore the leaders can lead, communicate and
understand their employees better.
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References
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5 Lawrence, Jill (2007) Two models for facilitating cross-cultural communication
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References:
1. China case studie write the reference za!!! hehehe
2. David McGuire and Kate Hutchings (1980), Portrait of a transformational leader: the legacy
of Dr Martin Luther King Jr.
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