Passenger trust in autonomous transportation 1

Passenger trust in autonomous transportation

How to use design to establish trust between passenger and autonomous ferries.

OlaIuellHøklieDepartmentofDesign

NorwegianUniversityofScienceandTechnology

ABSTRACT

Thisarticlefocusesonhowtodesignasafejourneyforpassengerswhohaspreviouslynevertakenanyform of autonomous transportation. This type of transportation is still unchartered waters to manypeople,andtheyareusedtoputtheirtrustinpeopleoperatingtransportationtechnologyratherthanthetechnologyitself.Thisarticleaddressestheworld’s first attempt at an autonomouspassengerferryinTrondheim,Norway.Theaimofthisarticleistoexplorehowtheferrycanconveyinformationabouthowthetechnology is incontrolof thesituation,with thepurposeof increasing thepassengers trustand confidence in the system. Three different caseswith comparable problem areas to autonomousferriesarediscussedinordertouncoverhowwecandesignforagooduserexperience.Togetherwithdesignprinciplesontrust,adesignconceptwasdevelopedtotesttheamountofinformationnecessarytoincreasetrustinautonomoustransport.

KEYWORDS: AutonomousSystems,AutonomousFerry,DesignForTrust,Conceptdesign

1. INTRODUCTIONSincethedawnofthefirstcomputer,technologyhasbeendevelopingatarapidpace.Systemsarenow able to not just compute, but learn fromtheir interactions with their environment,essentially making a machine "intelligent"enough so that it has the ability to perceive,adapt, and make decisions based on what itlearns,creatinganautonomoussystem(Lacher, 2014). A sister company of Google,Waymo, was the first to introduce self-driven(driverless)carswithoutanysafetydriver.Thesecars have been designed to safely navigate thestateofArizona's traffic. Equippedwith sensorsand lasers that give the car a 360 degree viewand a visual range of 300 metres, with the“ability” to perceive things that the human eye

doesnotandreactalmostahundredtimesfasterthan a human being, these cars truly are fullyautonomous (Hawkins, 2017) (Bjørkeng, 2015).Humanerroristhemaincauseofroadaccidents,andbyallowingamachinetomakedecisionsthatare faster and more transparent than a humanbeing,we can reduce the rateof roadaccidentssignificantly (Robinson, 2017) (Bjørkeng, 2015).The number of registered autonomouscompaniesandmeansoftransportintheUShasincreased in recent years, simultaneously, moreaccidentshavebeenreportedinvolvingdriverlesscars (Hook,2017) (CaliforniaDepartment,2017).Despite the accident rate of human controlledvehicles being significantly higher, this is not anacceptable outcome for autonomoustechnological development, and it is therefore

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important to make this technological transitionfeelsafeforallpassengersinthefuture.1.1WhatisanAutonomousSystem?Autonomous means that it is self-reliant(autonom, 2013). Autonomous transport isdivided into six categories of how self-managedthey are, ranked on a scale from zero to five,where zero is not self-driving and five is self-driving. When a vehicle is categorized as levelthree or higher, the vehicle will make humandecisionsbyanalyzingitssurroundingsandtakingactionbasedonwhatitobserves.Thefamouscarbrand -Tesla, forexample,ison level twoof theautonomous scale. It means that the car can“help” you drive but youhavetokeepacarefuleye on it (SAE INTERNATIONAL, 2014) (Davies,2016). This level of autonomous transporttechnology is becoming more commonly seenand used on roadways. The increasing use ofautonomous vehicles has also increased thenumber of situations where an accident hasoccurred in a way that people are generally toblame(Hook,2017).Tworenownedbrandswithinautonomous transport have recently hadaccidents with their autonomous vehicles. Bothan autonomous shuttle bus from Navya andUbers self-driving taxi (Statt, 2017) (Randazzo,2017). In a report from Deloitte, research wasconducted to see how much we trustautonomousvehicles, itturnedoutthat justoneoutoffourpeopleintheUnitedStatesfeltsafeinan autonomous vehicle (Felton, 2017). Thereasonwasthelackofunderstandingofthisnewtechnologythatreplaceshumanqualities.1.2AutonomousShippingIn2016,theworld’s testing of autonomous shipswas given to Trondheim in Norway. It isimportant to develop the shipping industry toimprovesafety, theenvironmentandstreamlineprocesses, something that autonomoustechnology can contribute to (Trondheim Havn,2016). Norway is the world's leader in thedevelopment of autonomous ships. The focal

points being in technology and safety at sea(Rødseth,2016).YaraBirkelandisoneofthemostmentionedautonomousshipprojectsinNorway:anelectricallyautonomousship thatwill replace40.000lorriesannually(Stensvold2017).During this venture of developing autonomousshipsinNorway,thereisanotherprojectthathasstarted the development of an autonomouspassenger ferry called Milliampere. TheMilliampereprojectplanstobeabletotransportamaximumof12passengersacrossachannelinTrondheim. The ferry will go between VestreKanalkaiandRavnkloa.This isastretchofabout100 meters and, it will take about 1 minute tocross this distance. This is an area that is notexposed tomuch sea but there is crossing boattraffic. The autonomous boat will be operatedelectrically and autonomous technology will beusedtonavigatepassengersonboardsafelybackand forth. It will have the function of "ferry ondemand",whichmeans that passengers can callthe boatwhenever theywish. The safety of thepassengers on board is of utmost importance,with contingency plans and other proceduresregarding the operation and safety of anautonomous passenger ferry not yet beingcomplete.Thisissomethingthatmustbeinplacebeforetheferrycanbeapprovedforcommercialoperation. Notmuch thought has gone into thepossible interactions passengers will have onboard Milliampere, but there should be apossibilityofstoppingtheferry(Stensvold,2016)(Heggdal,2016).1.3ResearchQuestionsNew technology within autonomous ships alsoleadstonewlawsandstandardsthatmustbeinplacebeforeautonomousshipsareapprovedforcommercial operations. The InternationalMaritimeLawSOLASRegulation33-1 is requiredto assist others at sea if they are in need (SolasChapter V). This is a problem the NorwegianMaritimeAuthoritymustdiscusswhenapprovingthe use of boats that do not have a captain orcrew. The purpose of Milliampere is to carry

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passengers, but without the assistance of anonboardCaptainorCrew.Whencargoonboarda boat is not containers but people then otherissues arise. Who is responsible for thepassengers in an emergency and how will it besolved - is important to discuss. This article willonlylookatalimitedpartofhowpassengerswillexperiencethisautonomousjourneyonwaterinnormaloperations.Thefocusareawillbehowtoproceed with designing information topassengers that can contribute to a safeexperienceonboardMilliampere.Togaininsightintosomethingthathaspreviouslyhadlittleresearchconducted,thisarticlereviewscasesthataddressproblemareascomparabletoMilliampere some of Milliamperes challenges.The most important thing has been to look atpeople's behavior in these cases so that oneknows what can and can’t be done whendesigningforhumansafety.2.DESIGNFORTRUSTThis chapter explains different perspectives oftrust. How trust can increase and affect humaninteractionwithautonomoussystems.Therearemany different perceptions of how to makepeople trustasystem,andvaryingdefinitionsoftrust. The Oxford dictionaries definition of trustfor instance, is: “Trust is a firm belief in thereliability, truth, ability, or strength of someoneorsomething” (OxfordDictionaries,trust).In autonomous systempeople need to establishtechnology trust. Trust betweenhumanand themachine (Lankton, 2010). Human trust inmachinesisaffectedbyevidenceandperception.Engineeringchallengesaswellas severalhumanfactors, for instance - cultural, organizational,sociological, interpersonal, psychological, andneurological perspectives are essential forestablishingandmaintainingtrust(Lee,2004).

2.1Trustinnewtechnology Humans acclimatise to new technology overtime. We modify our mental models of doingthingsandstarttotrusttechnologyandmachineswhen they work as expected and whenwe canpredict what they will do. The problem is thathumans have little to no expectations on howautonomoussystemwillperform.Peoplerelyonstrangersallthetime-on-demandcarservicedrivers,commercialairlinepilots,busdrivers - but these are people who trust otherpeople. In autonomous ferries the persons trustwill shift fromtrustingthepersonwho isdrivingto the vehicle itself and the underlyingtechnologycontrollingthevehicle.Whenyouareentering a ferry, today you are not only puttingtrustintheferrydriver,butintheentiresystem;the company; the city; the state; themanufacturer. In autonomic ferries, youwill stilljudge the appearance of the vehicle but therewillbenodriver to judge.Youwillneedtotrustthe manufacturer that they wouldn’t use asystem that could cause any harm, and makethem liable for significant damages (Lacher,2014).2.2Trustintheenvironment People feel less confident when using airplanesorferriesthancars.Atthesametime,there isagreaterriskthatanaccidentoccurswhenontheroadthanintheairoronwater.Peopleperceivethe environment as safer where the means oftransportationarebasedonhowmuchtheyhavebeen exposed to it (Alm, 2000). In order to gaintrustinanautonomoussystem,itisimportanttoshow that themachine effectively perceives theenvironment where it will be used. It is alsoimportanttosetconservativelimitationsonhowan autonomous system should behave in anenvironmentsothatpeoplethatdonotgraspthemechanisms of the system can still trust thesystem. After people trust in using anautonomoussystemintheenvironmentinwhichitoperatesgrows,theconservativelimitationcanbesuppressed(Lacher,2014).

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2.3Creatingtrust WhenUberproceededtodesignauserinterfacefor its self-driving taxis, there were threeprinciples they assumed to gain the usersconfidence in an autonomous system. Theprinciple of Transparency, Control and Comfort(Nix,2017).

Figure1:Threeprinciplesusedtogaintrust.

TransparencyTransparency isaprecursorand it’s akey factorforcreatingandmaintainingtrust.“People trustwhat they can see and can clearlyunderstand” (Nix,2017).Macrotransparencycoversall thingsthatmakesa person feel taken care of- in the case ofautonomous systems, this means showing theuserwhereitisgoing,whereitintendstogoandwhenitintendstobethere.Microtransparencyshowswhattheautonomoussystem can see and how it interacts with theoutsideworld.Comfort“People need familiar things in order to makesense of what's in front of them.” (Nix, 2017).When designing for a whole new system it isimportant to include recognizable things so thatthe transition to new technology does not feeltoo overwhelming, this can be done with theimplementation of human traits that can berecognized by all people. By seeing how thevehiclecancommunicate,respondtohazardsonthe road, and manage the navigation, people's

trust and familiarity may increase. Introducinghuman qualities, also called anthropomorphism,onanautonomouscar increasesthetrustofthepassengersittinginit(Waytz,2014).Control“The ability to manage a machine, vehicle, orother moving object” (Oxford Dictionaries,control). In an autonomous ferry it will not besuggested that a passenger should be able totake over or control the ferry, but they will begivensomecontrolastheywillhavetheabilitytostart and stop it. The ability of a passenger tocommunicate with the person in charge ofremotelymonitoring the autonomous transport,provides an opportunity for the user to controlthevehiclebyvoice.3.CASESTUDYMilliampere is the world’s first autonomouspassengerferry,therefore,thereislittleaccesstoresearch on how to proceed with designing auserinterfaceforautonomouspassengerferries.However, it has been useful to gain insight intohow others have proceeded in designing a userinterface thatmakes people trustmachines andtechnology thathavedrastically altered thewayhumans interact with objects and theirenvironment. This sectionwill thereforepresentmachines / objects that are comparable toMilliampere.3.1DriverlessElevatorsWhen discussing autonomous transport, thereare several researchers who like to use theanalogy of a driverless elevator. You press abuttonandittakesyoutotheflooryouwish.Thesame can be said about how people feel whenusingautonomousvehicles:Pressabuttonandittakes you wherever you want. The transitionfrom someone whose job was to control and“drive” theelevatorfor itspassengerstonobodyother thanyourselfpressing thebutton foryourdesired floor was not as painless as you maythink.

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Ittook50yearsbeforepeoplewerecomfortabletaking a driverless elevator. There were severalmethodsusedtoconvincepeoplethatitwassafetotakeadriverlesselevator.Marketingwasusedinanattempttoportrayhoweasyitwastopressabuttonintheelevator:Byinstallingtheelevatorwith speech, floor plans, physical stop buttonsandanopportunity tocommunicatewithhelp ifsomethingwaswrong. Thiswas theway peoplewould adapt to accepting a driverless elevator.This transitionwas also "pushed" forwardwhenthe‘professional drivers’ of elevators went onstrikein1945(Henn,2015).Elon Musk has also used this analogy when hetalksabouthowpeoplewillbecomecomfortableusing autonomous cars. He believes that it willtake 20 years to replace ordinary cars withautonomous cars and this will be helped byplacing a ban on the use of regular cars(Lowensohn,2015).Elevators have alarms that activate when aweight capacity is reached, preventing it frombeing used until it is at a safe level,in additionthere is an alert if there are any otherextraordinary events. Direct contact withsomeone who can help if a problem occurs,whichoccursrarelyduetomachinemaintenanceanddevelopment.When placing yourself in a lift, you often use adiceanalogy, ifyouareapersonintheelevator,youareinthecenteroftheelevator,fivepeoplewillbe inthecenterandtherestwillbe intheircorner (Kremer, 2012). So if you should thinkabout the correct balancing of weight on boardthe boat, this may happen automatically whenstrangersstaytogetherinarestrictedarea.3.2CableferryIn Norway there are some cable ferries wherepassengers operate the vessel themselves,manuallyorwiththehelpofamotor.Cableferryisapossibilitybetweenamainlandandanislandwherethedistance isabout100meters.Acableferry isaboat that isattached toacable that ispulled back and forth the sea (ferge, 2013).

BetweenNesøyaandBrønnøya,acableferrycantake place between 1 May and 15 September.This cable ferry is operated by a manual crankand can only be driven by people older than 6years. If you seea crossingboat traffic, you cannot swing the cable ferry. The ferry can notexceed 15 passengers and 5 bikes, and it is theswivel who has the responsibility on board theferry.In1982anaccidentoccurred,whenaferryregisteredfor20peoplehad40peopleonboardandwhooverloadedresultinginacapsizing.Theresultwasthatonemanwasbraindamagedfromtheaccident.BrønnøyaVelwastheowneroftheferry and was held responsible for the event(Giørtz, 2017).Outside thewest coast ofNorwayon the islandcommunityofFedje,thereisasimilarcableferry.This ferry crosses a stretch of about 50 metersandisregisteredfor8persons.In2009,thisferryalso crashed after it was overloaded by 30people.Thishappenedintheeveningaftersometourists had been to a party andwere returnedwith the cable ferry. Passengers on board wereunder influence of alcohol, but were seafarers,who managed to make it back to land quickly(Ebbesvik, 2009). The main problem for bothaccidents is that the number of passengersexceededthesafetylimitsofthevessels.3.3Self-drivingTaxiUberUber is a transport platform that facilitatesvarious transport opportunities for people livingin cities around the world (Uber, 2017). It is acompanythatstartedin2010andhas40millionmonthlyusers in83differentcountries(Dogtiev,2017).In 2016, Uber launched a research program inPittsburgh, USA, with self-driving taxis. Onlyinvited peoplewere able to participate in a tripbyaself-driven taxi.Afterbookinga taxivia theUber app, a self-driving Uber taxi arrived withtwo Uber engineers in the front. All the self-propelledtaxis inthisprojectwereaccompaniedbytwoengineers.Oneengineersatinthedriver's

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seat and was ready to take over the taxi ifsomething undesirable was happening or if thepassengersinthebackseatwerenotcomfortablewith the self-propelled taxi. The other engineersatwithaPCandobservedhowothers intrafficandpassengersinthebackseatrespondedtothistechnology.Afterenteringthetaxi,theuserpressedabuttononatablettosaytheyarereadytogo(Brewster2016). The tablet shows whether the taxi is inself-propelled mode or not, the speed, steeringanglewhenthecar isslowingdownandhowfarithasdriven inautonomousmode.Youalsogetinformation about where you have driven andhowlongitisuntilyouarriveatyourdestination.Usersalsohavetheopportunitytoseewhatthecarsees.Thisautonomousexperiencealsoallowsyou to document with this screen by taking aselfie. Last but not least, the passenger has theopportunitytostopthecarbypressingabuttonon the screen that causes the self-driven taxi tostop(Staff,2016).Uberoftenhad theproblem that the self-driventaxis did not drive as desired. On average theself-driver functionality did not last for longerthan about 1.5 km before it was taken over bythe engineer who was behind the wheel.(Bhuiyan, 2017). This project was terminatedafter a self-driven taxi from Uber crashed withanother car in March 2017. The reason for thecrashwasnot technological reasons,buthuman(Isaac,2017).Uber taxi is a good start for people to beintroducedtothisnewtechnology.Atechnologythat is presented through a reputable companywhere passengers are curious about how thenew technology shift will be. It is difficult forpassengerstogainagreatdealofconfidenceinatechnology that is only partially tested. It isadvisable to follow up the technology with twoengineersintheinitialstages,butinthelongrunwhen the technology is good enough to beconsideredsafe,therewillbenoneedforhuman"babysitting"orsecurity.Whileitisimportanttotest new technology with many users, it is alsoimportant to think that humans are much less

understandable when accidents occur due totechnological failures and not human errors(Waytz, 2014). Testing the interaction thatUberhashadwithitspassengersinthebackofaself-driven taxi is definitely a real step towardsmaking people feel comfortable withautonomoustransport.3.4Summary It took some time to get used to the transitionfromasinglemanwhose jobwas tocontrol theelevatortomakingtheprocessmoreautomatedsothatanypersoncouldpressabuttontogettotheirdestination.Therewasagradualtransition,givingtheelevatorhumancharacteristics,suchasspeech and communication. The few means oftransport that are somewhat similar toMilliampere,havebeenexposedtoaccidentsdueto alcohol and poor insight into the use andhandling of the ferry. They did not follow therules for how many could be onboard andpassengerswereusuallynotfamiliarwiththeuseof this means of transportation. Uber'sintroduction of a self-propelled taxi forpassengers has not gone as painless as theywanted due to technological weaknesses, butwhenitdidwork,ithasbeenalmostthesameasaregulartaxiride.When theMilliampere project starts, it may bevaluable to optimize the user experience basedonwhatisbeingdiscussedinthedifferentcases.Here are some points I'll introduce as we goaheadwhendesigningasafeuserexperienceforthepassengersonboardMilliampere.

• Humanabilities.• Communicationoptions.• Preventoverload.• Preventruleviolation.

WhenimplementinghumanpropertiesonboardMilliampere,itmakesitdifficulttobreaktherulesandrequirementsfortakingthisautonomousboat(Waytz,2014).

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4.CONCEPTDESIGN Auser testwas conducted using three differentconcept systems for the passengers on boardMilliampere. The designwasmade on the basisof the three different cases, and the use oftheoryanddesignprinciplesoftrust.Thegoalofthe test was to see how much information thepassengersonboardMilliampereneededtofeelcomfortable with and make the most of anautonomousferrywithacontrolledrouteof100meters. The test took root in the designprinciples about transparency, comfort andcontrol, to gain confidence previously used forautonomousvehiclesontheroad.The test was conducted on a specific scenario,where the test user received pictures andillustrations on paper sheets throughout theprocess. Each test person was presented withthree different systems in the same scenario sothat they could compare the systemswith eachother. Theywere askedhow theyperceived thedifferent situations in the scenario, after whichtheyweretoldtochoosethe systemtheytrustedthemost.The scenario in the test started with the userseeingapictureofhowtheferrylookedasiftheyweregoingtotakeatripwithit.Whentheywereat the pierwhere the ferrywas due, theywereshownasign indicatingwheretheywere,wherethedestinationwas,andtheroutethatwouldbetakentothedestination.Thenextpicturewasofacontrolpanelinsidetheferrywhichshowedthepossibilities they had with reference tocontrolling the ferry. Then the passengers weretold that everyone was on board the ferry andthat a message from the speaker said that thedoor was closing and what the next stop was.After the ferryhad takenhalfaminute, the testpersonwas shown a picturewhere therewas akayakinthewayoftheferry.The three systems had different amounts ofinformation that were presented in the samescenario.System1testedwhetherspeechandacontrol panel on board was enough to gainconfidenceinanautonomousferry.System2testedwhetherspeech,acontrolpanelandascreenthatillustratedamapofwherethe

ferry was and what route it was taking, to seewhether this was necessary to gain moreconfidenceinanautonomousferry.System3testedforspeech,acontrolpanelandascreen that showed a live video image of whatthe ferry saw, where it was, and where it wasgoing.Thetestwasconductedwithelevenpeople:sevenwerefemaleandfourweremale.Theageofthetestsubjectsvariedfrom25to55years.Allsubjectsfeltcomfortablethatthecontrolpanelwasonboardandtheyallfeltadequatelyincontroloftheinteractionwiththepanel.Thedifferencesintheexperiencethetestsubjectsfeltwereassociatedwithhowmuchinformationtheyneededinordertotrustthesystem:System1:TheprincipleofControlandComfortwassufficientfortwooutofeleventotrustthesystem.Thestretchwassoshortthatavoicetellingthemthatthekayakhadbeennoticedandthattheferrywouldtakeevasivemaneuverswassufficientandthatitwasunnecessarywithmoreinformation.System2:TheprinciplesofControl,ComfortandMacroTransparencywassufficientforthreeoutofeleventestsubjects.Theyfeltascreenclearlyshowinginformationabouttherouteandthekayakinadditiontothevoicewassufficientforthemtotrustthesystem.Moreinformationthanthiswouldbesuperfluous.System3:SixoutofelevenneededtheprinciplesofControl,Comfort,MacroTransparencyandMicroTransparencyinordertotrustthesystem.Theyfeltitwasimportanttogetavisualizationofwhattheferryregisteredandunderstoodbeforetheywouldtrustthesystementirely.Theywereoftheopinionthatautonomousmeansoftransportweretantamounttofuturisticmeansoftransport,andhadbeendisappointedhadthisperceptionnotbeenmetbythesystem.

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Figure2:AnillustrationofSystem3.

5.DISCUSSIONANDCONCLUSIONPeople are introduced to new andincomprehensible technology that needs to beexplained before they gain confidence in it.When the transition from human controlledelevatortodriverlesselevatortookplace,ittooka long time before userswerewilling to trust asystemwheremandidnothaveenoughevidenceand perception of how thingswere functioning,the systemwas too new and incomprehensible.TheautonomouspassengerferryMilliamperewillbe a project thatwillmakepeople observant ofnew technology, itwill be introduced to societyas more of an experience than a means oftransport. Thedistance the ferrywill go is shortand there is little crossing traffic. This is a goodopportunity to make more people aware ofautonomous transport systems that in turn canbuildtrustintheprominenttechnology.Thetestthatwascarriedoutinthisarticledidnotincludehowtheonboardingoftheferrywouldhappen.Ifyou are boarding the autonomous ferry in thesame way as entering a lift, I think you canrecreate the same trust as you have for anelevator. Unauthorized use and vandalismaboard the autonomous ferry can occur.Monitoring the ferry and the ability to informpassengers on board of any circumstance thatariseswilllimitsuchbehaviourandcanhelpmakeyoufeelsafer.Voice control and hearing a “captains” voice onboard the ferry is something everyone from thetest expressed was important, and that is

something that corresponds to the research.Information and messages given by a humanvoice are something that instilled trust in thesystemforalltestsubjects.The majority of the test subjects wanted asystem that gave themvisual information abouttheboat'spositionand time,andwhat theboatperceives to be within its surroundingenvironment. This visual information was notessential for building trust in this autonomousferry, but it would contribute to a saferexperience.Research says thatonewill gain theright / better confidence in an autonomoussystemby giving human qualities, such as sight.Twoofthetestsubjects found itunnecessarytodisplay information on a screen in addition toaudioastherouteoftheferrywassoshort.ThejourneylengthoftheferryIthinkisdecisivefor how much information a traveler willneed/receive on the route. If it becomes toomuch information in a short period of time, itmay be perceived as overloading and actingagainstitspurpose.Itisthereforeveryimportantto test this for every possible situation. At thesametime,Ithinktheboat'sdesignandsizehavealottosayabouttheamountofinformationthatisconveyedtotravelers.

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