Iohn Doherty's, (Trad) Scott's Favourite (Trad). Trad arr. Dana/D. Lunny
Trad Class (2)
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Transcript of Trad Class (2)
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The Syntax of the Root Clause
(2)
The organization of root clauses
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The Verb Phrase (VP)
(1) Everyday our Head of Department devour SS 3
pizzas.
(2) The builders work EDED for many days.
(Aarts, p.34)
The underlined forms are called verbs.
The Morphological Criterion tells us that verbs have particular endings such as ±s and ± ed .
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The Verb Phrase (VP)
Q: What do the highlighted endings in (1) and (2) refer
to?
A1: First, the endings in (1)/(2) refer to tense
information, i.e. present and past.
Tense represents the chronological order of events in
time as perceived by the speaker at the moment of
speech.Tense is a formal category associated with finit e verbs.
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The Verb Phrase (VP)
A2: The endings in (1) and (2) contain agreement
information, i.e. agreement between the subject and the
predicate.
In (1), the third person singular subject agrees with the
verb.
Agreement is a formal category associated with finit e
verbs. Non-finite verbs do not carry Tense and Agreement
information.
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The Verb Phrase (VP)
The verbs in (1) and (2) are l exical verbs, they can
occur on their own in a sentence and they have a
meaning.
Not all verbs are lexical. Consider (3):
(3) Jeremy is laughing.
(4) The ship had completely sunk when the rescuersarrived at the place of the incident.
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The Verb Phrase (VP)
The lexical verbs in (3) are: l augh and sink .
They are not on their own, though. I s and had
accompany these verbs.
Moreover, l augh ends in ± ing and sink has assumed its past participle form.
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The Verb Phrase (VP)
The verbs be and have in (3) are called au xil iary verbs,
from Latin au xil iar i, µto help¶.
Q: What do auxiliary verbs help with?
A: They give us more information on how the event
denoted by the verb is viewed. This means that l augh in
(3) is understood as being in progress/ongoing at
present. It also means that sink in (4) is understood ashaving happened before the arrival of the rescuers and
that sink happened at some point in the past.
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Auxiliary Verbs
A. Modal auxiliaries: can/coul d, ma y / might , mu st ,
will / woul d, shall / shoul d, ought to
B. Aspectual auxiliaries: be, have
C. Passive auxiliaries: be, g et
D. Dummy auxiliary: d o
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Modal Auxiliaries
(5) We can dance until midnight.
(6) You may take two courses if you wish.
(7) You must comply with the regulations.
(8) They ought to leave.
(9) We shall write to you as soon as possible.
(10) He will survive.
(Aarts, p. 36/37)
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Modal Auxiliaries
Modal auxiliaries bring in an extra shade of meaning:
ability (5), permission (6), obligation (7), necessity (8),
promise (9), prediction (10).
Modal auxiliaries are finite verbs that do not carry a
Tense and Agreement morpheme.
Modal auxiliaries have past forms but those forms are
not marked by the past morpheme ±ed .Modal auxiliaries are followed by the bare infinite
(except ought to).
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Aspectual auxiliaries
(11) Mr. Jourdain is asking for help.
(12) Shelley has broken two wine-glasses.
Aspectual auxiliaries encode Aspect (keep in mind that
these auxiliaries also carry Tense info).
Aspect is a formal category associated with both finit eand non-finit e verbs.
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Aspectual auxiliaries
Aspect describes the internal temporal structure of an
event. The main aspectual categories in English are the
pr og ressive (see 3, 11) and the per f ective (see 4, 12).
Q: Are be and have below auxiliary verbs?
(13) He is friendly. (Aarts, p.36)
(14) Larry has 94 CDs. (Aarts, p.38)
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Aspectual Auxiliaries
A: No, they are not auxiliary verbs.
they occur on their own in the sentences whereas
auxiliaries help with bringing in additional info.
BE and HAVE may be either lexical verbs or auxiliary
verbs, depending on the context.
Modal auxiliaries may never be lexical verbs; theynever occur on their own in a sentence.
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The Passive Auxiliary
(15) Our Head of Department ate the bagel.
(16) This bagel was eaten by our Head of Department.
E at in (15) is in the active voice. E at in (16) is in the
passive voice.
Be is the passive auxiliary. In a passive sentence, it must be followed by the past participle form of the passivized
verb.
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Dummy Do
Dummy d o is employed when we want to form the
negative counterpart of a sentence that does not contain
an auxiliary verb, but a lexical one.
(17) Jon cycles to work every day.
(18) *Jon not cycles to work every day.
(19) Jon does not cycle to work every day.(Aarts, p.40)
do- su ppor t
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Dummy Do
Dummy d o is employed when we want to form the
interrogative counterpart of a sentence that does not
contain an auxiliary verb, but a lexical one.
(20) Jon cycles to work every day.
(21) Does Jon cycle to work every day? (Aarts, p.40)
Subject ± Au xil iary inversion accompanies
interrogative forms
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Dummy Do
CODE
Dummy d o is employed when auxiliaries are µstranded¶.
(22) Does Jon cycle to work every day? He does.
(23) Jon cycles all the way to work every day and so
does Tim. (Aarts, p.40)
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Dummy Do
EMPHASIS
Dummy d o is employed in emphatic contexts.
(24) Jon DOES cycle to work every day. (Aarts, p.41)
Q: Is d o an auxiliary verb in the following sentences?
(25) Kathy did her homework.
(26) Francesco did today¶s dinner. (Aarts, p.41)
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What is it that defines auxiliary verbs?
Auxiliaries «
a. combine with the N egative particle not
b. I nvert with the subject in questions
c. occur in C ode
d. carry E mphatic stress
The NICE properties
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What is it that defines auxiliary verbs?
(27) We cannot dance until midnight.
(28) Can we dance until midnight?
(29) We can dance until midnight and so can they.
(30) We CAN dance until midnight.
(31) Shelley has not broken two-wine glasses.
(32) Has Shelley broken two wine-glasses?
(33) Shelley has broken two wine-glasses and so has J.
(34) Shelley HAS broken two wine-glasses.
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More on Auxiliaries
(35) The company is being taxed 3 times this year.
(36) The company has been taxed 3 times this year.
(37) The company has been being taxed 3 times this
year.
(38) The company will have been being taxed 3 times
this year.
(Aarts, p.42)
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More on Auxiliaries
A. The first/leftmost Aux in a sequence of auxiliaries
carries Tense info; the next two do not carry Tense
info;
B. Each auxiliary determines the form of the verb thatfollows it (e.g. in (36), perfective have determines
the past participle form of passive be; passive be
determines the past participle form of the lexical
verb);
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More on Auxiliaries
C. Auxiliary verbs occur in a strict order that cannot be
altered:
the modal verb comes first
perfective have follows
progressive be follows
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The Verb Phrase
VP = sequence of words built around a verb
(39) *John has printed.
(40) John has printed one copy.
The verb pr int is tightly connected with its direct object,
one co py subcat e gor ization
A transitive verb and its object form a VP.
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How are sentences organized?
Let us take a simple sentences such as (41):
(41) The sly cat stole the steak.
The sentence may be split up in three constituents: the
sl y cat , stol e, the st eak.
It is possible to come up with a finite set of rules that
define the bits and pieces of constituents that make up
a sentence.We could say that an NP like the sl y cat results from the
rule in (42):
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How are sentences organized?
(42) NP Det (A) N
This rule should be interpreted as ³an noun phrase
consists of a determiner, followed by an optional
adjective, followed by a noun´.
The schematic representation of (42) looks like a tree branch:
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How are sentences organized?
the
D
sly fox
N
NP
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How are sentences organized?
As for the predicate in (41), we can define it as the
result of the rule in (44):
(44) VP V NP
Rule (44) should be interpreted as ³a verb phrase
consists of a verb followed by a noun phrase´
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How are sentences organized?
stole
V
the steak
N
NP
VP
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How are sentences organized?
The sentence in (41) can be captured by the rule (46):
(46) S NP VP
This rule is interpreted as ³a sentence consists of a noun
phrase followed by a verb phrase´
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How are sentences organized?
the sly cat
NP
stole the steak
VP
S
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How are sentences organized?
Further on, the rules that generate sentences are
complemented by a mental dictionary, the Lexicon,
which provides a list of parts of speech, as seen in (48):
(48) N cat, silence, Jim, book
V steal, like, read, know
A sly, happy, irretrievable, complicated
D the, a, these, which, some
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How are sentences organized?
The above-mentioned rules are called phr a se st r ucture
r ul es.
Sentences are represented in the brain by tree-like
structures (see (47)).
Q: What is the use of tree-like structures based on the
phrase structure rules?
A: They ³reflect the relatedness of ideas in mentalese´(Pinker 1994: 101)
Let¶s see how this is done. Consider the following:
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How are sentences organized?
(49) Tonight¶s program discusses stress, exercise,
nutrition, and sex with Celtic forward Scot
Wedman, Dr. Ruth Westheimer and Dick Cavett
(Pinker 1994: 102)
(50) discuss sex with Dick Cavett
= discuss [sex with Dick Cavett] (see 51 a)= discuss sex [with Dick Cavett] (see 51 b)
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How are sentences organized?
discuss
V
sex
N
with
P
D.C.
N
NP
PP
NP
VP
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How are sentences organized?
discuss
V
sex
N
NP
VP
with
P
D.C.
N
NP
PP
VP
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Refining phrase structure rules
Let us consider (52):
(52) the owner of the car from the lake
Intuitively, we know that we talk about the owner of the
car and the car is in the lake. ³of the car´ joins up with³the owner´ and ³from the lake´ represents some
additional information about the current location of the
car.
! The head and its obligatory complement are joined up
within the N-bar level
! Additional material is joined up at the N-bar level
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Refining phrase structure rules
owner
N
of
P
the car
NP
PP
N'
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Refining phrase structure rules
owner
N
of
P
the car
NP
PP
N'
from the lake
PP
NP
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Refining phrase structure grammar
Now consider (55):
(55) the owner¶s destruction of the car
Also intuitively, we know that the noun ³destruction´
refers to an event whose object is the car and whose
subject is the owner, i.e. the event of an owner
destructing his own car.
³of the car´ is the complement of ³destruction´, theywill be joined up within the N-bar level.
³the owner¶s´ is represented outside the N-bar level
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Refining phrase structure grammar
the owner's
Spec
destruction
N
of
P
the car
NP
PP
N'
NP
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X-bar
(57) X-bar X ZP
The X-bar level consists of the head followed by
its complement
XP (Spec) X-bar
A phrase consists of a subject followed by X-bar
! The subject may be optional
! Subjects are a sort of additional information