Training Module Road Construction in Reduced Impact ... · © FORM International 1 Training Module...

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© FORM International 1 Training Module Road Construction in Reduced Impact Logging Integral Module

Transcript of Training Module Road Construction in Reduced Impact ... · © FORM International 1 Training Module...

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Training Module Road Construction in Reduced Impact Logging

Integral Module

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PREFACE

The application of Reduced Impact Logging (RIL) techniques is one of the important requirements for the certification of sustainable forest management. However, considerable effort still has to be taken before the RIL practises will be operational on a large scale in the region. Previous experiences have already demonstrated the necessity and feasibility of the training in Reduced Impact Logging (RIL) techniques in the Congo Basin. Notwithstanding the considerable differences between the different countries of the Congo Basin we are of the opinion that by introducing the RIL practices in Gabon we can investigate at first hand the impacts of the conventional logging and demonstrate the advantages of RIL techniques for the enterprise and for the environment of all of central Africa. This because Gabon still accomodates a rich and very much varied patrimony of fauna and flora, which is not only like elsewhere, seriously threatened by the logging and mining industries and by the progressing demography, but also still very much susceptible to methods that might avert these threats. As the logging techniques in tropical countries can differ from country to country, and even from region to region and all the more as there are not yet sufficient data on RIL in Africa, it is still difficult to convince foresters of the advantages of the application of RIL. The RIL training courses aim at teaching logging staff and workers these specific techniques and to optimize their skills. The following modules have been composed to form a package of instruction covering most of the aspects of logging techniques under RIL methodology:

• Cartography • Forest inventory • Road planning • Road construction • Controlled felling • Planning of skid tracks and tracing • Planned extraction • Log landing operations • Post-harvest operations • First aid in the forest • Operational management in RIL

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This task could never have been accomplished without the generous support of the persons mentioned hereunder. Our first concern was the accommodation of the project with a logging company that was already well ahead on the way to sustainable forest management. We found the directorate of the Société des Bois de Lastourville (SBL), in the persons of Messrs. Pierre et Stéphan Vergnaud, willing to lodge us and to assist us with all their facilities, their equipment and their work force. SBL is already well advanced on the way to certification of sustainable forest management and its concession has ideally helped us as experimenting field. Furthermore, the forest put aside for us by SBL is perfectly suitable for the execution of the training. We owe Pierre and Stéphan Vergnaud a great debt of gratitude. I am also very grateful to Mr. Frank Stenmanns, sustainability manager of SBL, for his patience, his collaboration and his tireless assistance, that he give me aside from his daily tasks, with the preparation of the compartments for the project, the discussions on the inventory, the mapping and the road planning.

A great many thanks also to the management of the company CEB-Thanry à Bambidie, Messrs. Jean-Marie Pasquier et Philippe Jeanmart, the real pioneers of RIL in Gabon, for their hospitality, their advising and their very valuable ideas about subjects such as cartography, construction of roads and bridges and extraction techniques. The exchanges of experiences often took place during delicious lunches at the swimming pool in Bambidié, but were nevertheless very instructive for me. The editing of the modules by Dr. Peter van der Hout, founder of the RIL training centre of TFF in Guyana and his incomparable knowledge of RIL have guarded me from too many blunders. Moreover, his visit to Lastourville was very pleasant and far too short. Hattem, the Netherlands, July 2010 Mans Vroom

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CONTENTS PREFACE .......................................................................................................................................2 1. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................5 2. OBJECTIVES .............................................................................................................................6 3. TARGET GROUPS AND COMPETENCES TO BE TAUGHT....................................................7

3.1 Target group 1: Specialists................................................................................................7 3.2 Target group 2 : Persons concerned.................................................................................8 3.3 Target group 3 Instructors .................................................................................................8

4. TRAINING PROGRAMME........................................................................................................10 4.1 Introduction and interpretation of the impact on the forest of road planning and construction and the RIL techniques to be applied...................................................................10 4.2 Cartography.....................................................................................................................10 4.3 Knowledge of the terrain .................................................................................................10 4.4 Planning of the trajectory.................................................................................................10 4.5 Knowledge of the road construction techniques..............................................................11 4.6 RIL and safety measures ................................................................................................11 4.7 Knowledge of the terrain .................................................................................................11 4.8 Knowledge of the road construction techniques..............................................................12 4.9 RIL and safety measures ................................................................................................12

5. 5. CALENDAR ..........................................................................................................................13 5.1 Target group 1: Specialists..............................................................................................13 5.2 Target group 2 : Persons concerned...............................................................................13 5.3 Target group 3 Instructors ...............................................................................................14

6. ELABORATION OF THE SUBJECTS AND THEIR ELEMENTS .............................................15 6.1 Introduction and interpretation of the impact of forest road construction and relevant RIL techniques to be considered during the road planning. ............................................................15 6.2 Cartography.....................................................................................................................16 6.3 Knowledge of the terrain .................................................................................................16 6.4 Road construction techniques .........................................................................................16

6.4.1 Description of the engines and vehicles needed for road construction..................16 6.4.2 Construction techniques and various types of bridges and culverts ......................18 6.4.3 Drainage, bridges, culverts ....................................................................................32 6.4.4 Road Maintenance .................................................................................................42

6.5 Mesures d’EFI et de sécurité...........................................................................................42 6.5.1 Description .............................................................................................................42 6.5.2 Techniques spécifiques d’EFI ................................................................................42 6.5.3 Mesures anti-érosion..............................................................................................45 6.5.4 Mesures anti-pollution ............................................................................................45 5.5.5 Respect de zones protégées ......................................................................................46 5.5.6 Ponts de canopée .......................................................................................................46 5.5.7 Corridors de traversée d’animaux...............................................................................47 5.5.8 Planification des parcs de stationnement et de voies de dépassement......................47 5.5.9 Virages........................................................................................................................48 5.5.10 Approche des ponts ..................................................................................................48 5.5.11 Dispositifs de sécurité ...............................................................................................48

6.6 Structure de la formation .................................................................................................48 7. RÉFÉRENCES SÉLECTIONNÉES..........................................................................................51 8. ABRÉVIATIONS .......................................................................................................................52

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1. INTRODUCTION

Road construction in RIL: As road construction is at the same time : • One of the operations that bring along the most negative impacts on the

forest environment as main reason for erosion, permanent destruction of vegetation and soil and genetic fragmentation

• One of the most costly operations because of the intensive use of heavy equipment (bulldozers, graders, shovels, tipper trucks, compactors)

• The most important operation for the good running of the logging operation,

it requires a very solid planification based upon topographic, hydrographic and intensive inventory data based on the forest stands, the wildlife and the demography. For these reasons the road construction requires a profound training in RIL techniques and in efficient methods.

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2. OBJECTIVES

As the negative impact of the opening of forest roads on the natural environment is enormous, over all of its length and width and as the costs of the construction are the most important part of the investments in the logging operation (estimated in Gabon at over € 15,000 (abt. US$ 20,000) per kilometre main road, it goes without saying that the road planning must lead to the shortest and straightest possible road construction and at the same time motorable during the heaviest rain periods. With a well substantiated and reasoned out planning, one can succeed in keeping as much as possible of the forest surface intact and at the same time in considerably reducing the road construction costs. Because of this, the costs of the inventory and of the planning are largely justufied by saving the costs of a planned road construction that are clearly inferior to the costs of an unprepared road construction. The forest road planning and constructionunder RIL covers six objectives that are important for the sustainable forest management, namely

1. The compromise between cost, efficiency and safety 2. The costprice of the road network 3. The reduction of the negative impact of the road construction on the

forest, its biodiversity, its vegetation, its fauna and its soil, to be obtained by a restiction of the length and width of the roads

4. The prevention of damage to the hydraulic network, to be obtained by the construction of drains and culverts with sufficient capacity and avoiding any obstruction of the watercourses.

5. The increase of the safety for the people using these roads, to be obtained by the construction of sufficiently wide curves with sufficient visibility, by limiting the slopes as much as possible and by ;limiting the maximum possible speed by clearly visible road signs, chicanes or speed ramps before obstacles or dangerous situations

6. The increase of output and effectiveness of manpower and engines by limiting length and width of the roads as much as possible.

During the planning and construction of main roads, secondary and side roads the relation of the construction costs between these types of road must always be taken into account.

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3. TARGET GROUPS AND COMPETENCES TO BE TAUGHT

3.1 Target group 1: Specialists

Positions: Forest manager, road construction foreman Position profile :

• The monitoring and instruction of the construction of all roads according to the RIL rules and according to the directives of the planning

Requested knowledge and competences : • Litterate • Ability to orientate himself in the forest • Skilled in the use of a compass and GPS (and GIS for the forest

manager) • Capable to judge the nature of the terrain in relation with the clearing,

drainage and levelling techniques to apply and capacity of the road construction engines

• Good knowledge of cartography • Basic knowledge of the types and construction of the various forest

bridges, drains and culverts. Competences to be taught : • In-depth knowledge of the principles and goals of RIL • Good understanding of the ecological effects on the forest by the road

construction • In-depth knowledge of the planning according to their importance of the

main , secondary and side roads • Capability to adapt the techniques to the conditions of the terrain

(according to the state of the soil, the vegetation and the hydraulic net • Capability to judge the water courses in relation to the flow capacity of the

bridges and culverts to be constructed • In-depth knowledge of the road maintenance techniques. Position : Bulldozer operator Position profile: • To execute the tecnical and physical work of the clearing, opening and

construction and bringing in the state of pracicability of the roads as planned by the staff in charge.

Requested knowledge and competences : • Literate • Ability to orientate himself in the forest • Capable to judge the nature of the terrain in relation with the clearing,

drainage and levelling techniques to apply and capacity of the road construction engines

• Basic knowledge of the types and construction of the various forest bridges, drains and culverts.

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• Thorough knowledge of the operating, technique and use of the bulldozer with its accessories in all its capacities and under all circumstances.

• Sound knowledge of the structure and construction of the different types of bridges, culverts, crossdrains and fords.

Competences to be taught : • In-depth knowledge of the principles and goals of RIL • Capability to adapt the techniques to the conditions of the terrain

(according to the state of the soil, the vegetation and the hydraulic net • Capability to judge the water courses in relation to the flow capacity of the

bridges and culverts to be constructed • In-depth knowledge of the structure and construction of the different types

of bridges, culverts, crossdrains and fords. • In-depth knowledge of the road maintenance techniques. • Capability to adapt the techniques to the conditions of the terrain

(according to the state of the soil, the vegetation and the hydraulic net • In-depth knowledge of the road maintenance techniques.

3.2 Target group 2 : Persons concerned

Positions : Management staff, government officials (MINFOR, etcetera), researchers (universities), teachers (forestry schools), environmental NGO’s Competences to be taught : • In-depth knowledge of the principles and goals of RIL • Good understanding of the ecological effects on the forest by the road

construction • Basic capability to adapt the techniques to the conditions of the terrain

(according to the state of the soil, the vegetation and the hydraulic net • Basic capability to judge the water courses in relation to the flow capacity

of the bridges and culverts to be constructed • Fundamental knowledge of the road maintenance techniques.

3.3 Target group 3 Instructors

Position : RIL road construction instructor Position profile: Instruction in planning of the road construction under RIL at all levels Requested knowledge and competences : • Literate • Didactical qualities • Ability to orientate himself in the forest • Skilled in the use of a compass and GPS (and GIS for the forest

manager) • Capable to judge the nature of the terrain in relation with the clearing,

drainage and levelling techniques to apply and capacity of the road construction engines

• Good knowledge of cartography

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• Basic knowledge of the types and construction of the various forest bridges, drains and culverts

• Thorough knowledge of the operating, technique and use of the bulldozer with its accessories in all its capacities and under all circumstances

• Basic knowledge of the structure and construction of the different types of bridges, culverts, crossdrains and fords.

Competences to be taught : • In-depth knowledge of the principles and goals of RIL • Good understanding of the ecological effects on the forest by the road

construction • In-depth knowledge of the construction of the main , secondary and side

roads according to their importance • In-depth knowledge of the structure and construction of the different types

of bridges, culverts, crossdrains and fords. • Capability to adapt the techniques to the conditions of the terrain

(according to the state of the soil, the vegetation and the hydraulic net • Capability to judge the water courses in relation to the flow capacity of the

bridges and culverts to be constructed • In-depth knowledge of the road maintenance techniques.

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4. TRAINING PROGRAMME

The training module has been developed on the basis of the above mentioned requirements and consist of the following subjects that will be elaborated in Chapter 5 here below.

4.1 Introduction and interpretation of the impact on the forest of road planning and construction and the RIL techniques to be applied

Elements : • Introduction, description • Impacts to be restricted and RIL techniques to anticipate during the

planning Materials needed: • Black board or flip-over with markers • Illustrations on posters or on Power Point Location: Meeting hall Duration : ¼ day Personnel: 1 instructor

4.2 Cartography

Elements : • Introduction • Description of the various types of maps • Methods, establishment, treatment and adaptation of the maps (by GIS or

by hand) Materials needed: • Black board or flip-over with markers • Maps according to the cartography list of road planning • Computer with GIS software Location: Meeting hall Duration : 2 hours (day 1, in the morning Personnel: 1 instructor

4.3 Knowledge of the terrain

• Description of the various types of terrain Materials needed: • Forestry maps, inventory maps Location : forest, at the starting point of the road to be planned Duration : ½ day (day 1, afternoon), at the same time as 4.4 Personnel : 1 instructor

4.4 Planning of the trajectory

Elements : • Introduction

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• Description of the various criteria of the planning • Tracing of the trajerctory on the ground Materials needed : • Forestry maps, inventory maps, enumeration sheets • Computer with GIS software Location: mapping room or forest manager’s office, forest, at the starting point of the road to be planned Duration : ½ day (Day 1 afternoon, at the same time as 4.3) Personnel : 1 instructor.

4.5 Knowledge of the road construction techniques

Elements : • Introduction • Various types of engines and vehicles • Description of the various techniques (forest clearing, levelling,

compacting) • Description of the various hydraulic constructions Materials needed : presence of the road construction engines, completed constructions Location : Forest, at the road construction site (starting with the uprooting) and along the completed trajectories. Duration : 1 day (Day 2) Personnel : 1 instructor.

4.6 RIL and safety measures

Elements : • Introduction • Description of the various RIL and safety measures Location : Forest, at the road construction site (starting with the uprooting) and along the completed trajectories. Duration : 1 hour (day 1) Personnel : 1 instructor.

4.7 Knowledge of the terrain

Elements : • Description of the various types of terrain • Visit to the road construction site and along the completed roads with

comments by the instructor • Discussions • Test Materials needed: • Forestry maps, inventory maps Location : forest, at the road construction site and along the completed roads Duration : ½ day (day 1, afternoon), at the same time as 4.4 Personnel : 1 instructor

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4.8 Knowledge of the road construction techniques

Elements : • Introduction • Various types of engines and vehicles • Visit to the road construction site and along the completed roads with

comments by the instructor • Description of the various techniques (forest clearing, levelling,

compacting) • Description of the various hydraulic constructions • Discussions • Test Materials needed : presence of the road construction engines (CATERPILLAR D6 or D7), completed constructions Location : Forest, at the road construction site (starting with the uprooting) and along the completed trajectories. Duration : 5 days Personnel : 1 instructor.

4.9 RIL and safety measures

Elements : • Introduction • Description of the various RIL and safety measures • Discussions • Test Location : Forest, at the road construction site (starting with the uprooting) and along the completed trajectories. Duration : during the training of § 4.4 Knowledge of the road construction techniques Personnel : 1 instructor.

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5. 5. CALENDAR

5.1 Target group 1: Specialists

Positions: Forest manager, road construction foreman and bulldozer operator

Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 Day 5 Day 6 Day 7 Day 8 Day 9 Introduction / Interpretation

Cartography

RIL and safety measures

Knowledge of the terrain

Knowledge of the techniques

Rest

Tests, certificates

5.2 Target group 2 : Persons concerned

Positions : Management staff, government officials (MINFOR, etcetera), researchers (universities), teachers (forestry schools), environmental NGO’s

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5.3 Target group 3 Instructors

Position : RIL road construction instructor Instructors have to follow this calendar twice : once with target group 1 and the second time as assistant of the instructor.

Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 Day 5 Day 6 Day 7 Day 8 Day 9 Introduction / Interpretation

Cartography

RIL measures and safety

Knowlwdge of the terrain

Knowledge of the techniques

Rest (Sunday)

Exams, certificates

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6. ELABORATION OF THE SUBJECTS AND THEIR ELEMENTS

6.1 Introduction and interpretation of the impact of forest road construction and relevant RIL techniques to be considered during the road planning.

The opening of forest roads is the most drastic from the environmental viewpoint and the most determinative from the harvesting costs point of view. It entails radical changes of the soil, of the vegetation, of the fauna and of the biosystem. The increased costs are caused by the intensive use of heavy equipment, such as one or several bulldozers, a road grader, a front-end loader and a tipper truck. Moreover, these heavy machines entail, together with the extraction engines, more negative impact on the forest environment than any other operation of the log harvesting. These very negative impacts consist of :

• Destruction of the biosystem over the entire opened surface • Destruction of the original structure of the soil • Compacting of the soil • Soil erosion • Negative impacts on the hydraulic network (silting, pollution,

embankment) • Negative impacts on the biodiversity by the embankmenrof water

courses (drying up downstream, damming up upstream) • Blockage or fragmentation of the genetical exchange within the

ecosystem • Facilitation of access for poachers and gatherers of NTFP’s, causing a

dangerous overexploitation • Vanishing of wildlife because of the noisy presence of man and machine • Infestation of the environment by human parasites (faeces).

If tenaciously applied, awhole of RIL techniques can considerably reduce the above mentioned impacts. The different operations applied for the construction of forest roads are : • Clearing (clearing of undergrowth, shrubs, small trees < 20 cm DBH • Uprooting, felling and bucking of larger trees (> 20 cm DBH) • Identification and removal of shade trees • Levelling and profiling of the road deck • Dealing with slopes • Waterway crossings • Construction of drainage systems • Construction of bridges and culverts Each operation has its specific techniques to be applied in the interest of the quality and efficiency of the road and in the interest of the environment. These techniques are described in the paragraph 6.4.2 here below.

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6.2 Cartography

Extract of the Inventory map of the AAC ,scale 1/7.500 or 1/10.000, format A3 or scale 1/3.500 format A4, reduction of map VI, drawn by GIS or by hand, featuring: • Topography • Hydrology • Contours • Boundaries of the AAC • Subdivision in inventory parcels • Topographic, hydrographic and relief data according to GIS and

enumeration sheets • Buffer zones with their width on the right scale • Designation of the parcels • Net work of existing and newly constructed roads and skid tracks with

their widths on the right scale • Tracing of the planned roads on the right scale NB:After final tracing of the road by GPS: correction on the map!

6.3 Knowledge of the terrain

A sound knowledge of the conditions of the terrain is indispensable for the person in charge of the road construction foreman and for the bulldozer operator. It is possible to roughly judge the slopes, the ridges and the valleys byl exploration on the ground after the clearing of the undergrowth.

6.4 Road construction techniques

The bulldozer in charge of the road opening has to reserve already in the vicinity of the bridges and culverts to be built marked by paint or ribbons the trees of useful species and size for the chainsaw operator always present, to cut them on size

6.4.1 Description of the engines and vehicles needed for road construction The most sophisticated machinery of the western world has been introduced in the tropical logging, without them having brought corresponding improvements in techniques and results. Therefore we restrict ourselves to describe the engines and vehicles that are used the most regularly in the smaller and average logging operations. The engines discussed in this module are only a bulldozer, a grader, a front-end loader and a tipper truck. Scrapers, compactors, back-hoes, etcetera are not treated.

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Tractor D6RXR, 185 hp., 19 tons

The brand CATERPILLAR being the best known and widespread and represented in this project, has been taken as example, although quite some other brands produce engines equivalent in capacity. The mostly used engines are described hereunder :

Type Model Capacity Weight Utilisation Observations

Bulldozer D7R 240 HP 25 t Forest clearing. Levelling. Bridges, skidding

Blade with push bar and tilt ; winch with high arch ; high engine with raised shaft ; most recent model

Bulldozer D6R 165 HP 18 t Forest clearing. Levelling. Bridges, skidding

Blade with push bar and tilt ; winch with high arch ; high engine with raised shaft ; most recent model

Grader 140H 185 HP 14,6 t Gradering ;profiling, drainage

Powerful machine for difficult terrain and hard soil

Grader 120H 140 HP 12,6 t Gradering ;profiling, drainage

Less powerful for less difficult terrain

Pay loader 966G 14 T 22 t Loading of earth, gravel and logs

To be delivered with both shovel and fork

Pay loader 924G 5,5 T 10 t Loading of earth and gravel Only with shovel

Tipper truck ? ? 5 – 15 T Transport earth and gravel

Can also be used for transport of workforce and materials

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To be multifunctional the bulldozer should always be equipped with both winch and arch. Both accessories have proven themselves essential for road construction (skidding and positioning logs for bridges and culverts), as well as for extraction.

6.4.2 Construction techniques and various types of bridges and culverts 6.4.2.1 General RIL rules:

• The road net must be kept as short and staright as possible, prepared by a meticulous planning and tracing

• Buffer zones and protected areas to be respected • Waste oil, waste filters and garbage of engine maintenance to be

removed from the forest.

6.4.2.2 Classification and characteristics of the forest roads In Central and West Africa we distinguish 4 or 5 categories of forest roads differing consistent with their duration and intensity of utilisation. 1. The access road (connecting road), securing the connection between the

boundaries of the concession and the public road network, railways or waterway.

• As the duration of its use is permanent or at least more than 5 years (duration of a quenquennial unit).

• The works must be of a (virtually) permanent quality, i.e. bridges, culverts and tubes to be constructed in very durable timber (Ekki, Denya, Greenheart) and desapped, banks re-enforced where necessary, etcetera..

• The width of the road must be such that heavy trucks (logging trucks) can freely pass each other all along the trajectory and the curves must be made even wider: 10 – 12 metres.

• Maximum slope 10 % for loaded trucks and 12 % for empty trucks

• Shade trees: Sunshine must be made possible on the road for at least 8 hours per day (from 08 to 16 o’clock)

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• The road surface must be stabilised with gravel and the gutters must be saved from erosion (silt catchers, increased number of outlets, etcetera)

• Because of the intensive use of this type of road, all traffic obstacles (bridges, curves, intersections) must be indicated with sign boards

• The need for regular maintenance (gradering, re-opening of gutters and outlets, gravelling) goes without saying

• The access road must be constructed at least 1 year before coming into service to allow sufficient natural compacting and washing out of the gravel

• Length: the distance between the intersection with the public road up to the boundary of the CSM or FMU.

2. The main road, connecting the AAC within a FMU and one QU with another

one from the boundary of the CSM or FMU inwards.

• The duration of its use is defined by the duration of the rotation, of the duration of the harvest within the CSM or FMU and of the situation of the QU’s in relation to each other

• Hydraulic works must be constructed with desapped timber of good durability (Kussia, Dahoma, Limbali, etcetera)

• The width of the road must be such that heavy trucks (logging trucks) can freely pass each other at reduced speed all along the trajectory and the curves must be made wider: 8 - 10 metres

• Maximum slope 10 % for loaded trucks and 12 % for empty trucks • Shade trees : Sunshine must be made possible on the road for at least 6

hours per day (from 10. to 16 o’clock)

• The road surface must be stabilised with gravel at unstable spots and the gutters must be saved from erosion (silt catchers, increased number of outlets, etcetera)

• Regular maintenance (gradering, re-opening of gutters and outlets, gravelling) goes without saying

• The access road must be constructed at least 1 year before coming into service to allow sufficient natural compacting and washing out of the gravel

• Length: the distance between boundary of the concession or the FMU to the other end of the concession or the FMU.

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3. The secondary road branching off the main road across an AAC reaching the compartments or pockets up to the boundaries of that AAC

• Its duration of use is one year at most • Its width must allow the passing of a stationary heavy truck (timber

truck) on specific widened spots all along the trajectory and narrow curves must be widened up to 6 – 7 metres.

• Maintenance ( gradering, re-opening of culverts, gravelling) once every 6 months.

• Hydraulic works can be constructed with timber of an average durability • Maximum slope 10 % for loaded trucks and 12 % for empty trucks • Shade trees : Sunshine must be made possible on the road for at least

6 hours per day (from 10. to 16 o’clock) • The road surface must be stabilised with gravel at unstable spots and

the gutters must be saved from erosion (silt catchers, increased number of outlets, etcetera)

• The secondary road must be constructed at least 6 months before the introduction to allow sufficient drying and natural compacting of the surface.

• Length: the distance from the entrance to the end of the AAC.

4. The side road leads from the secondary road to (groups of) compartments or pockets and eventually, in case of isolated compartments, with a branch towards this compartment.

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• Its duration of use lasts at most some weeks (the time needed to fell, extract and load the logs from this compartment)

• Shade trees : Sunshine must be made possible on the road for at least 6 hours per day (from 10. to 16 o’clock)

• Maximum slope 12 % for loaded trucks and 15 % for empty trucks • Hydraulic works can be constructed with timber of an average durability • Its width must allow the passing of a stationary heavy truck (timber

truck) on specific widened spots all along the trajectory and narrow curves must be widened up to 6 – 7 metres.

• The road surface must be stabilised by compacting with a truck (tipper truck or truck for the transport of personnel)

• No maintenance necessary.

5. The rain season branch branches from the secondary road or the side road to the compartments located between 1000 and 2000 from that intersection.

• Its duration of use lasts at most some weeks (the time needed to fell, extract and load the logs from this compartment)

• Shade trees : Sunshine must be made possible on the road for at least 6 hours per day (from 10. to 16 o’clock)

• Maximum slope 12 % for loaded trucks and 15 % for empty trucks • Hydraulic works can be constructed with timber of an average durability • Its width must allow the passing of a stationary heavy truck (timber

truck) on specific widened spots all along the trajectory and narrow curves must be widened up to 6 metres.

• The road surface must be stabilised by compacting with a truck (tipper truck or truck for the transport of personnel)

• No maintenance necessary • Maximum length 2000 metres.

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6. The dry season branch branches from the secondary road or the side road to the compartments located between 1000 and 2000 from that intersection.

• Its duration of use lasts at most some weeks (the time needed to fell, extract and load the logs from this compartment)

• Shade trees : No or little shade tree felling needed • Maximum slope 12 % for loaded trucks and 15 % for empty trucks • Hydraulic works can be constructed with timber of an average durability • Its width must allow the passing of a stationary heavy truck (timber

truck) on specific widened spots all along the trajectory and narrow curves must be widened up to 6 metres.

• No or little stabilisation of the surface needed • No maintenance necessary • Maximum length 2000 metres.

6.4.2.3 Clearing and up-rooting

CAT clearing the traced road

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RIL : • The width of the clearing has to be kept at a strict minimum, i.e. not to

exceed the width of the planned road deck with its gutters and banks • To respect the trees that are marked for preservation (future crop trees,

protected species) • Falling direction of the trees as much as possible in the linear direction of

the road • To crosscut the felled logs into billets as much as possible, before shoving

them aside. a) The clearing: • When entering the traject marked by ribbons or paint, the bulldozer first

removes all low vegetation (shrubs and small trees up to 20 – 30 cm DBH) , whilst respecting exactly the width indicated by the ribbons. By this the markings are not necessarily visible anymore as the clearing itself indicates the width

b) Obstacles to be cleared or bypassed : • Rocks: to be cleared beforehand by cutlass to be able to estimate their

size. If a rock or the rocky massif is too large to be removed, it must be bypassed

• Soft soil : to be crossed by foot at the place of the planned road deck to estimate the width and length of the soft spot. To judge if the spot can be covered with a layer of stable soil or if the spot must be bypassed.

c) The clearing (including removal of stumps) : • The width indicated by the ribbons or paint must be respected. • The practical rules for the widths to be cleared according to RIL in West-

and central Africa are the following :

Classification of the road

Duration of use

Width of the deck

Shade tree uprooting

Total width cleared

Access road permanent 10 -12 m 2 x 6 m 22 – 24 m = ± 6 blades Main road > 5 yr (UFG) 8 - 10 m 2 x 3.50 m 15–17m= ± 4½ - 5 bladesSecondary road 1 yr (AAC) 6 - 7m 2 x 3.50 m 13 – 14 m = ± 4 blades Side road abt. 2 months 6 - 7m chainsaw 6 - 7 m = ± 2 blades Rain season branch

< 1 month 5 m chainsaw 6 - 7 m = ± 2 blades

Dry season branch

< 1 month 5 m - - 6 - 7 m = ± 2 blades

• The bulldozer blades have a width between 3.50 and 3.70 metres. One

can desist of marking the width by ribbons or paint when converting the width in metres into the numbers of blades-width

• The shade tree uprooting indicated here above are meant to be clearings with the tree stump removed, i.e. the tree has to be pushed down by the bulldozers, crosscut and pushed aside. The 3.50 metres represent here the width of 1 blade. Where necessary, the shade trees further on from that width and hindering the drying of the road deck are to be felled by chainsaw.

• The curves must be opened over their entire length at twice the width of the trucks to allow a secure passing of the vehicles and a better visibility (except on the branch-roads)

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• Curves that are too narrow impede the articulated trucks, as the rear wheels of the trailer follow a different track than the front wheels of the truck

• A real double curve with a verge in the middle increases the safety as it forces the driver to stick tio his own side of the curve

Double curve with verge at CEB Thanry

d) Felling of large trees with the bulldozer’s blade (uprooting): • Each tree to be uprooted has to be checked by the operator for dead

branches • Large trees must be brought down with extreme care. The thick roots

must be laid bareand cut through by the blade’s edge. If the bull does not succeed in cutting them, the chainsaw must cut them (attention: remove all sand and stones on and around the rootat the place to cut)

e) The falling direction of the trees to be uprooted:: • In principle, the falling direction must be, if possible, in the axial sense of

the road. These trees must be crosscut in 2 or 3 logs before being pushed from the road

• For safety reasons and to facilitate the felling by bulldozer the falling direction must be well chosen

• The assessment of the falling direction must also take into account the trees to protect (and marked as such) around the trees to be uprooted.

f) The direction in which the felled trees must be removd : • If there is a choice of some tens of degrees in the falling direction, the

bulldozer operator must try to fell the tree preferably in the axial sense of the road. Then the tree is crosscut into logs that are pushed towards the roadside, so that they do not create a barrier that is difficult or impossible to clear for the larger mammals

• Meanwhile, the trees that are felled towards the roadside and lie with their largest part and the crown in the forest, are to be pushed in their linear direction into the undergrowth, such as to cause the least of damage to the stands.

g) The provisional levelling of the stretch cleared the same day: • The stretch of road that has been cleared during the working day must be

provisory levelled at the end of every day by the bulldozer, when it returns to the refilling station. This is done by filling up the larger holes (created by uprooting the trees) and smaller ones to avoid the creation of

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rainwater flakes that soften the soil. This also allows the pick-up of the mechanics to reach the bulldozer at the far end in case of a break-down.

Provisory levelling

All these activities are undertaken by the road construction bulldozer. If the concessionary disposes only of a single machine for the road construction, it is advised not to let the bulldozer advance too far with the uprooting and clearing on the levelling and shade tree felling, but to undertake the levelling each 500 metres clearing or better still, each end of the day and the construction of bridges and culverts at maximum each 1000 meters of clearing. This to avoid excessive travelling by the bulldozer each morning and evening from and to the refilling station, as the tanker trailer can be advanced accordingly. So it is important that, also with several machines on road construction, that the “station” , where the machines are refilled and cleaned each evening and where fuel, lubricants and spareparts are stocked, is always advanced as far as possible ahead. Equally important is the fact that in case of a serious break-down of the engine whereby it must be taken away by a low-loader, the latter can reach the machine. Lastly, the traffic of various vehicles (personnel, mechanics, fuel tanker) on the fresh stretch allow the opened road deck to compact, to have the gravel “washed out” and to dry better after rains.

6.4.2.4 Shade tree felling a) RIL : • The widths for shade tree felling are indicated in the table under § 6.4.2 • Only shade trees further on than the indicated widths, but still throwing too

much shade on the road, thereby hindering the road to dry, will be selected for felling by chainsaw

• The quarters of the compass are indicative for the necessary width of the shade felling: a road leading East-West (quarters NE - SE through E to SW – NW) catches much more sunlight and therefore needs far less

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shade tree felling than a road leading North – South (quarters NW – NE through N to SE – SW)

Shade tree felling East - West

Shade tree felling North - South

• Save the shade trees that can serve as cnopy bridge (at hill tops and on

well drained, compacted and gravelled spots) • The shade trees to be felled by chainsaw shall, where possible, be felled

towards the road to cause the least possible damage to the remaining stands.

b) Shade tree felling further than the indicated width in § 6.4.2 Clearing must

be done by chainsaw and not by uprooting by the bulldozer. Not only is the chainsaw much cheaper in use, but often we see the bulldozer needlessly widen the stretch up to 30 – 35 metres. This felling by chainsaw serves several important goals:

• Considerable saving on working hours by the bull • Sparing much vegetation (undergrowth) which allows a much faster

regeneration and shelter for the fauna • Erosion reduction • Reduction of silting up of the drains

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Shade tree felling by chainsaw

b) Shade trees to be removed are considered those trees that throw an important shadow on the road (and that during the highest position of the sun, so between 10.00 am and 3.00 pm). To consider trees that can be saved are those on a ridge or on a slope that is rich with gravel or on a stretch with porous sand and will serve as canopy bridges, without hampering the good condition of the road deck. The road construction foreman has to mark these trees before the chainsaw operator starts felling. c) The quarters of the compass of the direction of the road are of great importance for the maximum width of the shade felling. Indeed, a road leading East-West (quarters NE - SE through E to SW – NW) catches much more sunlight and therefore needs far less shade tree felling than a road leading North – South (quarters NW – NE through N to SE – SW). d) The felled shade trees, except when they can be used for bridge/culvert construction or are of good processing quality, must have their crown cut off and be crosscut in 2 or more logs for the following reasons:

• To allow the bulldozer to clear the stretch quickly • To avoid a barrier alongside the road that may be impossible to clear by

large mammals (antelopes, swines, buffaloes, elephants) • To facilitate the construction of log landings and road branches or skid

trails. e) The felling or uprooting of shade trees must as much as possible be done towards the opened road to avoid unnecessary damage to the remaining stands. The bulldozer returning to the station in the evening and levelling the freshly opened deck, can at the same time push the felled and crosscut logs aside.

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Felling by chainsaw of shade trees

f) Hardwood species among the shade trees to be felled and of good shape and quality must be put aside for the construction of bridges and culverts. g) Shade trees of commercial value shall be bucked (crown and butt), numbered abnd stored on the roadside. The road building foreman advises the forest manager to register and mark the logs as to enter them in the production administration.

6.4.2.5 Levelling RIL : • Restrict the levelling to the prescribed width of the road • Restrict the earth movements to a strict minimum • Avoid pushing earth into the streams along the stretch a) After the provisory levelling ahs been done by the clearing bulldozer, the real levelling is done by the levelling bulldozer

b) The real levelling implies: • Levelling (scraping, digging

off and filling up) of the road surface, reducing as much as possible the angle of the slopes

• Profiling the deck preparing the track for the tires on the top of the stretch

• Provisory creation of gutters with their drains into the undergrowth, to be refined later on by the grader

• Provisory creation of fords or grooves to place drain pipes.

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c) Earth movement (digging off and filling in) are to be restricted as much as possible and streams shall be spared d) During the levelling the sites for bridges and culverts are to be opened already and to be prepared otherwise (vegetation to be cleared, banks prepared/ reinforced) and linear sleepers to be arranged near the site for prompt utilisation e) The levelling shall not exceed the prescribed width for the road class, i.e. 7 metres for dry season branches or secondary roads to 12 metres for the access- or main roads f) The levelling must follow the clearing as closely as possible without putting the safety on the line. A minimum distance of 300 metres and a maximum distance of 1000 metres are advised. That maximum distance of 1000 metres warrants that the cleared surface is levelled as quickly as possible to avoid an excessive absorption of rainwater in the road deck and allows compacting by the various vehicles that are now capable to pass ahead.

6.4.2.6 Cutting of slopes RIL : • Before starting the cutting of a slope the road construction foreman has to

judge if a slope has to be attacked on the front or along the flank: to compare the impact of earth movements with the impacts of clearing over a longer distance.

a) Straight on the front uphill or downhill: • System chosen for short slight slopes, needing earth movement with a

culvert or even a bridge at the bottom of the slope. b) Along the flank : • Sysytem chosen for very hilly terrain, where the digging off of the hill and

the filling in of the valley would be impossible or more laborious than straight on the front. This system demands culverts at every place (ofter in curves) where water collects itself in the gutters on the uphill side of the road

• To reduce the risk of landslide, the uphill bank must be cut in steps with a maximum of 1.00 – 1.50 metres height for each step from the highest side downwards

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Bank cut in steps

• Each step must be dug out with an inverse angle towards uphill thus

creating a gutter to drain the rainwater (see picture above)

6.4.2.7 Profiling Profiling consists of cutting the cross section of the road deck into a convex shape. RIL: • To cut the profile in a distinct convex to allow the rainwater to flow from

the deck straight into the gutters and not along the kinear axle of the road, causing furrows that can make the water flow uncontrolled into streams, causing silting

On distingue : • Le nivellement d’une route en terrain relativement plat ou étroitement en

amont ou en aval • Le nivellement et d’une route à flanc de coteau

Profil en travers type déblai - remblai sur route à flanc de coteau

A well pronounced convex profile must be applied to ensure the flow of rainwater straight into the gutters and not along the axe of the road.

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The provisory levelling having been executed by the bulldozer in charge, the refined levelling is done by the road grader. A layer of grave lis to be applied on clay decks, on slopes and on stretches on an unstable soil.

Gravel applied on a clay deck

Log yards RIL : • The correct site for the log yard has to be chosen to ensure sufficient

drainage, so preferably on a crest or ridge, with good means for the loaded logging trucks to leave the log yard.

• The size of the log yard shall not exceed the necessary maximum, related to the number of logs that will be skidded onto that log yard.

Log yard of the right size

Construction of the log yard : • The outline of the log yard must be demarcated • The bulldozer follows the marks on the outline and continues to clear the

bush in a spiral towards the interior Trees and shrubs are pushed towards the interior to avoid unnecessary damage to the surrounding stands.

• Next it clears the vegetation from the site towards both flanks of the yard, but leaves the rear side open to allow the skidders to enter with their load and the front side (roadside) for the logging trucks to enter, be loaded and leave.

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Maintenance The more regularly the road is maintained, the less intensive it becomes and the better the condition of the road will remain to ensure a cxontinuous traffic.

• The water must at all times pass freely under the bridges and through culverts. They have to be kept clear of any obstructing material

• The profile of the deck must be maintained by regular passing of the grader

• The grader must bring back onto the deck all gravel that has been washed into the gutters

• The banks of bridges and culverts must be inspected regularly on their solidity

6.4.3 Drainage, bridges, culverts

Construction of a forestry bridge

Drainage The largest impacts on the road are often caused by problems with the drainage of rainwater. These impacts consist mainly of erosion of the deck and roadsides, silting of the depressions and in streams and degradation of the quality of the water in the streams. Bad or insufficient drainage also leads to shifting of the good layers of soil and the creation of furrows in the road deck. These facts make the appropriate drainage of rainwater the most important aspect of the construction and maintenance of forest roads. RIL: • To take care that gutters and drains do not lead directly into streams, but

into the undergrowth uphill from the stream to avoid silting of the stream • To cut sufficient drains, fords or culverts to reduce the mass of water

running downhill , thus reducing erosion • To take care that the drains are not wider and longer than necessary • To place silt catchers in the gutters uphill of culverts to slow down the

current and the silt and to avoid silting as much as possible

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a) Gutters Gutters must ensure the evacuation of rainwater from the road deck towards the drains on both sides of the road that lead the water into the undergrowth. They are prepared by the bulldozer with its angle blade and refined by the grader.

Cross section of a gutter

• It is important to cut as many drains as possible into the undergrowth tro

reduce as much as possible the volume of water running downhill through the gutters, thuds limiting erosion and silting. Many smaller drains are more efficient that a few larger ones. The number of drains is to be prescribed by the steepness of the slope.

• At the same time one must take care that the drains are not longer and/or wider that strictly necessary.

b) Drains Drains evacuate the rainwater from the gutters on the road sides into the undergrowth. They relieve the gutters of a too important mass of water, that could cause erosion of the deck and silting of the depressions • It is imperative that the drain leads into the undergrowth and does not

stop on the naked earth to ensure a good spreading and absorption and does not create a rivulet by itself

• The drain shall not continue too far into the undergrowth either. Having reached the point where there is sufficient slope to allow it to run off, the drain can stop, but without its end being blocked

• The profile of the drain should be in V - shape. To achieve this, the bulldozer operator tilts the blade whilst pushing the earth. This has the advantages of less earth movement and faster and easier work than with a square drain. Also there will be less damage to the remaining stands

V-shaped drain

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• It is better to cut more smaller drains on a slope than fewer large ones. In

easier terrain the grader also can cut small drains • Minimum distance between drains in relation to the slope angle:

Slope angle Minimum distance between drains

0 – 5 % 60 metres 6 – 10 % 40 metres 11 – 20 % 30 metres > 20 % 15 metres

c) Culverts and fords : Culverts and fords serve at evacuating water from the gutters on the uphill side across the road deck towards the downhill side and where a drain into the undergrowth is impossible. 1. The cheapest culverts and easiest to place are those created by hollow

logs. That hole must however always be large enough throughout its length to ensure sufficient water to pass.

Hollow log as culvert

2. The most used culvert is the one made of 3 logs whereby two logs of

equal diameter are positioned parallelon the bottom of the dug furrow and a third log is placed on top. The distance between the two bottom logs define the flow rate, but it is quite difficult to keep the space open The top log must always be of a larger diameter. The two bottom logs must be positioned with an interspace slightly smaller than the diameter of the top log to ensure the largest possible flow and to ensure that the top log is firmly positioned between the other two.

3. Gutters made with wooden slabs of 20 to 30 cm thicknessDes dalots construits en plateaux en bois d’une épaisseur entre 20 et 30 cm (en fonction de la longueur de la portée) couvrant la largeur entière de la chaussée, les plateaux posant sur des traverses en billes équarries, sont très durable et leur débit est stipulé par la portée entre les traverses. Il n’est pas nécessaire de couvrir les plateaux avec de la terre

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Buse en plateaux et billes entaillées - SBL

4. Les buses préfabriquées en béton ou en caisse en bois exigent

l’ouverture plus précise de la tranchée où elles seront placées, mais sont très stables et durables

5. L’entrée de l’eau dans les dalots et buses doit être guidée par une structure en forme d’entonnoir construit en planches, poteaux ou rameaux tressés. Cet entonnoir empêche l’érosion aux côtés du dalot et l’envasement de son entrée

Protection contre envasement d’une buse

6. Il doit toujours rester possible de déboucher un dalot sur toute sa

longueur 7. Les arbres en essences, qualités et dimensions utiles pour la construction

des dalots sont à chercher aux alentours du dalot à construire (à consulter la carte d’inventaire d’exploitation). Si ces arbres n’y sont pas trouvés, ils devront être cherchés ailleurs, ce qui est coûteux et ce que réclame beaucoup plus de temps et travail

8. Un alternatif pour des dalots sur un terrain relativement plat est le gué armé, consistant en une dépression dans le revêtement, armée avec des rochers et pierres, par-dessus desquels l’eau passe et à travers duquel les véhicules roulent en vitesse reduite

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9. L’emplacement, l’envergure et le type de pont ou dalot correct sont à choisir minutieusement afin d’assurer une bonne évacuation ou passage libre des eaux

Buse en plateaux et billes entaillées - SBL

10. Ne pas débrousser plus que strictement nécessaire les rives à l’endroit du pont à construire

11. Le cours d’eau est à nettoyer de toutes branches et autres débris après complétion du pont pour éviter un blocage.

Ponts

Pont canadien – CEB Thanry

EFI : • Choisir l’emplacement, l’envergure et le type du pont ou dalot correct pour

assurer une évacuation ou passage libre des eaux • Ne pas débrousser plus que strictement nécessaire les rives à l’endroit du

pont à construire • Nettoyer le cours d’eau de branches et d’autres débris après complétion

du pont pour éviter un blocage d’eau

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a) L’emplacement et le type d’un pont sont choisis sur base des critères mentionnés ci-dessous et la planification du tracé de la route en est soumise.

b) Le choix du type de pont est dicté par : • La portée nécessaire pour franchir la largeur du lit au niveau d’eau

maximal • Le poids à soutenir (pour des grumiers d’un poids d’environs 50 tonnes) • La densité du trafic • La constitution du sol et

des berges (le tablier doit se trouver à au moins 1 m en dessus du niveau d’eau maximal et ce sur de la terre ferme)

• La durée de vie exigée, qui doit dépasser la durée de l’exploitation.

Construction pont canadien – CEB Thanry c) L’emplacement du pont doit répondre aux conditions suivantes :

• La traversée doit être le plus court possible (15 m au maximum), dans le sens perpendiculaire au courant, pour éviter autant que possible nécessité d’une construction de piles

• Les berges doivent être de structure le plus stable possible (rochers, si possible, si non en sable ou argile dure)

• Le terrain doit permettre l’approche du pont en ligne droite sur au moins 50 m, donc une distance dépassant la longueur d’un attelage

• Les traverses doivent être placées éloignées le plus possible des berges sur terre ferme pour assurer une base stable et diminuer le risque d’affouillement.

Construction berges pont canadien – CEB Thanry

d) Pour répondre aux conditions mentionnées ci-dessus on a le choix entre les

types de pont comme représentés ci-dessous, tous construits en bois dur : Pont en culées en corps mort

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Le pont le plus simple et facile à construire est utilisé sur des cours d’eau avec des berges stables sans risque d’éboulement, même à niveau élevé de l’eau. • Les culées consistent chacune en une simple à trois grumes, d’un

diamètre entre 60 et 100 cm, empilées posées sur un sol solide le long des berges.

• Des encoches faites dans la grume supérieure de la culée à l’aide d’une tronçonneuse permettent un emplacement solide des longrines

Pont en culées en pile canadienne

Pont en culées en pile canadienne – CEB Thanry

Des berges sur sol assez instables ou en pente graduelle peuvent exiger des culées plus stables, comme un empilage de billes en couches parallèles et perpendiculaires au cours d’eau. • Ces billes sont stabilisées par des encoches dans les billes inférieures.

Les couches en billes perpendiculaires au cours d’eau forment un ancrage de la culée dans le remblai

Pont en culées en béton ou maçonnerie

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Des ponts d’une longue durée de vie prévue, sur un sol instable et/ou sur des courants d’eau forts et turbulents peuvent être pourvus de culées construites en béton ou pierres cimentées. • Ces culées devront, bien entendu, être construites pendant le niveau le

plus bas du cours d’eau et sur un sol sec. • Le mur, servant souvent en même temps comme retenu du remblai,

doit être suffisamment épais à sa base pour résister à la poussée de la terre

Pont à piliers En cas où le lit du cours d’eau est trop large pour une seule portée, on construit des supports intermédiaires, sur lesquelles seront posés les bouts des longrines jointes. • Les piliers sont construits soit en béton ou pierres cimentées, soit en

grumes entassées en couches alternativement perpendiculairement et parallèlement au cours d’eau.

Vue générale d'un pont forestier de deux portées de 15 m. La travure est constituée

par des équarris de Bilinga - Cote d'Ivoire. Photo C. Lepitre • Afin de limiter la poussée de l’eau contre le pilier il est conseillé de

construire le pilier en forme de losange avec les pointes aiguës dans le sens du courant.

• Les piliers en grumes peuvent être construits ouverts, c.à.d. que les contours du losange est formé par les grumes pour que l’intérieur creux puisse être rempli avec des grosses pierres

• Les grumes des culées sont à encocher à la tronçonneuse de façon que les grumes posées dessus soient bien fixées sur place.

Pont au tablier en latérite Les ponts simples et de durée de vie relativement courte peuvent être revêtus avec une couche épaisse de latérite.

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• Pour faire ceci, les longrines devront être placées bien serrées l’une contre l’autre sur toute la largeur prévue du pont et des creux éventuels sont à boucher avec des billes de faible diamètre, aussi en bois dur

• Le bulldozer apporte de latérite sèche couche par couche avec sa pelle après avoir crée une rampe avec la même latérite. L’application couche par couche fine permet un bon entassement par les chenilles du bull

• La couche complète en latérite doit mesurer environ 40 cm d’épaisseur • Il va sans dire que le poids de cette couche diminue sensiblement la

capacité de portance du pont (jusqu’à 35 – 40 m3 de latérite) • La latérite conservant de l’humidité, elle cause un degré accéléré de

pourriture des longrines • La distinction entre la terre ferme et le pont est nettement moins claire

et présente un danger réel pour le trafic, surtout pendant la nuit. Pont au tablier en madriers

Pont au tablier en madriers – CEB Thanry

• Un tablier en madriers n’exige que 4 ou 5 longrines. Ces longrines

devront être aplanies pour une pose plus stable du tablier • Il est conseillé de placer les longrines de telle façon que les planches

servant comme bandes de roulement se trouvent exactement en dessus des longrines

• Le tablier en bois consiste en général en une base de madriers en 7 - 10 cm d’épaisseur fixés perpendiculairement sur toute la largeur des longrines à une distance mutuelle d’environ 10 - 20 cm

• Sur ce tablier de répartition un tablier d’usure en madriers en 5 cm d’épaisseur et une largeur de 10 – 15 cm est fixé à une distance mutuelle de 5 cm

• Il est conseillé de les placer sous un angle de 45° sur le tablier de répartition. Ceci pour une meilleure absorption des vibrations causées par les véhicules

• Des bandes de roulement en planches d’une épaisseur de 3 – 4 cm sont placées en sens longitudinal du pont. Elles doivent couvrir aussi bien l’écartement des grumiers que celui de véhicules plus étroits.

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• Il est fortement conseillé de fixer les madriers et les planches avec des grosses vis à bois. Celles-ci se détachent moins vite que des clous et peuvent être reserrées.

Maquette pont au tablier en madriers

e) Les arbres en essences, qualités et dimensions utiles pour la construction

des ponts sont à chercher aux alentours du pont à construire (à consulter la carte d’inventaire d’exploitation). Si ces arbres n’y sont pas trouvés, ils devront être cherchés ailleurs, ce qui est coûteux et ce que réclame beaucoup plus de temps et de travail.

f) Le temps le permettant, les longrines sont à équarrir à la tronçonneuse pour former une base plus égale pour les madriers ou plateaux de travers.

g) Des plateaux en épaisseurs entre 20 et 30 cm peuvent être sciés à la tronçonneuse pour servir comme tablier sur dalots larges ou ponts étroits (voir modèles) et comme traverses sur de plus grands ponts

h) Les longrines, d’un diamètre entre 60 et 85 cm et le plus droit possible supportent le platelage en madriers. Un nombre de 4 ou 5 suffit, quand les 4 sont placés sous le passage des roues (bande de roulement).

i) Le Code Régional d’EFI de la FAO donne la rélation suivante entre portée et diamètre des longrines :

Portée entre appuis

10 m 12 m 14 m 16 m 17 m

Congotali 58 cm 66 cm 74 cm 81 cm 85 cmBilinga 63 cm 71 cm 79 cm 86 cm 90 cm

Pour des portées supérieures à 17 m il faudra compter une augmentation de diamètre d’environ 4 cm par mètre de portée supplémentaire.

j) Pour des ponts d’une durée de vie inférieure à 3 ans, les longrines en bois dur n’ont pas besoin d’être désaubiérées

Pour des ponts d’une durée de vie plus longue, les longrines sont à désaubiérer ou la surface supportant le platelage à aplanir avec la tronçonneuse.

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6.4.4 Road Maintenance The more regularly the maintenance is executed, the less intensive it has to be and the better the condition. Le plus régulièrement l’entretien fait, le moins intensif qu’il ne doit être et la meilleure la condition de la route restera pour assurer un roulage continu. • Le passage des eaux par les ouvrages doit resterlibre à tout temps.

- Les caniveaux, les buses et dalots doivent être tenus libres de matières obstruantes

• Le bombage doit être maintenu par un nivelement régulier • La niveleuse doit ramener sur la surface de la route le gravier refoulé

dans les caniveaux Les berges des ponts et dalots doivent être inspectés régulièrement sur leur solidité.

6.5 Mesures d’EFI et de sécurité

6.5.1 Description L’ouverture des routes est l’action la plus drastique du point de vue environnement et la plus déterminative du point de vue coûts d’exploitation. Elle entraîne des changements radicaux au sol, à la végétation, à la faune et au biosystème, qui nécessitent plusieurs années pour être réduits à néant. L’ensemble de toutes ces conséquences importantes justifie une préparation bien réfléchie et une exécution soigneuse. La construction des routes est une entreprise à fort coefficient de travail pour les engins coûteux en utilisation et en consommation de carburants, il est d’importance impérative de reduire au maximum. En plus, elle est exécutée avec des gros engins très lourds et entraîne, ensemble avec le débardage, le plus d’impact négatif sur l’environnement forestier de toutes opérations de l’exploitation forestière. Ces impacts très négatifs sur le milieu forestier consistent-en : • La destruction du biosystème sur toute la surface ouverte • La destruction de la structure originelle du sol • Le compactage du sol • L’érosion du sol • Les impacts négatifs sur le réseau hydraulique (envasement, pollution,

endiguement) • Les impacts négatifs sur la biodiversité par l’endiguement de cours d’eau

(dessiccation aval, engorgement amont) • Le blocage ou la fracturation de l’échange génétique au sein de

l’ecosystème • La création d’accès facile aux braconniers et aux cueilleurs des PFNT,

causant une surexploitation dangereuse • La disparition de la faune par la présence bruyante des engins et des

hommes.

6.5.2 Techniques spécifiques d’EFI Si tenacement appliqué, un ensemble de techniques d’EFI peut considérablement limiter les impacts mentionnés ci-dessus. Les techniques spécifiques de l’EFI à appliquer lors de la construction de routes forestières sont les suivantes :

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En général : • A récupérer l’huile de vidange et les filtres des engins lors de leur

entretien • A rspecter les zones protégées / de tampon. Au déforestage : • Respecter les arbres marqués pour être épargnés (essences protégées) • Limitation au strict minimum de la largeur du déforestage, c.à.d. ne pas

dépasser la largeur de la chaussée avec ses fossés et accotements planifiés

• Direction de chute le plus possible dans l’axe longitudinale de la route • Tronçonnage des arbres abattus en billots avant de les écarter A l’ensoleillement :

Ensoleillement limité

• Seuls les arbres d’ombre gênant le séchage du revêtement sont abattus • Les quarts de vent sont indicatifs pour la largeur nécessaire de

l’ensoleillement: une route menant est – ouest (quarts de vent de NO – SE par O – E à SO – NE) capte beaucoup plus de soleil et nécessite nettement moins d’ensoleillement qu’une route menant nord – sud (quarts de vent de NE – SO par N – S à NO – SE)

• Abattage des arbres d’ombre à la scie et non pas au bull • Tronçonnage des arbres abattus en billots avant de les écarter Au terrassement : • Limiter le terrassement à la largeur prescrite par le plan • Limiter le déblai et le remblai au strict minimum • Eviter de pousser de la terre dans les ruisseaux le long du trajet A l’attaque des côtes de pente : • Avant d’entamer l’attaque il est à juger par le chef d’équipe / traceur si

une pente est à attaquer de face ou à flanc de coteau (impact par déblai et remblai vs. impact par ouverture sur distance supérieure)

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• Des pentes trop fortes sont á éviter. Les pentes suivantes sont à considérer comme maximales :Pente en charge : 12 %, pente à vide : 15 %.

• Des pentes plus fortes peuvent être considérées, mais seulement sur des sections courtes et à charge reduite.

A l’évacuation des eaux de pluie (exutoires, dalots, buses, gués armés) : • Marquer les endroits et la direction des exutoirs vers les sous-bois • Construction des exutoires en V • Marquer les endroits pour l’emplacement des buses ou gués armés • Veiller à ce que les exutoires et caniveaux ne mènent pas directement

dans des cours d’eau, mais dans le sous-bois pour éviter qu’ils se troublent ou s’envasent

• Construire suffisamment d’exutoires pour réduire la masse d’eau descendante et de réduire ainsi l’érosion

• Veiller à ce que les exutoires ne soient plus larges et longs que nécessaire

A la construction des ponts et dalots : • Choisir l’emplacement, l’envergure et le type de pont ou dalot correct pour

assurer une évacuation ou passage libre des eaux • Ne pas débrousser plus que strictement nécessaire les rives à l’endroit du

pont à construire • Nettoyer le cours d’eau de branches et d’autres débris après complétion

du pont pour éviter un blocage Au profilage : • Appliquer un bombage assez prononcé pour assurer l’écoulement d’eau

directement vers les caniveaux et non pas le long de l’axe de la chaussée.

A la sécurité : • Ouvrir les virages à largeur de 1 1/2 fois de la largeur de la chaussée • Placer des dos d’âne aux deux côtés des ponts pour ralentir les véhicules • Signalisation pour virages, ponts, dos d’âne, obstacles. Epargne des cours d’eau et leurs berges • Les culées des ponts sont à construire autant que possible sur les berges,

sans toucher la structure des berges elles-mêmes • Lors de l’ouverture de l’emplacement du pont et la construction la forêt

aux deux côtés est à épargner le plus possible. Tout débris, branches, terre, cailloux, etc. sont à enlever lors de la complétion du pont.

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6.5.3 Mesures anti-érosion

Erosion de caniveaux par manque de drainage transversale

• Le bombage du revêtement doit être tel que l’eau de pluie coule par la

distance la plus courte (donc perpendiculairement sur l’axe de la route) dans les fossés / caniveaux

• Le fond des fossés doit être environ 60 cm en dessous du sommet du revêtement pour assurer la bonne évacuation

• Le plus possible d’exutoires (de même profondeur que les fossés) sont à ouvrir pour éviter l’accumulation de masses d’eau courant vers l’aval

• Entre les exutoires on construit des attrapes-boue en rameaux ou en pierres pour freiner le courant de l’eau

• Les exutoires doivent mener autant que possible dans le sous-bois, où les racines de la végétation freinent le courant de l’eau et où le sol absorbe plus facilement l’eau.

6.5.4 Mesures anti-pollution • L’exutoire la plus basse ne doit pas verser son eau de la route

directement dans le cours d’eau, mais plus en amont dans les sous-bois. Elle peut être pourvue d’une attrape-boue en cailloux ou en rameaux pour bloquer les sédiments

• Tout débris, branches, terre, cailloux, etc. sont à enlever lors de la complétion du pont.

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Envasement et pollution d’une crique

5.5.5 Respect de zones protégées Pour les zones protégées on applique d’autant plus rigoureusement les techniques d’EFI décrites sous le § 5.1.1. Ces zones sont d’ailleurs à éviter en tant que possible. Elles doivent être clairement délimitées avec des panneaux, des layons, rubans, de la peinture, etc. pour que les conducteurs des engins les reconnaissent comme telles.

5.5.6 Ponts de canopée

Pont de canopée sur route sécondaire

Les ponts de canopée permettent un échange génétique le plus libre possible des espèces arboricoles et concernent non pas seulement des vertébrés, mais non pas moins les invertébrés, les fongoïdes, moisissures, plantes, etc. Partout, où les conditions du sol le permettent, des ponts de canopée sont à créer par laissant des arbres ou plutôt des groupes d’arbres de hauteurs différentes s’opposant aux bords de la route et dont les houppiers se touchent.

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Il va sans dire que la végétation et surtout les arbres derrière (au côté de la forêt) les arbres de pont de canopée sont aussi laissés, pour qu’ils forment une voie d’approche sure et abritée vers le pont. Cette voie d’approche aux deux côtés de la route doit avoir la forme d’un entonnoir. Une seule rangée d’arbres vers les bords de la route ne donne pas assez d’abri pour les animaux désirant traverser et est très sensible aux coups de vent.

5.5.7 Corridors de traversée d’animaux Les corridors de traversée d’animaux ont comme but de permettre les animaux terrestres migrants de traverser de façon la plus sure et abritée possible les routes considérées par eux des barrières infranchissables. Les meilleurs emplacements pour ces corridors sont les endroits en dessous des ponts de canopée (à l’abri de l’air) et les approches de ponts, donc aux bords des cours d’eau. Un corridor est formé par une bande la plus large possible (30 m au minimum jusqu’à 50 – 60 m) ou la végétation est laissée intacte aux deux bords de la route jusqu’aux caniveaux, mais bien entendu sans qu’elle gêne l’évacuation des eaux. D’ailleurs, partout où l’ensoleillement de la route ne sera pas gêné par la végétation existante, on devra laisser cette végétation intacte ou au moins à régénérer. Cette végétation peut consister en espèces pionniers (Marantaceae, Gingiberaceae, jeunes Musangae, des plantes graminées, etc.) de hauteur suffisante de pourvoir à un abri complet de grands mammifères terrestres (buffle, gorille, bongo, sitatunga, etc.). Les arbres abattus lors de la construction de la route et poussés vers les bords sont à tronçonner et les billes à pousser à l’écart pour ne pas obstruer un libre passage des animaux. Les emplacements des ponts de canopée et des corridors de traversée sont à contrôler intensivement par les cadres de l’entreprise sur la présence de pièges !

5.5.8 Planification des parcs de stationnement et de voies de dépassement La décision sur l’emplacement des parcs de stationnement et des voies de dépassement ne peut être prise pendant la planification, comme les conditions du terrain ne sont suffisamment connues encore. Seulement après la déforestation du tracé ont peut juger la nécessité et l’emplacement de ces provisions. Les parcs de stationnement et les voies de dépassement bien placés permettent une largeur de la chaussée nettement moins large sur l’ensemble de la longueur de la route, car l’une des véhicules se rencontrant pourra se garer en attendant le passage de l’autre. Une bonne visibilité des deux côtés du trajet est indispensable pour que les véhicules se rencontrant puissent se repérer l’un et l’autre à temps et se décider sur la priorité à donner ou à prendre (grumier chargé vs grumier à vide, camion vs voiture, etc.). Pour ce, il faudra élargir la route pour créer un parc de stationnement : • aux deux bouts d’un trajet droit avec une bonne visibilité des deux côtés • au sommet et à la base d’un trajet en pente • aux deux approches d’un pont ou une buse étroite

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Une voie de dépassement, par contre, sera mieux construite : • au milieu d’un trajet droit • au milieu d’une pente • à une seule approche d’un pont ou une buse étroite Les véhicules devront communiquer par moyen de phare ou claxon sur la priorité de l’approche de cette voie. La voie de dépassement doit être d’une vraie double largeur de revêtement et en même qualité que le revêtement de la route, comme elle doit permettre les camions chargés de dépasser d’autres véhicules en vitesse. Une bonne signalisation et une formation des chauffeurs sur les priorités et les circonstances à rencontrer est indispensable.

5.5.9 Virages Les virages sont toujours à ouvrir et à profiler à une largeur en double voie. Cette double largeur doit commencer déjà avant l’attaque du virage. Mieux sont encore des virages à voies séparées. La largeur de la chaussée dans les virages doit être au moins 1 ½ fois la largeur du trajet droit La végétation dans la côté intérieur du virage doit être coupée pour assurer une visibilité maximale Des panneaux de signalisation sont à placer entre 50 et 100 m du virage

5.5.10 Approche des ponts Les approches des ponts doivent être signalées clairement avec des panneaux de signalisation à 100 m avant Un ralentisseur (dos d’âne) à 20 m de chaque côté du pont Ces ralentisseurs sont à signaler par des panneaux à 100 m avant le pont, au même endroit que le panneau du pont

5.5.11 Dispositifs de sécurité • Des panneux de signalisation avec limitation de vitesse à l’approche de

villages, des pentes, des virages, des ponts ou buses • Des ralentisseurs avec signalisation à l’approche de villages et des ponts

6.6 Structure de la formation

Introduction, description • Dans une salle de réunion • Photos sur Power Point ou sur des affiches • Tableau noir ou paperboard avec marqueurs. • Places assises pour les élèves. Formation théorique • Texte des paragraphes d’EFI • Photos sur Power Point ou sur des affiches • Tableau noir ou paperboard avec marqueurs. • Places assises pour les élèves • Tour de table et épreuve

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Formation pratique • Les paragraphes 5.3, 5.4 et 5.5 seront discutés sur site pendant la

formation en techniques de construction • Pendant le déforestage l’instructeur garde les étudiants à distance sûre

de l’engin et des arbres à abattre • Pendant le terrassement et la construction de fosses et exutoires un ou

deux élèves pourront s’asseoir sur l’engin, à côté du conducteur, mais toujours en dessous du bâti de protection et derrière la grille et le conducteur leur donne des explications. Les autres sont gardés à distance sure de l’engin et de la terre en déplacement et instruits par l’instructeur

• Pendant la construction des ponts et dalots, l’instructeur donne ses explications aux étudiants avec une vue claire sur le travail en cours

Conditions à remplir • Trajet planifié et préparé (balisé et cartographié) pour l’ouverture de la

route • Disponibilité d’un trajet de route en construction, représentant toutes les

sections de la construction et des circonstances des techniques d’EFI comme décrites sous 5.1.1. ci-dessus

• Disponibilité de divers types de pont pour démontrer • Panneaux, ralentisseurs, situations décrites ci-dessus sur place Missions à remplir par l’instructeur • Lecture de la théorie avec illustrations (photos) et le tableau noir, en

concluant par un tour de table. • Explication de l’importance de chaque action en concluant par un tour de

table et une discussion ouverte • Instruction sur le site de construction de route • Visite commentée des divers types de route • Conclusion avec un tour de table, une épreuve et une discussion ouverte.. Dispositifs et matériel nécessaires • Illustrations des engins et leurs détails spécifiques pour la formation sur

Power Point ou sur affiches. • Tableau noir ou paperboard avec marqueurs • Fiche technique de construction de routes • Disponibilité d’une salle de réunion • Disponibilité d’un bulldozer D7 avec instructeur/conducteur au site de

construction de route • Disponibilité un abatteur expert avec sa scie au site de construction de

route • Disponibilité de billes en bois dur pour les longrines et pour couper en

plateaux • Charpentier et son aide disponible sur place pour la construction du

revêtement du pont • Matériel de démonstration (maquettes en échelles des divers types de

pont, longrines coupées en demi-ronds et en plateaux, attrapes-boue en rameaux tressés) chez la salle de réunion

• Matériel (longrines, madriers, planches, vis) disponible sur place et prêt à utiliser

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Personnel • 1 instructeur • 1 instructeur/conducteur D7 • 1 abatteur • 1 charpentier Durée • 5 - 6 journées

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7. RÉFÉRENCES SÉLECTIONNÉES

Centre technique forestier tropical : Recueil technique de l’exploitation forestière, 2ième partie (1960 –1970)

Food and Agriculture Organization : Code régional de l’exploitation à faible impact dans les forêts tropicales humides d’Afrique centrale et de l’Ouest (2003) Hout, P. van der : Forestry Training Centre, Guyana : Course in Peduced Impact Logging Pasquier, J.-M. - et Jeanmart, - Philippe: Normes et Méthodes de Travail CEB (2002) Keller, G. & J. Sherar : Low-volume roads engineering (2003) Vroom, M. : The application of Reduced Impact Logging in forest operations in West Africa (2000)

Vroom, M. : Extraction of roundlogs – Planning and techniques with RIL measures (2000)

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8. ABRÉVIATIONS

AAC Assiette Annuelle de Coupe, 1/5 d’une UFG ADF Aménagement Durable Forestier ARCView Un système d’information géographique CFAD Concession Forestière sous Aménagement Durable CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species = Convention

sur le commerce international des espèces de faune et de flore sauvages menacées d’extinction

DHP Diamètre à Hauteur de Poitrine DMA Diamètre Minimum d’Aménagement DME Diamètre Minimum d’Exploitation EFI Exploitation à Faible Impact ENEF Ecole Nationale des Eaux et Forêts GPS Global Positioning System = Système de positionnement globale MAPINFO Un système d’information géographique MINEF Au Gabon : Ministère de l’Economie Forestière,des Eaux, de la Pêche,

chargé de l’Environnement et de la Protection de la Nature ONG Organisation Non-Gouvernementale PAD Plan d’Aménagement Durable SIG ou GIS Système d’Information Géographique, comme il y a ARCView ou

MAPINFO UFA Unité Forestière d’Aménagement : une unité forestière pour laquelle est

composée un PAD d’une seule rotation de 25 ou 30 ans ou plus. UFG Unité Forestière de Gestion : une unité forestière de 5 AAC.