This Changes Everything, And Everything Changes:A Buddhist Perspective on Capitalism and Nature

By James KingCompleted June 2016

Central Washington University

Advisors: Dr. Mark Auslander, Anthropology & Museum Studies Dr. Jeffery Dippmann, Philosophy & Religious Studies

ABSTRACT:

Noted environmental author, speaker, and activist Naomi Klein, in her 2014 book This Changes Everything: Capitalism vs. The Climate, formulates a cogent criticism of the reigning consumer capitalism and neoliberal ideology which is understood as a dominant force in modern globalizing society. A large part of this argument is founded on the idea that change, including social and economic change, is inevitable and that the modern capitalist system fails to acknowledge this fact. Klein also emphasizes the importance of large-scale social movements in demanding and implementing paradigmatic and structural change. In this thesis, I employ a critical Buddhistic perspective to argue that certain philosophical and ethical concepts found in Buddhism are well-suited to guiding and shaping economic and social reform in a way that can benefit climate change response, human well-being, and socioeconomic justice.

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CONTENTS:

Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………..3

Capitalism vs. the Climate? ............................................................................................................5

This Changes Everything, and Everything Changes………………………………………………9

- Impermanence: Anitya……………………………………………………………...…..10

- Interdependence: Pratitya-samutpada…………………………....…………………….13

- Enlightened Economics: Buddhism on Wealth……………………………………...…18

- Generosity and Giving: Dana…………………………………………………………..31

- Loving-Kindness and Goodwill: Metta…………………………………………..…….35

- Compassion: Karuna…………………………………………………………………...39

- Buddhism and Society: Engagement or Exclusion?........................................................43

Naturalizing Capitalism………………………………………………………………………….49

Conclusions………………………………………………………………………………………55

References………………………………………………………………………………………..58

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INTRODUCTION:

In the book This Changes Everything (2014), author Naomi Klein assembles a wealth of

historical and contemporary evidence to put forth a number of arguments regarding the modern

capitalist system and the human-nature relationship. The focus of the book centers on the

premise that there is an increasingly prevalent conflict between neoliberal, capitalist systems and

a natural reality which is finite, interdependent, and constantly changing. Specifically, Klein

attributes much of our present circumstances in regards to climate change and environmental

degradation to unrestrained capitalism, writing that “we have not done the things that are

necessary to lower emissions because those things fundamentally conflict with deregulated

capitalism, the reigning ideology.” (2014:18). Building on these points, Klein argues that only a

large-scale and cooperative social movement can force the massive restructuring of capitalism

and other systems, and allow for a more humane and rational socioeconomic landscape.

In this thesis, I support Klein’s argument that there is a conflict between modern

capitalist systems and the preservation and valuing of environmental and social health. As with

Klein, I draw on the second contradiction of capitalism, as outlined by James O’Conner (1988),

arguing that capitalist systems encourage over-extraction of resources as well as over-pollution

of natural environments which corrodes the systems abilities to perpetuate and support itself. As

O’Connor writes, this contradiction is “the process whereby capital is its own barrier or limit

because of its self-destructive forms of proletarianization of human nature and appropriation of

labor and capitalization of external nature.” (1988:13).

Critiques of the conflict between nature and capitalism are numerous, and many remedies

and potential reforms have been put forth. Hawken, Lovins, and Lovins, in their 2000 book

Natural Capitalism, agree that modern capitalism raises serious issues regarding the preservation

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of the environment, social justice, and human global well-being. However, the authors posit that

this is the result of a particular application of capitalism, commonly dubbed ‘crony capitalism’.

In its modern form, the application of capitalism has resulted in a failure to properly value

‘natural capital’. Natural capital, according to the authors, “includes all the familiar resources

used by humankind: water, minerals, oil, trees, fish, soil, air, etcetera. But it also encompasses

living systems, which include grasslands, savannahs, wetlands, estuaries, oceans, coral reefs,

riparian corridors, tundra, and rainforests.” (Hawken, Lovins, and Lovins 2000:2). In summation,

the authors argue that a drastic reform of capitalism is necessary which incorporates the natural

capital on which all human economies ultimately rely, resulting in a “human capitalism” which

respects and promotes the well-being of people, as well as the environment.

By incorporating these ideas and others, I argue that modern capitalist systems do indeed

require the level of structural reformation called by Klein, and that emphasizing the importance

of natural capital is a promising, arguably essential means of instituting this reform. Beyond this,

I utilize a Buddhistic critical perspective to argue that certain ethical and philosophical

components found in Buddhism both support and strengthen these critiques of capitalism, as well

as provide valuable insights into specific ethical and philosophical areas of the capitalist system

which can be reformed in order to produce a more humane, equitable, and just market mentality.

Specifically, I focus on the Buddhist philosophical concepts of anitya [impermanence],

pratityasamutpada [‘dependent origination’], and understandings of wealth and economics; the

Buddhist ethical concepts of karuna [compassion], dana [generosity] and metta [‘loving-

kindness’], as well as the modern movement of engaged, social, or applied Buddhism which has

provided immense motivation and methodology to generating large-scale social movements

around the world.

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CAPITALISM VS. THE CLIMATE?

Much of Klein’s arguments and worldviews stem from the understanding that there is an

inherent and seemingly unavoidable conflict between capitalism and the preservation of the

environment and natural resources. In her book, she supports this claim with a number of

evidence-based criticisms: (a) a tendency to contribute to [and even profit from] social,

environmental, and financial crisis (2014:8), (b) an idolization of deregulation combined with a

dogmatic faith in free market forces (2014:41) such as the profit motive (2014:252), (c) an

emphasis on consumption levels, as well as corresponding social trends encouraging individuals

to define themselves through consumer purchases (2014:90, 212), (d) an underlying expectation

of infinite and indiscriminate economic growth (2014:86), (e) a socioeconomic and political

hierarchy which places immense power in the hands of corporate entities (2014:151), (f) a

dependence and propagation of ‘extractivist’ ideologies and methods (2014:169), (g) a

questioning of the adequacy of the profit motive as an effective catalyst for social and structural

change (2014:252), and more.

Klein refers to the “three policy pillars of the neoliberal age”: privatization of the public

sphere, deregulation of the corporate sector, and the lowering of income and corporate taxes

which are supported through cuts in public spending (2014:72). Tied in with this is her

understanding of modern capitalism as a corporate-dominated enterprise:

“Attempts to fix glaring and fundamental flaws in the system have failed because large corporations wield far too much political power—a power exerted through corporate campaign contributions, many of them secret; through almost unfettered access to regulators via their lobbyists; through the notorious revolving door between business and government; as well as through the 'free speech' rights these corporations have been granted by the U.S. Supreme Court.” (2014:151).

Furthermore, Klein points out that corporate power and influence is expanding beyond the realm

of traditional economics. A relevant example of this can be found in the trend of large

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environmental groups to be swayed by the corporate interests and practices they supposedly

reject. As Klein notes, “Far from using climate change as a tool to alter the American way of life,

many of the large environmental organizations spend their days doing everything in their power

to furiously protect that way of life, at the direct expense of demanding the levels of change

required by science.” (2014:210).

Throughout the book, Klein seems to be consistently arguing that necessary change will

require a sharp decrease in lifestyle-related consumption patterns, for example when she says,

“The truth is, if we want to live within ecological limits, we would need to return to a lifestyle

similar to the one we had in the 1970s, before consumption levels went crazy in the 1980s.”

(2014:91). While adapting to climate change, globalization, and other aspects of modernity will

certainly result in major lifestyle changes around the world, it seems unlikely that the solutions

will be found in the past [not in the 70’s or any other time]. Rather the solutions we develop,

though based on past inspiration, will be wholly new in their application and will likely integrate

a combination of past techniques, future technologies, and current determinations.

Another of Klein’s main arguments centers around the mass social movement,

specifically arguing that, in order for the current neoliberal regime to begin undergoing reform, a

large number of people from around the world must come together and demand a reworking of

these systems. On page 121 she writes, “Imagine… a powerful social movement—a robust

coalition of trade unions, immigrants, students, environmentalists, and everyone else whose

dreams were getting crushed by the crashing economic model.” (Klein 2014). This argument

seems reasonable, but upon inspection contains two assumptions which may reduce its efficacy:

(1) she seems to assume an underlying trust in democracy where the masses can reach the best

solutions when left to a non-obstructive socioeconomic and political system [somewhat similar

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to the Coase Theorem, though applied to whole citizenries], and (2) assumes a trust in the

unifying power of a common enemy [in this case exploitative neoliberal capitalism, as well as

the umbrella-threat of climate change].

Throughout the book, climate change is referenced by Klein as a potentially unifying

threat; a common enemy which can bring people from all cultural, economic, and social

backgrounds together: “And this is where the power of climate change—and its potential for

building the largest possible political tent—comes into play… a rallying cry could bring together

all of the various constituencies that would benefit from reducing corporate power over politics

—from health care workers to parents worried about their children's safety at school.”

(2014:152). In addition to the potential to bring people together, Klein also argues that climate

action provides an excellent opportunity for people to improve their own quality of life: “For a

great many people, climate action is their best hope for a better present, and a future far more

exciting than anything else currently on offer.” (2014:156).

Extractivism and the modern relationship between capitalistic human society and the

natural world is a strong source of support for Klein. She takes a direct and unsympathetic stance

on this process, as expressed in her provided definition: “Extractivism is a nonreciprocal,

dominance-based relationship with the earth, one purely of taking. It is the opposite of

stewardship, which involves taking but also taking care that regeneration and future life

continue.” (2014:169). As such, reformulating the nature of this relationship, and the way we

view the natural world will be essential to reaching solutions and implementing changes: “the

deeper message carried by the ecological crisis—that humanity has to go a whole lot easier on

the living systems that sustain us, acting regeneratively rather than extractively—is a profound

challenge to large parts of the left as well as the right.” (2014:178). She references the spread of

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extractive enterprises, and the communities, entities, and inevitable conflicts which follow them

as ‘Blockadia’: “Blockadia is not a specific location on a map but rather a roving transnational

conflict zone that is cropping up with increasing frequency and intensity wherever extractive

projects are attempting to dig and drill”.

Extractivism is, according to Klein, primarily a result of increasing local resistance to

neoliberal processes, especially with regard to fossil fuel projects which have been exploring

more and more distant regions for decades. Klein uses this local sense of place as the primary

source of inspiration and motivation to resist neoliberal exploitation: “when the extractive

industry's culture of structural transience bumps up against a group of deeply rooted people with

an intense love of their homeplace and a determination to protect it, the effect can be explosive.”

(2014:344). This increasing social resistance to corporate influence is resulting in more

aggressive tactics on the part of industry and government, “After failing to persuade

communities that these projects are in their genuine best interest, governments are teaming up

with corporate players to roll over the opposition, using a combination of physical violence and

draconian legal tools reclassifying peaceful activists as terrorists.” (362).

Finally, Klein ends by arguing that the many factors of ecological crisis, neoliberal

capitalism, sociopolitical conflict, inequitable development and distribution of resources, and so

on all converge in the sphere of climate change, and that a structural change in economic and

social systems can allow problem-solving to take place in all these areas simultaneously: “And

that means a fundamentally new relationship, in which those communities have full control over

resource projects, so that they become opportunities for skills training, jobs, and steady revenues

(rather than one-off payments).” (2014:399). This understanding is built on the belief that “there

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are alternatives—models of development that do not require massive wealth stratification, tragic

cultural losses, or ecological devastation.” (2014:413).

In summation, “Protecting and valuing the earth's ingenious systems of reproducing life

and the fertility of all of its inhabitants, may lie at the center of the shift in worldview that must

take place if we are to move beyond extractivism. A worldview based on regeneration and

renewal rather than domination and depletion.” (2014:424). Building on this point, I argue that

Buddhism supports and strengthens many of Klein’s arguments, and may contribute valuable

concepts and practical applications which can aid in achieving these goals and more.

THIS CHANGES EVERYTHING, AND EVERYTHING CHANGES:

“These, monks, are the seven treasures.The treasure of conviction,the treasure of virtue,the treasure of conscience and concern,the treasure of listening, generosity,and discernment as the seventh treasure.Whoever, man or woman, has these treasuresis said not to be poor, has not lived in vain.So conviction and virtue, faith and Dhamma-visionshould be cultivated by the wise,remembering the Buddhas' instruction.” – Dhana Sutta

With an overview of Klein’s arguments provided, I now turn to what Buddhism says

regarding capitalism and the modern lifestyle in order to argue for a Buddhist justification for the

criticisms brought up in This Changes Everything. With philosophical concepts such as

impermanence [anitya], interconnection between phenomena [‘dependent origination’:

pratityasamutpada], and concepts of wealth and economics, as well as ethical virtues including

dana [generosity], metta [‘loving-kindness’, good-will] and karuna [compassion], Buddhism

may contain a host of resources which question and/or condemn many aspects of modern

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capitalist systems and neoliberal ideologies as a whole, as well as contribute to the formation and

function of alternatives and large-scale social movements.

Impermanence (S. anitya; P. anicca):

“Throughout all the world there is nothing that's permanent.Even the Earth has the nature of transience.Bodies are centers of sorrow and emptiness.All of my parts are devoid of self,Are dependent on causes and therefore impermanent,Changing, decaying and out of control.Expectations of permanence cause disappointment,Forming attachments that lead to wrongdoing.Observing the world in this light, may I dailyprogress toward freedom from birth and from death.” (Enlightenment Sutta).

Anitya, the rejection of any unchanging or eternal phenomena, is a foundational concept

within most, if not all Buddhist schools. It is regarded as one of the ‘three characteristics of

reality’, one of the ‘four primary defilements’ (Vipallasa Sutta), and one of the ‘five

contemplations’ to developing a right view of reality (Upajjhatthana Sutta). In the Mara-

Upasatha Sutta the Buddha proclaims that “Whether Buddhas arise, O priests, or whether

Buddhas do not arise, it remains a fact and the fixed and necessary constitution of being that all

conformations are transitory. This fact a Buddha discovers and masters, and when he has

discovered and mastered it, he announces, publishes, proclaims, discloses, minutely explains and

makes it clear that all conformations are transitory.” The Cunda Sutta recounts the Buddha’s

teaching after learning of the death of a venerable monk, Shariputra, where the Buddha remarks

“What else is there to expect? It's impossible that one could forbid anything born, existent,

fabricated, and subject to disintegration from disintegrating.” Anitya is, according to Buddhism, a

universal quality found in all things including objects, feelings, energy, and anything else which

may possibly come into existence. The Lalitavistara Sutta eloquently summarizes this as follows:

“All things conditioned are impermanent, unstable,

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As fragile in essence as an unfired pot;Like a borrowed object, like a city on sand,They endure only for a little time.

Without exception they are destroyedLike plaster washed away by rain;Like the river’s sandy bank,They are conditioned, their nature frail. (Iyer 1983:45)

The philosophy of anitya is commonly expressed in negative terms, demonstrated by the

many references to inevitable destruction, such as in the Rahogata Sutta when the Buddha

describes the relationship between anitya and suffering:

“While three feelings have been taught by me, the pleasant, the painful and the neutral, yet I have also said that whatever is felt is within suffering. This, however, was stated by me with reference to the impermanence of (all) conditioned phenomena (sankhárá). I have said it because conditioned phenomena are liable to destruction, to evanescence, to fading away, to cessation and to change. It is with reference to this that I have stated: 'Whatever is felt is within suffering.'.”

The relationship between suffering and anitya is addressed in many other texts including the

Lokavipatti Sutta and verses 210 and 211 of the Dhammapada (Mascaro 1973). Often this results

from attachment to things as if they are permanent. Attachment to impermanent things inevitably

leads to dukkha [stress, suffering, dissatisfaction], as the Gelañña Sutta states: “If he [the Monk]

experiences a pleasant feeling, he knows it as impermanent; he knows, it is not clung to; he

knows, it is not relished. If he experiences a painful feeling... a neutral feeling, he knows it as

impermanent; he knows, it is not clung to; he knows, it is not relished.” The Vedana Sutta

applies this to feelings, the Phassa Sutta to contact, the Rupa Sutta to physical form, the Viññana

Sutta to consciousness, and the Dhattu Sutta and Nakhasikha Sutta to all components of the

Earth. The Sermon of the Seven Suns cites anitya as the primary source of unhappiness for

human beings: “Impermanent, O monks, are the constituents of existence, unstable, non-eternal:

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so much so, that this alone is enough to weary and disgust one with all constituent things, and

emancipate therefrom.”

Anitya from a Buddhist perspective is neither good nor bad, but rather a necessary and

unavoidable aspect of existence; a natural law. Some things last longer than others, such as

human life compared with insects [though many texts, such as the Jara Sutta, reflects on the

shortness of human life], but eventually all things end. Anitya is associated with annihilation, but

may be more accurately understood as the inevitability of change. An individual human is

impermanent in the obvious sense that one day we cease to exist. Furthermore, an individual is

impermanent because we are constantly in flux. From an intellectual standpoint, we are exposed

to new ideas, experiences, and so on each day which mold and shape who we are. Physically, our

cells regenerate, our chemistry and physiology fluctuates, and our neural pathways are shifting

and rewiring. As such, anitya forms one of the main arguments for the Buddhist rejection of the

eternal self [atman] and is detailed in the Gaddula Sutta, the Nadi Sutta, the Vipallasa Sutta, and

many others.

It is from this perspective that Buddhists understand anitya, and thus change. Klein’s

argument that change is inevitable, and that even seemingly firm and entrenched ideologies and

systems such as capitalism and consumerism are unable to escape the marks of impermanence is

thus well supported in Buddhism. While on one hand assuring that change will occur, anitya may

also provide inspiration. Since all things are subject to change, this means that all phenomena are

impressionable. In the human mind, this means that we constantly have the ability to shape,

mold, and develop ourselves and the world around us. As the Gavi Sutta states, "When a monk

enters and emerges from that very attainment, his mind is pliant and malleable. With his pliant,

malleable mind, limitless concentration is well developed.” Society, as an extension of

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individuals, is similarly malleable and may be influenced by humanity and other factors. As

such, the assumptions made by Klein, which are foundational to the rest of her arguments, seem

to be well supported by Buddhist doctrine, and provide a groundwork for engagement with

society and the outside world.

Interdependence: ‘Dependent Origination’ [S. Pratityasamutpada, P. Paticca

Samupadda]:

“A disciple of the Buddha, mindful,clearly comprehending, with his mind collected,he knows the feelings and their origin,knows whereby they cease and knows the paththat to the ending of feelings lead.And when the end of feelings he has reached,such a monk, his thirsting quenched, attains Nibbána.” (Samádhi Sutta 4)

Another foundational philosophy of Buddhism is that of interdependence, known in

Buddhism as ‘dependent origination’. As with anitya, this philosophy runs deep through many

other Buddhist concepts and doctrines. In terms of capitalism, pratityasamutpada presents its

relevance in terms of interrelations between phenomena and in terms of cause and effect. The

latter understanding, of the causes and conditions of existent phenomena, led to the development

of the philosophy known as sunnata [emptiness] which states that everything is inherently

‘empty of essence’ because it cannot exist without other phenomena.

On the first level, that of interconnection and interdependence, Buddhism seems to take a

panarchic approach. It often rejects hierarchy, systems where some things are considered more

important than others, and instead emphasizes that all pieces are equally important since without

any one piece the end result would be noticeably different. In the Nalakalapiyo Sutta, the Buddha

uses the example of two sheaves of reeds leaning on each other. If one or the other were to be

removed, neither of the sheaves would be able to stand. Ecologically, a panarchic approach

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views all components of an ecosystem as valuable [since all contribute to the organization and

function of the ecosystem as a whole] and change can be initiated from any level [as opposed to

hierarchical models where change traditionally occurs at one or only a few levels; i.e. top-down,

bottom-up, etc.].

Cause and effect, in terms of pratityasamutpada, can be understood as an unending chain

of events [causes] which, through their influence [effects] become causes for other events. This

philosophy is inseparable from, though not identical to the doctrine of karma, or the philosophy

that all actions act as caused for other phenomena. The immeasurable extent of this chain is

described in the Mata Sutta which discusses the rebirth of beings: “From an in-construable

beginning comes transmigration. A beginning point is not evident, though beings hindered by

ignorance and fettered by craving are transmigrating and wandering on.” Throughout the

scriptures, this is expressed in a wide range of terms. On a basic level, there are many references

to phenomena being dependent on other things. The Cula Sunnata Sutta states that sense

perceptions are “dependent on this very body with life as its condition.” One of the most

important deductions of this philosophy relates to dukkha, and leads to the formation of the

Buddha’s primary teaching given in The First Sermon: the Four Noble Truths. This states that (1)

dukkha is a part of life, (2) dukkha has a cause, (3) the causes of dukkha can be stopped, and thus

(4) there is an end to dukkha. As dukkha has a cause, so too do many other negative aspects of

human existence; those parts of life understood in Buddhism as a source of dukkha. An example

of this is found in the Mahanidana Sutta:

“Now, craving is dependent on feeling,seeking is dependent on craving,acquisition is dependent on seeking,ascertainment is dependent on acquisition,desire and passion is dependent on ascertainment,attachment is dependent on desire and passion,

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possessiveness is dependent on attachment,stinginess is dependent on attachment,defensiveness is dependent on stinginess,and because of defensiveness, dependent on defensiveness, various evil, unskillful phenomena come into play: the taking up of sticks and knives; conflicts, quarrels, and disputes; accusations, divisive speech, and lies.”

Emptiness [P. Śūnyatā; S. Suññatā] is intricately related to pratityasamutpada and cause

and effect. The Heart Sutta [or Prajnaparamita Sutta] is the defining text on emptiness within the

Mahayana Buddhist canon, and proclaims the fundamental emptiness of the self, body, feelings,

consciousness, and all else while emphasizing the non-separaton of dualistic concepts:

“Listen Sariputra,all phenomena bear the mark of Emptiness;their true nature is the nature ofno Birth no Death,no Being no Non-being,no Defilement no Purity,no Increasing no Decreasing.

“That is why in Emptiness,Body, Feelings, Perceptions,Mental Formations and Consciousnessare not separate self entities.” (Hanh 2014).

The Indian philosopher Nagarjuna, in his seminal commentary, ‘Mulamadhyamakakarika’

[‘fundamental verses on the Middle Way’], delves into the meaning of suññatā in the Mahayana

worldview. In the third verse, Nagarjuna states that “In these relational conditions the self-nature

of the entities cannot exist. From the non-existence of self-nature, other-nature too cannot exist.”

(Inada 1970:40). Here ‘relational conditions’ is the translation of pratityasamutpada, in which he

refutes the existence of a self-nature [S. svabhava] independent of other entities. The concept of

suññatā is again visited in the Suñña Sutta where the monk Ananda asks the Buddha in what way

the world is void and empty. The Buddha responds that, “Insofar as it is empty of a self or of

anything pertaining to a self: Thus it is said, Ánanda, that the world is empty.”

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Cause and effect is also expounded psychologically in order to explain both the

appearance and absence of sensation. As such, as detailed in the Lankavatara Sutta, “There are

two factors of causation by reason of which all things come into seeming existence: external and

internal factors.” External factors refer to the physical: “The external factors are a lump of clay, a

stick, a wheel, a thread, water, a worker, his labor, and the combination of these produces a jar.”

(Lankavatara Sutta). Internal factors include perception, desire, and so on which contribute to an

individual creating such a jar. In order to see a sight, for example, there must be (1) an eye organ,

(2) an object to be seen, (3) a brain to process the sight, (4) consciousness to perceive the sight-

process, etc. The Maha Hatthipadopama Sutta states this as follows:

“Now if internally the eye is intact but externally forms do not come into range, nor is there a corresponding engagement, then there is no appearing of the corresponding type of consciousness. If internally the eye is intact and externally forms come into range, but there is no corresponding engagement, then there is no appearing of the corresponding type of consciousness. But when internally the eye is intact and externally forms come into range, and there is a corresponding engagement, then there is the appearing of the corresponding type of consciousness.”

As such, all senses are the effects of both internal and external causes. And in the Paccaya Sutta,

the Buddha states that birth is a “requisite condition” for aging and death, while birth itself is

“dependently co-arisen” as a result of many causes and conditions, notably the birth and eventual

coming together of parents. This discourse is further elaborated on in the Mahanidana Sutta, the

Paccaya Sutta, and the Paticca Samuppada Vibhanga Sutta.

In regards to individuals, dependent origination takes the form of a highly developed

sense of personal responsibility. Since all conditioned things have a series of causes, any

conditioned thing which happens to us must also have causes. Buddhism makes a strict

argument, utilizing the concept of karma [‘fruit’, the result of one’s actions] and rebirth, that

individuals alone are responsible for the things which happen to them. Experiencing negative

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fruits in the present can be considered the result of negative actions in the past [in both the

current or previous lives]. As the Buddha states in the Cula Kammavibhanga Sutta, “Student,

beings are owners of their actions, heirs of their actions, born of their actions, related through

their actions, and have their actions as their arbitrator. Action is what differentiates beings in

terms of baseness and excellence.” The Upajjhatthana Sutta expands on this, noting that

“Whatever I do, for good or for evil, to that will I fall heir.” While this may seem damning, it is

more commonly understood in a soteriological sense, where the means to one’s personal

salvation are within the grasp of the individual. If one wants to improve their condition,

Buddhism states that one simply must improve their actions, and encourage the fruiting of

pleasant karmas. This is espoused in eloquent prose in the Nidana Sutta, where greed, aversion,

and delusion are named as the dominant motivators of actions:

“A person unknowing:the actions performed by him,born of greed, born of aversion,and born of delusion,whether many or few,are experienced right here:

no other ground is found.

So a monk, knowing, shedsgreed, aversion, and delusion;giving rise to clear knowledge, he shedsall bad destinations.”

In the Yoga Sutta, the Buddha outlines four ‘yokes’ which lead to the origination of dukkha: the

yokes of sensuality, becoming, views, and ignorance. As such, a monk wishing to improve his

circumstances should simply strive to give up greed, aversion, delusion, and the four yokes.

In regards to the arguments put forth in This Changes Everything, the philosophy of

pratityasamutpada creates an interesting series of predicaments. On one hand, this philosophy

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seems to support Klein’s arguments in that the modern socioeconomic situation in which we find

ourselves is the result of past historical occurrences and actions, and whose future will be

determined by the actions of individuals in the present and near future. From this perspective,

pratityasamutpada can provide a motivational framework for reform: by changing the ways we

behave and act economically and socially [i.e. ‘planting new seeds’] we can systematically

develop a friendlier and more equitable world [i.e. ‘harvest new fruits’]. On the other hand, some

aspects of pratityasamutpada may be interpreted as world-negating, especially in regards to

suññatā. However, I argue this is an incorrect interpretation, and that the true nature of suññatā

is world-affirming, insisting that no phenomenon, be it a human being or socioeconomic system,

exists in isolation.

Capitalism, it has been argued, depends on a maintained separation from external

circumstances. From an underlying expectation of infinite growth [while subsisting on finite

resources] to a consistent effort to externalize factors and conditions from economic processes

[i.e. pollution, social consequences, etc.], capitalist and neoliberal systems consistently

encourage the removal of many factors and influences from the equation. As such, the

philosophy of pratityasamutpada can contribute to a more restrained and externally-connected

capitalism on multiple different [yet connected] levels.

Enlightened Economics- Buddhism on Wealth: On the subject of wealth, Klein tends

to hold a middle of the road perspective. While she doesn’t outright criticize having wealth or

living a comfortable lifestyle, she does seem to consider a drastic redistribution of wealth

necessary to more equitable levels as crucial to addressing problems of overconsumption and

wealth accumulation in the modern capitalist system. Klein also seems to consider the lack of

moral principles such as restraint and moderation as one of the primary downfalls of the

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neoliberal agenda [rather than emphasizing frugality, a system built on infinite growth may

instead encourage waste and greed]. It is from this perspective that I argue that Buddhism

generally supports Klein’s position, and has much to contribute to the spheres of modern

economics, primarily through the injection of pertinent ethical principles such as moderation,

generosity, and compassion.

Buddhism, along with the predominately Eastern worldviews associated with Daoism,

Hinduism, and so on, is often considered to be against the accumulation of wealth. The image of

a wealthy yet devout Buddhist seems counterintuitive, and not without a logical basis. While

Buddhism certainly has much to say regarding wealth and how to interact with it, and

admonishes qualities such as greed, it is not correct to argue that Buddhism is ‘anti-wealth’. In

fact, many texts contain guidelines on the proper way to accumulate and use wealth. As will be

visited under the section on dana [generosity], having wealth can be a morally respectable way

to accumulate karmic merit and spread joy to others. Buddhist conceptions on wealth are also

significant, for they demonstrate that good Buddhists are commonly expected, and even

encouraged to participate in economic, and therefore social spheres. For now, I adhere to the

scriptural sources pertaining to the accumulation of wealth, and what to do with wealth and

personal property already in one’s possession.

First it is necessary to gain an understanding of how the Buddha viewed wealth and

personal accumulation. In the First Sermon, the first argument of the Buddha is that one should

pursue ‘The Middle Way’: a lifestyle lying in between lavish wealth and extreme poverty. As

such, a healthy management of wealth lies at the foundation of Buddhist doctrine. Next, the

Buddha was primarily concerned with the cessation of dukkha. As such, the Buddha considers

wealth in the context of how it pertains to this goal. The Culadukkhakkhandha Sutta relates

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sensual pleasures, with which wealth is connected, to the root of dukkha, and the Mettagu

Manava Puccha seconds this claim. The Ina Sutta provides an outline of the harms of poverty

and debt, and holds them responsible as a primary contributor to dukkha in the world:

“Thus, monks, poverty is suffering in the world for one who partakes of sensuality. Getting into debt is suffering in the world for one who partakes of sensuality. Interest payment is suffering in the world for one who partakes of sensuality. Being served notice is suffering in the world for one who partakes of sensuality. Being hounded is suffering in the world for one who partakes of sensuality. Bondage is suffering in the world for one who partakes of sensuality.”

The Adiya Sutta praises earning wealth through honest and right effort, and outlines five

benefits this can provide: (1) pleasure which is rightly earned and allows one to support their

family; (2) wealth can be used to share rightly earned pleasure with others, (3) security against

misfortune [i.e. namely natural disasters, famine, etc.]; (4) allows one to worship in the proper

fashion and provide necessary offerings; and (5) allows one to provide support to others

engaging in spiritual pursuit [those in the monkhood, dependent on lay-society]:

“'My wealth has been enjoyed,my dependents supported,protected from calamities by me.I have given supreme offeringsand performed the five oblations.I have provided for the virtuous,the restrained,followers of the holy life.For whatever aim a wise householderwould desire wealth,that aim I have attained.I have done what will not lead to future distress.”

I find the last line especially striking, as it says that a righteous Buddhist householder should

strive to avoid using one’s wealth to “lead to future distress”. From a modern perspective, this

could be used to argue against a wide range of economic activities; from purchasing and using

products manufactured through exploitative labor practices to engaging in activities which

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contribute to climate change. In a similar fashion, the Anana Sutta outlines ‘four kinds of bliss’

to be obtained by a righteous householder: the bliss of (1) having wealth, (2) making use of

wealth, (3) being debtless, and (4) being blameless.

Wealth and acquisition, while not inherently negative, pose a risk to individuals,

especially those committed to the monkhood. The Dhaniya Sutta, organized as a conversation

between the Buddha and a cattleman named Dhaniya, describes both the benefits of living a

moderate life as well as the increased risk of attachment and craving which accompanies having

such possessions. Dhaniya and the Buddha share stanzas which outline a modest lifestyle. At the

end of this sutta, Mara [a ‘deity’ in Buddhism who seeks to confuse, distract, and otherwise sway

practitioners from the path] appears and seeks to make the argument that Dhaniya’s satisfaction

is only existent because of his possessions:

“Those with childrendelightbecause of their children.Those with cattledelightbecause of their cows.A person's delightcomes from acquisitions,since a person with no acquisitionsdoesn't delight.”

At this the Buddha refutes Mara’s claims, instead making the argument that worldly acquisitions

lead to dukkha rather than delight:

“Those with childrengrievebecause of their children.Those with cattlegrievebecause of their cows.A person's griefcomes from acquisitions,since a person with no acquisitions

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doesn't grieve.”

These two verses are repeated in nearly identical form in the Nandana Sutta.

Attachment [S. tṛṣṇā; P. taṇhā: thirst, desire] to worldly possessions is a highly

prominent theme throughout the text, and penetrates almost every aspect of Buddhism, including

the end goal of Nirvana [liberation, enlightenment, ‘detachment’]: “With the arrow withdrawn,

unattached, he would attain to peace of mind; and when all sorrow has been transcended he is

sorrow-free and has realized Nibbána.” (Salla Sutta). The Upaya Sutta states, “One attached is

unreleased; one unattached is released.” Tṛṣṇā is seen as negative in almost every circumstance,

many of which are discussed in the Lankavatara Sutta: “there are the deep-seated attachments to

signs of individuality, to causation, to the notion of being and non-being, to the discrimination of

birth and death, of doing and of not-doing, to the habit of discrimination itself upon which

philosophers are so dependent.” Tṛṣṇā is described as one of the five obstacles (One Way In

Sutta), one of the minor defilements (Upakilesa Sutta), one of the four perversions (Vipallasa

Sutta), and a contributor to the decline of humans (Parabhava Sutta). The Lankavatara sutta

identifies attachment to greed, anger, and infatuation, these being “based on lust, fear and pride.”

The Lokavipatti Sutta expands this to status, gain, praise, loss, disgrace, and censure; and the Na

Tumhaka Sutta relates tṛṣṇā to incorrect concepts regarding the existence of a self. Clinging to

friends and loved ones is also seen as a negative worldly phenomenon, as the Piyajaatika Sutta

notes, “Dear ones bring grief, lament, unpleasantness and distress and the pleasure gained from

them is insignificant.”

Tṛṣṇā is described as a dangerous trap in the Tanha Sutta, and the Mettagu Manava

Puccha identifies attachment as one of the primary sources of dukkha:

“You have asked me the source of suffering. Mettagu, I will tell it to you as it has been discerned by me. These many sufferings evident in the world have arisen from worldly

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attachments. Whoever ignorantly creates an attachment that stupid person comes upon suffering again and again. Therefore a man of understanding should not create attachment, seeing it is the source of suffering.”

The clinging-aggregates are results of attachment to the five aggregates [the self: form, feeling,

perception, mental fabrications, and consciousness], and are discussed in the Khandha Sutta, the

Parivatta Sutta, and the Silavant Sutta. Essentially, feelings and pleasures can cause us to cling as

we seek out or avoid them, as the Sallatha Sutta says:

“For a learned personwho has fathomed the Dhamma,clearly seeing this world and the next,desirable things don't charm the mind,undesirable ones bring no resistance.”

Attachment to views in the Paramatthaka Sutta is used to engender a sense of tolerance in

adherents and warn Buddhists against clinging to beliefs, even Buddhist ones: “A person who

associates himself with certain views, considering them as best and making them supreme in the

world, he says, because of that, that all other views are inferior; therefore he is not free from

contention with others. In what is seen, heard, cognized and in ritual observances performed, he

sees a profit for himself. Just by laying hold of that view he regards every other view as

worthless.”

In the Buddhist way, outlined in the Datthabba Sutta, tṛṣṇā often extends in multiple

directions; one is easily attached to pleasant feelings, and attached to the absence of negative

feelings. In both circumstances, one becomes attached to present circumstances which, due to

anitya, are guaranteed to change. The Buddha identifies four types of clinging in the Shorter

Discourse on the Lion's Roar, and the Gelañña Sutta outlines the causes and conditions of

attachment, making clear that attachment can be eliminated through practice, determination, and

action. The Guhatthaka Sutta, comparing the body to a cave, states that:

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“Staying attached to the cave,covered heavily over,a person plunged into confusionis far from seclusion --for sensual pleasuresare not lightly let go.”

The Buddha expands on the relationship between tṛṣṇā and mistaken views of the self in the

Sermon At Rajagaha. In the Kaccayanagotta Sutta, the Buddha makes the claim that the world is

largely succumbing to tṛṣṇā: “By and large, Kaccayana, this world is in bondage to attachments,

clingings (sustenances), and biases. But one such as this does not get involved with or cling to

these attachments, clingings, fixations of awareness, biases, or obsessions.” This raises the

question of what the Buddha might make of the present economic and materialistic situation. In

the Snake Simile, the Buddha compares tṛṣṇā to a person trying to grab a snake: the fool grabs

the snake by the tail and gets bit, while the wise man grabs the snake behind the head. This

passage again suggests that ‘good grasping’ is a matter of wisdom and self-control. A large

number of other suttas discuss tṛṣṇā, including the Nagaravindeyya Sutta, the Nava Sutta, the

Pahana Sutta, the Sammaditthi Sutta, the Upadana Sutta

Building on the threat of greed, tṛṣṇā, and so on which accompanies the accumulation of

wealth, the Buddha decries in the Parabhava Sutta that: “To have much wealth and ample gold

and food, but to enjoy one's luxuries alone - this is a cause of one's downfall.” Indeed, warnings

against avarice form a bulk of the discourses and teachings attributed to the Buddha. In the

Pilahaka Sutta, the Buddha uses the humorous yet accurate analogy of a dung beetle to represent

a greedy, and thus delusional monk:

“Monks, gains, offerings, and fame are a cruel thing, a harsh, bitter obstacle to the attainment of the unexcelled rest from bondage. Suppose there were a beetle, a dung-eater, full of dung, gorged with dung, with a huge pile of dung in front of him. He, because of that, would look down on other beetles: 'Yes, sirree! I am a dung-eater, full of dung, gorged with dung, with a huge pile of dung in front of me!' In the same way, there

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is the case where a certain monk - conquered by gains, offerings, and fame, his mind consumed - puts on his robes and, carrying his bowl and outer robe, goes into a village or town for alms. Having eaten there as much as he likes - full of alms-food and invited again for the next day - he goes to the monastery and, in the midst of a group of monks, boasts, 'I have eaten as much as I like, I am full of alms-food and have been invited again for tomorrow. . . Conquered by gains, offerings, and fame, his mind consumed, he looks down on other well-behaved monks.”

In a similar fashion, the Sigala Sutta compares a person bent on acquiring wealth to a hungry,

mange-afflicted jackal: “He finds no pleasure whether he goes to a bluff, to the foot of a tree, or

to the open air. Wherever he goes, wherever he stands, wherever he sits, wherever he lies down,

he is sunk in misery.” Thus people who make their prime goal the attainment of wealth are

destined to a life of searching, but finding nothing but discomfort; misery; dukkha. In a similar

way, the Katuviya Sutta refers to greed as “putrefaction”, contributing to the decay of spiritual

and moral development, and the Parabhava Sutta lists greed and attachment as one of the causes

of the decline of humanity.

Throughout the texts, the Buddha consistently references the importance of morality and

wisdom in the proper acquisition and use of wealth. The Andha Sutta makes the analogy of three

types of people, possessing no eyes, one eye, or both eyes. One eye represents the ability to

acquire wealth and make it grow, and the second eye represents the moral compass; “the eye to

see states that are good and bad, to see states that are blameworthy and praiseworthy, states mean

and exalted, states resembling light and darkness.” As this passage shows, wealth in Buddhism is

understood in a similar fashion as many other concepts [including anitya], that is neither good

nor bad. Rather it is up to the individual to make efficient, intelligent, and ethical use of wealth.

This position is further emphasized in the Kula Sutta where, speaking on the family, the

Buddha proscribes four actions for maintaining wealth: “Which four? They look for things that

are lost. They repair things that have gotten old. They are moderate in consuming food and drink.

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They place a virtuous, principled woman or man in the position of authority. In every case where

a family can hold onto its great wealth for long, it is for one or another of these four reasons.”

This passage contains valuable insight. It emphasizes the importance of maintaining one’s

possessions [since all things are subject to anitya], as well as touches on the moral and ethical

principles of moderation, restraint, and ethical decision-making.

Overall, restraint and moderation seem to be the prime emphasis of the Buddha’s

teachings on wealth. The Udumbarika Sihanada Sutta provides a description of ‘four-faceted

restraint’: “restraining from doing harm, causing others to do harm, as well as not approving of

harm done; refraining from stealing, not having others steal and disapproving of theft; the

squelching of craving, not making others crave and the disapproving of craving; refraining from

lying, not causing others to lie and disapproving of lying.” The Uraga Sutta describes spiritual

training as a snake-like transformation, in which restraint assists in shedding the ‘snakeskin’ of

greed and other defilements. Like other tools, wealth can be used efficiently, and for good

purposes, or it can be used inefficiently, and result in harm. The Discourse of the Teaching

Bestowed by the Buddha outlines the importance of restraint in regards to mind and body,

touching on the control of the senses, moderate consumption of food, and more. This is seconded

in the Sunakkhatta Sutta: “Now, when a monk - maintaining restraint over the six spheres of

contact, knowing that 'Acquisition is the root of stress' - is free from acquisition, released in the

total ending of acquisition, it's not possible that, with regard to acquisition, he would stir his

body or arouse his mind.” The Enlightenment Sutta outlines the relation between a lack of

restraint with regards to worldly possessions and the defilements of craving, greed, and

attachment which all contribute to dukkha. The Guhatthaka Sutta makes a similar observation:

“Those chained by desire,bound by becoming's allure,

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aren't freed by others,and find no easy release on their own.Intent, in front or behind,on hunger for sensual pleasureshere or before –greedyfor sensual pleasures,busy, deluded, ungenerous,having entered the out-of-tune way,they -- impelled into pain -- lament:“What will we bewhen we pass on from here?”

Forming such an integral part of Buddhist moral philosophy, the topics of restraint and greed are

major themes in a host of other suttas including the Kama Sutta, the Kimsila Sutta, the

Samaññaphala Sutta, the Yavakalapi Sutta, and the Yoga Sutta.

The suttas provide an ideal example of what healthy accumulation and use of wealth

looks like in the form of the monk Anathapindika [whose name means ‘supporter of, and friend

to the poor and orphans’]. In the Mara-Upasatha Sutta, he is described as a “man of unmeasured

wealth” who, on hearing the teachings of the Buddha, finds himself in a moral dilemma:

“Having listened to my words advise me what I shall do. My life is full of work, and having acquired great wealth, I am surrounded with cares. Yet I enjoy my work, and apply myself to it with all diligence. Many people are in my employ and depend upon the success of my enterprises. . . My heart yearns to do what is right and to be a blessing unto my fellows. Let me then ask thee, Must I give up my wealth, my home, and my business enterprises, and, like thyself, go into homelessness in order to attain the bliss of a religious life?”

The Buddha then makes a highly cogent response, telling Anathapindika that “The bliss of a

religious life is attainable by every one who walks in the noble eightfold path. He that cleaves to

wealth had better cast it away than allow his heart to be poisoned by it; but he who does not

cleave to wealth, and possessing riches, uses them rightly, will be a blessing unto his fellows.”

Anathapindika then commits to supporting and spreading the Dharma [the teachings of the

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Buddha] and purchases a large plot of forested land where he established the monastery known

as Jeta’s Grove, referenced many times in later suttas.

“Rouse yourself! Sit up! What good is there in sleeping? For those afflicted by disease (suffering), struck by the arrow (craving), what sleep is there?” (Utthana Sutta)

I now discuss briefly the role of effort, diligence, and striving as understood in the

Buddhist context. As with greed, tṛṣṇā, and so on, ‘right effort’ is seen as the antidote to sloth

and laziness, which is described as one of the five obstacles (Avarana Sutta) and contributing to

the decline of humanity (Parabhava Sutta). Persistence is named as one of the five strengths in

the Vitthara Sutta, and the Threefold Lotus Sutra contains many passages guiding in the

abandonment of sloth (Kato, Tamura and Miyasaka 1975). The Buddha advocates for a middle

path of effort, not trying too hard or too little: “When I pushed forward, I was whirled about.

When I stayed in place, I sank. And so I crossed over the flood without pushing forward, without

staying in place.” (Ogha-tarana Sutta). The Buddha consistently taught that anything worth doing

should be done with vigor and determination, especially in regards to monastic training:

“So you should train yourselves: 'Strong will be our desire for undertaking the training in heightened virtue; strong will be our desire for undertaking the training in heightened mind (concentration); strong will be our desire for undertaking the training in heightened discernment.' That is how you should train yourselves.” (Gadrabha Sutta).

Building on this in the Kusita Arambhavatthu Sutta, the Buddha outlines eight expressions of

laziness followed by eight examples of developing energy to counteract that laziness. A host of

other texts refer to the virtue of right effort and the vice of sloth including the Lohicca Sutta, the

Maha-Parinibbána Sutta, the Mahaakammavibhangasuttam, and the Sabbasava Sutta.

Related to determination and persistence is the Buddhist concept of self-sufficiency.

Many scriptures describe the importance of not relying on others, and to depend only on oneself

in regard to development. The Khaggavisana Sutta states that one should live “like a rhinoceros”,

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avoiding negativity in people and situations, and seeking out things that will assist one in

development:

“Avoid the evil companion disregarding the goal, intent on the out-of-tune way.Don't take as a friendsomeone heedless and hankering.Wander alonelike a rhinoceros.

Consort with one who is learned, who maintains the Dhamma, a great and quick-witted friend.Knowing the meanings,subdue your perplexity,[then] wander alonelike a rhinoceros”

These points will be revisited when discussing the social nature of Buddhism and Buddhist

teachings on how to engage oneself with the outside world, but other suttas with reference to

self-sufficiency include the Maha Mangala Sutta and the Maha-Parinibbána Sutta.

Anathapindika has, and continues to shine as a Buddhist example of the proper response

to wealth. His wealth was earned through honest effort, he was able to resist craving and

attachment to his fortune, gave generously and intelligently, and utilized wisdom and morality in

his business dealings as well as other aspects of life. As the Mahali Sutta states, “A disciple goes

forth and practices the moralities. On account of his morality, he sees no danger anywhere. He

experiences in himself the blameless bliss that comes from maintaining this Aryan morality.”

Anathapindika exemplifies the fusion between right effort, sila [morality] and prajna [wisdom],

and further demonstrates that a contradiction between wealth and Buddhism is a surface-level

phenomenon; scripturally and doctrinally unfounded. On the contrary, Buddhism provides

practical and relatively simple proscriptions for the appropriate relationship with wealth, and by

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extension, economies. The Vyagghapajja Sutta provides a prime example of this economic

insight. The layperson Vyagghapajja approaches the Buddha and asks him how best a layperson

should behave in order to develop a life of both wealth and happiness, as well as spiritual and

moral righteousness. The Buddha gives the following advice, arguably as relevant today as when

the words were first spoken:

“Four conditions, Vyagghapajja, conduce to a householder's wealth and happiness in this very life. Which four? The accomplishment of persistent effort (utthana-sampada), the accomplishment of watchfulness (arakkha-sampada), good friendship (kalyanamittata) and balanced livelihood (sama-jivikata).”

Again we find mentioned here the importance of diligent effort, moderation, and healthy and

friendly interactions with other people [again suggesting an assumption of social engagement].

The scriptural discourses regarding wealth in Buddhism are fascinating and relevant for a

number of reasons. First, though Buddhism has been argued as world-negating, the Buddha

regularly comments on economic participation and the benefits which can be obtained from it.

Rather than arguing for abstinence from worldly involvement, specifically in the marketplace,

the Buddha provides a series of warnings and guidelines on how one should properly behave and

relate with economies and other social spheres. Though modern capitalism certainly wasn’t

present, there was a well-established mercantile system in India which certainly included the

incredibly wealthy and the severely impoverished. As such, advice on how to orient oneself in

these spheres form an integral part of the Buddha’s teachings. This fact will be revisited later to

argue that Buddhism inherently contains doctrines which dictate social engagement.

In the context of Klein’s arguments, Buddhism provides a number of supporting

premises. Much of the discourse found in the scriptures views the market as man-made. There is

never reference to any outside forces which control the functioning of economics. Some of this

likely stems from significant differences between modern capitalism and the economy of ancient

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India, and it is likely that some of this emerges from the Buddhist philosophical system. Since

humans are ultimately responsible for their actions, and the market is created and controlled by

humans, it follows that humans are ultimately responsible for the functioning of the market.

There seems to be a large body of evidence to suggest that the Buddha would respond to a

broken economic system in much the same way he approaches ‘broken’ beings: find the roots of

the problem, and change them. Essentially, Buddhism tells us that problems emerging from

capitalism have a cause. If we identify these causes, and remove them, the problems will also

cease. As such, Buddhist views of wealth seem to support and strengthen the criticisms of

capitalism made by Klein.

In the three sections to follow, I shift from an analysis of Buddhist philosophies to an

analysis of particular Buddhist ethical concepts relevant to a critique of capitalism. From a

Buddhist perspective, capitalism is a creation of humans with identifiable problems, but what are

these problems and can Buddhism contribute to finding solutions? Though many applicable

ethical principles may be found, I focus on those which I argue are most relevant in the context

of Klein’s arguments discussed in This Changes Everything. The three which will be discussed

in detail are dana [generosity], metta [loving-kindness or goodwill], and karuna [compassion].

Generosity and Giving [S. Dana; P. Dhani]: Giving and generosity are consistently

referenced by the Buddha and subsequent Buddhist teachers, and form an integral part of

Buddhist moral thought. As noted, greed is a prime contributor to dukkha. The Buddhist system

often presents vices in combination with virtues, said to muffle and eventually conquer their

negative counterparts. Dana, then, is taught as the prescribed antidote to greed and avarice. The

Dhana Sutta provides the following outline, describing dana as one of the ‘seven treasures’:

“And what is the treasure of generosity? There is the case of a disciple of the noble ones, his awareness cleansed of the stain of stinginess, living at home, freely generous,

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openhanded, delighting in being magnanimous, responsive to requests, delighting in the distribution of alms. This is called the treasure of generosity”

Similarly, the Hita Sutta proclaims that one of the primary goals of a monk is to be of benefit to

others; developing qualities in themselves partially to assist in encouraging these qualities in

others. Dana is also closely linked with selflessness, which itself is dependent on the philosophy

of anatman [no-self], as described in the Sermon at Rajagaha: “Those who know the nature of

self and understand how the senses act, find no room for selfishness, and therefore they will

attain peace unending.”

The fostering of dana is said to provide a host of benefits, as described in the Siha Sutta.

While many of the benefits of virtues found in Buddhist texts invoke the benefits of merit and

benefitting from favorable conditions in future lives, this sutta refers specifically to fruits of

dana which are visible in one’s present existence: (1) one is liked and respected by people at

large, (2) one is admired and emulated by others, (3) one develops a positive reputation, and (4)

one may approach others with confidence, and without shame. The sutta ends as follows:

“One who gives is dear.People at large admire him.He gains honor. His status grows.He enters an assembly unembarrassed.He is confident -- the man un-miserly.

Therefore the wise give gifts.Seeking bliss, they would subdue the stain of miserliness.Established in the three-fold heavenly world,they enjoy themselves longin fellowship with devas.”

Dana is described as having a dual benefit, to both the giver and recipient. I again

reference Anathapindika, held as an example of dana and charity within the Buddhist scriptures.

When Anathapindika donated the plot of land to form a monastery, the following account is

recorded in the Mara-Upasatha Sutta:

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“The Buddha saw into the heart of the supporter of orphans; and knowing that unselfish charity was the moving cause of his offer, in acceptance of the gift, the Blessed One said: The charitable man is loved by all; his friendship is prized highly; in death his heart is at rest and full of joy, for he suffers not from repentance; he receives the opening flower of his reward and the fruit that ripens from it. Hard it is to understand: By giving away our food, we get more strength, by bestowing clothing on others, we gain more beauty; by donating abodes of purity and truth, we acquire great treasures.”

The Bhojana Sutta uses the example of giving food, and describes five things which are given

[along with the physical food]: (1) life, (2) beauty, (3) happiness, (4) strength, and (5) quick-

wittedness. This concept draws on pratityasamutpada, considering the indirect results of

consuming food to sustain oneself. A well-fed person is healthy, happy, and in a prime state to

practice the Dharma. The Kindada Sutta provides a similar account, with minor deviations:

“A deva:A giver of what is a giver of strength?A giver of what, a giver of beauty?A giver of what, a giver of ease?A giver of what, a giver of vision?And who is a giver of everything?Being asked, please explain this to me.

The Buddha:A giver of food is a giver of strength.A giver of clothes, a giver of beauty.A giver of a vehicle, a giver of ease.A giver of a lamp, a giver of vision.And the one who gives a residence,is the one who is a giver of everything.But the one who teaches the Dhammais a giver of the Deathless.”

Essentially, one should have enough but not strive for too much, as the Enlightenment

Sutta says:

“Excessive desire only brings me to suffering.Birth and death, sorrow and weariness all are fromGreedy attachment to things of this world.But controlling desire cuts the root of unhappiness,Leaving the body and mind to relax.”

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In addition, the Kaladana Sutta refers to seasonal gifts, or gifts which are given at certain

occasions or under specific circumstances [i.e. birthday or Christmas presents]. These are gifts

(1) to a newcomer, (2) to one moving away, (3) to one who is sick, (4) given in times of famine,

and (5) setting the first fruits of harvest in front of the virtuous. Specifically relevant is the

mention of times of famine, since this seems to demand dana in the face of adverse

circumstances. In addition, the sutta further expands on the benefit to both the giver and the

recipient, specifically in terms of merit [karma]:

“In the proper season they give -those with discernment,responsive, free from stinginess.Having been given in proper season,with hearts inspired by the Noble Ones

- straightened, such -their offering bears an abundance.Those who rejoice in that giftor give assistance,they, too, have a share of the merit,and the offering isn't depleted by that.So, with an unhesitant mind,one should give where the gift bears great fruit.Merit is what establishesliving beings in the next life.”

The scriptures also provide numerous accounts of the consequences of lacking dana. The

Cakkavattisihananda Sutta provides an interesting example in the sense that it seems to promote

dana while simultaneously warning against excessive or indiscriminate dana. It details a

kingdom in which the king and his citizens failed to properly consider and care for the poor.

People begin stealing, and initially the king responds by giving those caught some property,

hoping this will remove their need to steal. More and more thieves come expecting property, so

the king realizes something else must be done. He begins using capital punishment for thieves,

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and the citizens respond by acquiring swords and using violence to steal. The sutta summarizes

the results as follows:

“Thus, from not giving of property to the needy, poverty became rife, from the growth of poverty, the taking of what was not given increased, from the increase of theft, the use of weapons increased, from the increased use of weapons, the taking of life increased – and from the increase in the taking of life, people’s life span decreased, their beauty decreased, and as a result of this decrease of life-span and beauty, the children of those whose life span had been eighty thousand years lived only forty thousand.”

In the context of capitalism, dana becomes an almost revolutionary concept. In the

American application of the system, citizens are consistently encouraged to work harder in order

to achieve more. If one is lacking significant resources under a capitalist philosophy, the

response tends to be to question the work ethic, intelligence, or other personal qualities of

individuals. Since the system seems to encourage holding individuals responsible for their

socioeconomic situation, generosity is difficult to justify. If person A is in poverty but ‘deserves’

their position, and person B is wealthy and ‘deserves’ their position, there is little reason for

person B to contribute to or support person A. This logic-driven system does not take into

account external circumstances which may contribute to a person’s status, as well as ignores

ethical concepts such as dana. I argue that capitalism has always inherently contained concepts

of generosity and social support, though these have been minimized and stifled in recent years as

a result of economic deregulation and growth-obsessed neoliberalism. As such, by

reemphasizing the importance and contributions of generosity to capitalism and societies as a

whole, dana can play a significant role in ‘reigning in’ capitalism and to bring the human-made

economy back under human and humane control.

‘Loving-Kindness’ and Goodwill [P. / S. Metta]:

“Gifts are great, the founding of viharas is meritorious, meditations and religious exercises pacify the heart, comprehension of the truth leads to Nirvana, but greater then all is loving kindness. As the light of the moon is sixteen times stronger than the light of

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all the stars, so loving-kindness is sixteen times more efficacious in liberating the heart than all other religious accomplishments taken together.” (Sermon at Rajagaha)

The second ethical concept which may contribute a wealth of insight to capitalism is that

of metta, commonly translated as ‘loving-kindness’ or goodwill. As with generosity, metta is

considered an antidote to one of the main defilements of human beings: that of ill-will. The

Lekha Sutta described the importance of generating metta in order to counter passions such as

anger and resentment, and responding to harsh words or treatment with congeniality and

courteousness. The Lokapala Sutta outlines the importance of conscience and concern, making

the claim that these two qualities “guard the world”.

One of the most striking exaltations of metta found in the texts is the ‘Hymn of Universal

Love’, from the Karaniya Mettá Sutta [with a similar passage found in the Kuddaka Pátha].

Though the proses touch on a wide range of ethical notions including compassion, moderation,

and love, the primary theme is of metta; a genuine longing for the happiness and well-being of

others, as shown in the following excerpt:

“Whatever living creatures there be,Without exception, weak or strong,Long, huge or middle-sized,Or short, minute or bulky,

Whether visible or invisible,And those living far or near,The born and those seeking birth,May all beings be happy!

Let none deceive or decryHis fellow anywhere;Let none wish others harmIn resentment or in hate.

The Kucchivikara-vatthu provides an interesting account of a monk suffering from

dysentery. The Buddha, on seeing him suffering in his own waste, asks why no one is caring for

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him. The monk answers that he did nothing for the monks, and that is why they don’t tend to

him. The Buddha then asks the monks why no one is caring for him, to which they respond that

he had done nothing for them. The Buddha, condemning the entire monastery responds, “Monks,

you have no mother, you have no father, who might tend to you. If you don't tend to one another,

who then will tend to you? Whoever would tend to me, should tend to the sick.” This passage not

only instruct good Buddhists to care for the sick, it also calls into question the monks reasoning.

The fact that the sick monk had done nothing for the others was not a sufficient excuse for

inaction. It then seems reasonable to extend this to the sick, and potentially any person in any

sort of need. Perhaps this line of Buddhist logic is relevant in the context of climate change, and

the Buddha would tell each nation [or community, or individual] to ‘be their own lamp’ and care

for those less fortunate regardless of whether those nations have ‘earned’ such support.

As with all of the virtues and vices outlined by the Buddha, he provides a clear list of the

benefits one can expect from generating metta. The Metta Sutta makes the following claim:

“Monks, eleven advantages are to be expected from the release (deliverance) of heart by familiarizing oneself with thoughts of loving-kindness (metta), by the cultivation of loving-kindness, by constantly increasing these thoughts, by regarding loving-kindness as a vehicle (of expression), and also as something to be treasured. . .1. He sleeps in comfort. 2. He awakes in comfort. 3. He sees no evil dreams. 4. He is dear to human beings. 5. He is dear to non-human beings. 6. Devas (gods) protect him. 7. Fire, poison, and sword cannot touch him. 8. His mind can concentrate quickly. 9. His countenance is serene. 10. He dies without being confused in mind. 11. If he fails to attain Arahantship (the highest sanctity here and now, he will be reborn in the brahma-world.”

Not only does this signify the benefits of generating loving-kindness, but it also outlines the

importance metta holds within the Buddhist ethical system. Generating metta is only part of the

Buddha’s instructions: one is also expected to express it in the outside world, respect it as a

principle, and so on. In a similar, though more cryptic fashion, the Sankhitta Sutta says:

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“Then you should train yourself thus: 'Good-will, as my release of awareness, will be developed, pursued, given a means of transport, given a grounding, steadied, consolidated, and well-undertaken.' That's how you should train yourself. When you have developed this concentration in this way, you should develop this concentration with directed thought and evaluation, you should develop it with no directed thought and a modicum of evaluation, you should develop it with no directed thought and no evaluation, you should develop it accompanied by rapture... not accompanied by rapture... endowed with a sense of enjoyment; you should develop it endowed with equanimity”

This passage seems to be instructing practitioners to generate metta in a wide range of contexts.

As with other concepts including kindness and generosity, humans often fall into habits of

preferential treatment. It is much easier for one to generate metta for friends than for adversaries.

Likewise, the bond between a mother and her child is considered highly preferential. According

to the Buddha however, ethical concepts such as metta must be applied uniformly and without

preference or bias, since the existence of a preference indicates an attachment to one thing over

another. As such, we must generate metta in a wide range of circumstances, and aimed at a large

number of people including friends, strangers, and adversaries [though removing the concept of

adversary is also an important and enviable Buddhist endeavor].

Metta can provide a valuable ethical contribution to the modern capitalist system,

primarily by expanding the focus of concern and beyond one’s personal sphere. The profit

motive, which has a tendency to keep one’s focus and concern on individual benefit and well-

being, is likely responsible for at least some of the selfishness, greed, and apathy which has

accompanied many of the applications of capitalism around the world including the U.S. From a

Buddhist perspective, individuals are inherently connected with, and at least partially dependent

on their surroundings, including their socioeconomic environment. Under a capitalist system,

wealth is often used as a blanket to shelter or separate one from external influence, especially

those perceived as negative [i.e. hunger, stress, etc.]. Buddhism, through the concept of metta

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and others, tells us that such a separation is inaccurate and leads to dukkha. Instead, we are better

off acknowledging these connections, and seeking to improve the quality of the people and world

around us, a concept that will be revisited under the section on social engagement.

Compassion [S./P. Karuna]: Karuna, or compassion, is another ethical principle which

forms a foundational core of Buddhist morality. Karuna is deeply entrenched with ethical virtues

including dana, metta, and others, and is connected with philosophical concepts such as

pratityasamutpada, anitya, and bodhicitta [Buddha-mind]. In the Buddhist perspective, the

source of compassion stems from self-concern, and since pratityasamutpada connects all

individuals and beings, the fact that all beings have concern for themselves means that we should

necessarily have concern for all beings, as stated in the Raja Sutta:

“Searching all directionswith one's awareness,one finds no one dearerthan oneself.In the same way, othersare fiercely dear to themselves.So one should not hurt othersif one loves oneself.”

It is interesting to note the similarity between the last two lines of this passage and the ‘golden

rule’ of doing unto others as you would have them do unto you. Following the Buddhist

worldview, the main outcome of karuna is the reduction and/or cessation of dukkha. The

Sabbasava Sutta gives an explanation of how karuna prevents the sowing of negative karma, and

thus prevents many negative fruits from coming into being. Outside of Buddhist cosmology, this

still holds true. Being compassionate tends to reduce many stresses in life by improving the

quality of our interactions with the world and others [though it may certainly increase other

stresses, such as concern for money or spreading oneself too thin]. The Buddha seems to view

karuna and concern from a practical perspective, arguing that worldly and external concern is an

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essential part of being mindful and aware of one’s actions. As the Vitthara Sutta states, concern

is one of the five strengths: “And what is the strength of concern? There is the case where a

disciple of the noble ones feels concern for the suffering that results from bodily misconduct,

verbal misconduct, mental misconduct. This is called the strength of concern.”

Karuna is also intimately tied with Buddhist concepts of social engagement, as will be

visited in the next section on Buddhism and society, and ties in personalized spiritual

development with outward concern and care. A prime example of this is found in the Jinna Sutta,

where the monk Kassapa describes how concern for others is integral to his motivation to

commit to monastic training. Wholly developed karuna resembles the care a mother has for her

child, as the Karaniya Mettá Sutta beautifully states:

“As a mother would risk her lifeto protect her child, her only child,even so should one cultivate a limitless heartwith regard to all beings.”

The Lokapala Sutta names conscience and concern as two bright qualities which guard the

world, and the Sankhitta Sutta names karuna as an essential component of monastic training.

Compassion, being intimately connected with many other virtues, is also important in the

realm of forgiveness and remorse. One of the most striking parables found in the suttas is The

Penitent Thief, which describes a murderer called Angulimala [‘finger-garland’], who received

his name from a necklace he wore made of the fingers of his victims. The Buddha, staying near

the area where Angulimala had been active, was warned to stay away from the high road. The

Buddha insisted on travelling that particular way, and encounters Angulimala. The murderer,

upon seeing the Buddha, begins chasing him but no matter how fast he runs is unable to catch up.

Exhausted, he shouts at the Buddha to stop walking. The Buddha replies, “I have stopped,

Angulimala; it is you who should stop.” This confuses Angulimala, and the Buddha explains that

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he has renounced attachment, delusion, and ignorance and thus is stopped, while Angulimala is

still a slave to sensual desire, fear, and so on. Upon hearing this, Angulimala gives up his

murderous ways, and is ordained by the Buddha. This story provides an extreme example of evil

and negative actions [killing is considered an utmost offense in Buddhism], yet the Buddha

shows karuna and wisdom, which seems to shock Angulimala out of his delusions.

While many texts refer to the significance of karuna, the largest and most developed is

likely the Jataka [birth] Tales. These stories, composing some of the oldest texts in the Buddhist

canon, tell tales of the Buddha’s past lives leading up to his birth as Shakyamuni Buddha

[Siddhartha Gotama; the life in which he discovered and taught the Dharma]. These stories

describe the Buddha as a prince, a fisherman, a rabbit, a tigress, and countless other forms, all

demonstrating the Buddha’s highly developed virtues such as karuna, self-sacrifice, dana, metta,

and so on. The Mahakapi Jataka, ‘The Great Monkey King’, tells of the Buddha living as a king

of a tribe of monkeys. They guarded and enjoyed the fruits of an especially succulent mango

tree, and one day a fruit fell into the river and washed downstream. A human king living

downstream found the fruit, and, amazed by its flavor, was determined to find the tree which

grew it. He and a group of archers travel upstream and find the group of monkeys. The archers

block their means of escape, and on realizing this, the monkeys rush to their leader and ask him

what may be done. The monkey king, filled with great compassion, used his body to form a

bridge to the other side of the river. The monkeys cross, but their leader is left behind. The

human king witnessed the act of self-sacrifice and spares the monkey kings life and asks him

why he acted in such a way. The monkey king responds:

“Great king, I guard the herd. I am their lord and chief. When they were filled with fear of your archers, I leapt a great distance to save them. After I had tied a vine around my waist, I returned to this mango tree. My strength was almost gone, but I managed to hold the branch so that my monkeys could pass over my back and reach safety. Because I

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could save them, I have no fear of death. Like a righteous king, I could guarantee the happiness of those over whom I used to reign. Sire, understand this truth! If you wish to be a righteous ruler, the happiness of your kingdom, your cities, and your people must be dear to you. It must be dearer than life itself.” (Kawasaki and Kawasaki 1995)

As this example makes clear, the Jatakas provide idealistic examples of noble and virtuous

behavior, providing a template for the moral development of Buddhists.

The Jataka Tales and the Buddhist emphasis on karuna lead into the conception of the

Bodhisattva Path. A bodhisattva [‘enlightened being’] is one who commits themselves to

intensive personal training and adherence to moral principles, while simultaneously vowing to

forego enlightenment until all beings have been ‘brought to the other shore’. In Mahayana

Buddhism, attaining bodhisattva-hood is viewed as the ultimate goal, as demonstrated in the

Mahayana Sutra of the Three Superior Heaps. This philosophy draws heavily on other concepts,

notably pratityasamutpada, by utilizing the following argument: (a) as a conscious being, I

suffer; (b) others are conscious beings, and also suffer; (c) since self and separation are a

delusion, there is no significant difference between my own dukkha and the dukkha of others. As

such a bodhisattva holds the view that as long as any dukkha exists and any beings remain

trapped in delusion, personal enlightenment or salvation has no meaning, again pointing to the

fascinating complexity of Mahayana Buddhist soteriology. The bodhisattva path is said to be

organized into a series of ten stages, provided in detail in the Lankavatara Sutta, which

correspond to the developing wisdom and clarity of the adherent.

By adhering to the bodhisattva ideal, practitioners are held to a high level of ethical

behavior, as expanded on in the Scripture of the Lotus Blossom of the Fine Dharma (Hurvitz

1976). The Brahma Net Sutta outlines the 10 major bodhisattva precepts as follows: (1) abstain

from killing, (2) abstain from stealing, (3) abstain from sexual misconduct [for lay-people this

means wise and responsible behavior; monks vow to be celibate], (4) abstain from lying and

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false speech, (5) abstain from selling alcohol [and other intoxicants], (6) abstain from spreading

the faults of others [instead assisting them through compassion and discretion], (7) abstain from

praising oneself and disparaging others, (8) abstain from stinginess and abuse, (9) abstain from

anger and resentment, and (10) abstain from slandering the ‘Triple Jewel’ [the Buddha, the

Dharma, and the Sangha (monastic community)]. The Vagrakkhedika [Diamond Sutra] provides

the longest and most detailed investigation into the bodhisattva path, and contains instructions

and teachings on a wide range of philosophical and ethical concepts relating to this ideal.

Karuna, as with other concepts found in Buddhism, assumes and mandates an active

stance. One who has empathy for one who is suffering but fails to act is not demonstrating

karuna. Also wrapped up in this concept is the notion of facing the problems of the world head

on. Rather than hide oneself away from dukkha, karuna compels us to acknowledge, understand,

and seek to reduce the dukkha we encounter in the world. Again, this principle seems to assume

and demand a certain level of social engagement. In regards to capitalism and the arguments of

Klein, compassion serves a similar function as dana and metta; that is, serving to restrain and

moderate capitalism and bring this economic system back under human control. Karuna

encourages us to be open and aware of the misfortunes of others, and compels us to do what we

can to reduce their struggles. In an ideal system, other people are showing karuna for you while

you show karuna for others. As such, a compassionate capitalism would entail acknowledging

financial crises, injustice, and so on [‘dukkha’ capital] and instituting regulations, alteration of

methods, and other practices in order to reduce the presence of dukkha.

Buddhism and Society: Engagement or Exclusion?

“Monks, be islands unto yourselves, be a refuge unto yourselves with no other refuge. And how does a monk dwell on an island unto himself, as a refuge unto himself with no other refuge, with Dhamma as his island, with the Dhamma as his refuge, with no other

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refuge? Here, a monk abides. . . clearly aware and mindful, having put aside hankering and fretting for the world.” (Cakkavattisihananda Sutta)

As discussed in previous sections, the question of what level of worldly engagement is

allowed or recommended in Buddhism has been a subject of much debate. Some claim

Buddhism renounces worldly participation, while others argue that Buddhism mandates it. The

above quotation from the Cakkavattisihananda Sutta seems to support the prior claim, as do

passages such as that found in the Khaggavisana Sutta, advocating us to “wander alone like a

rhinoceros”:

“One whose mindis enmeshed in sympathyfor friends and companions,neglects the true goal.Seeing this danger in intimacy,wander alonelike a rhinoceros.”

It is from passages such as these that Buddhism is often associated with solitude and

renouncement of worldly concerns, and for good reason. One could certainly interpret this as

contradicting the ideal of karuna. But how accurate are these associations, and are they indeed

founded in scriptural and doctrinal evidence? After all, many texts [such as the Kucchivikara-

vatthu] instruct Buddhists to care for the sick, be generous to the poor, and so on. Is this a

contradiction, or a failure to fully understand the nature of engagement in the proper context?

The Sangha, or community of Buddhists, is an essential part of Buddhist doctrine and

philosophy, which also signifies that some form of engagement is expected. As the Mara

Upasatha Sutta states, one of the primary functions of the Sangha is to support and encourage

spiritual and moral development as well as propagate Buddhist teachings:

“A man that stands alone, having decided to obey the truth, may be weak and slip back into his old ways. Therefore, stand ye together, assist one another, and strengthen one anothers efforts. Be like unto brothers; one in love, one in holiness, and one in your zeal

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for the truth. Spread the truth and preach the doctrine in all quarters of the world, so that in the end all living creatures will be citizens of the kingdom of righteousness. This is the holy brotherhood; this is the church, the congregation of the saints of the Buddha; this is the Sangha that establishes a communion among all those who have taken their refuge in the Buddha.”

This passage sets the defining purpose and context of the Sangha and provides a guiding

mandate as to how the Sangha is to conduct itself. In the Sangaha Sutta, the Buddha outlines the

benefits of fellowship, and identifies four grounds for the development of social bonds: (1)

Dana, (2) kind words, (3) beneficial help, and (4) consistency. The Thana Sutta teaches that

living and interacting with others is a prime way to develop oneself:

“It is through living together that a person's virtue may be known, and then only after a long period, not a short period; by one who is attentive, not by one who is inattentive; by one who is discerning, not by one who is not discerning.”

The extreme importance of the Buddhist community is reflected in the fact that it is considered,

along with the Buddha and the Dharma, to be one of the ‘three refuges’ or ‘jewels’ (S. Triratna).

In addition, The Sutra of the Past Vows of Earth Store Bodhisattva (Ching 1974) teaches that

offenses against the Sangha are viewed as more harmful and negative than offense against

others.

To provide a foundational context, the Niramisa Sutta provides an account of the Buddha

organizing joy, happiness, equanimity, and freedom into the worldly, unworldly, and “greater

unworldly”, suggesting a philosophical distinction between these three levels. The Rahogata

Sutta, describing that all phenomena lead to dukkha, gives the impression that Buddhists hold a

negative or pessimistic understanding of the world. While this may be true, it is more accurate to

state that Buddhism holds a realistic view of the world. It seeks to accept what is unavoidable in

the world: namely dukkha, anitya, and so on, and find happiness working in this context. As

such, if something is found to disagree with the workings of reality, a good Buddhist would

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abandon that belief or practice. The mandate to be islands unto ourselves seems to be hinged on

the avoidance of “hankering and fretting for the world” (Cakkavattisihananda Sutta). In my

opinion, it seems reasonable that the Buddha is referring to allowing the outside world to hamper

our own development. Engaging with the world, it seems, is assumed and even expected by the

Buddha since human beings are inevitably connected with their environments

[pratityasamutpada]. As the Hita Sutta notes, by developing ourselves, we contribute to the

betterment of our surroundings. The Saddha Sutta states, in a similar fashion, that “Just as a large

banyan tree, on level ground where four roads meet, is a haven for the birds all around, even so a

lay person of conviction is a haven for many people: monks, nuns, male lay followers, and

female lay followers.” In the Jinna Sutta, we see that concern for the health and well-being of

others and the external world is a prime motivator for one to enter the stream of self-

development. This sutta even mentions concern for future generations specifically, making it

especially relevant to issues of climate change and capitalism, whose effects will reverberate

well into the future. While concern for the world is important and inspiring, the Maha Sunnata

Sutta warns against taking delight in company and society:

“Indeed, Ánanda, it is not possible that a Bhikkhu who delights in company, takes delight in company, and devotes himself to delight in company, who delights in society, takes delight in society, and rejoices in society, will ever enter upon and abide in either the deliverance of mind that is temporary and delectable or in the deliverance of mind that is perpetual and unshakeable.”

And the Piyajaatika Sutta warns against attachment to loved ones, family members, and so on.

The Raja Sutta, however, teaches that being concerned for ourselves inevitably means we must

be concerned for others. Again it seems that the Buddhist way lies in the middle, by engaging

with society, but not too much or too deeply. The key is to engage with the world in a way that

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allows us to grow; to engage with a virtuous disposition conducive to the spiritual development

of ourselves and others.

Throughout the Buddhist scriptures, there is reference to the importance of self-control

and wisdom in decision making. As demonstrated by Buddhist conceptions of wealth, most

things are considered inherently neutral. Humans may make of them what we choose, though

some things may be harder to control and use for positive ends. As such, if a general rule on

social engagement may be found, it is likely found in the Akhama Sutta, where the Buddha

instructs monks that, in order to properly interact with the world around them, must remain

resilient to (1) sights, (2) sounds, (3) smells, (4) flavors, and (5) tactile sensations. The

Samaññaphala Sutta similarly guides monks to guard themselves against grasping in regards to

the external world. The Makkata Sutta provides an apt description of the properly-engaging

monk:

“There is the case where a monk remains focused on the body in and of itself - ardent, alert, and mindful - putting aside greed and distress with reference to the world. He remains focused on feelings in and of themselves... mind in and of itself... mental qualities in and of themselves -- ardent, alert, and mindful -- putting aside greed and distress with reference to the world.”

The Sakunagghi Sutta seconds this goal. Additionally, the Karaniya Metta Sutta instructs

devotees to “Cultivate an all-embracing mind of love for all throughout the universe.”

The Katuviya Sutta tells the story of a monk who becomes enamored with and takes

delight in “what is empty.”, and is warned by the Buddha to guard himself at all times against

defilement, or attachment to worldly things. In the Vasala Sutta, the Buddha outlines what

classifies a person as an ‘outcast’, or one who should not be associated with by a person on the

Buddhist path. The list includes murderers, liars, thieves, the prideful, and so on, and emphasizes

that those considered outcasts are such as a result of their own negative actions and “not by

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birth.” Essentially, the Buddha’s advice is the same that he gives regarding interactions and

experiences with other phenomena: use restraint and wisdom, be wary of attachment and

clinging, and avoid those who slow progress and development.

The last point to be mentioned regarding Buddhist involvement with the outside world

combines many of the principles discusses previously [as well as others] to argue that one of the

fundamental roles of properly engaged Buddhists is to create a social and physical environment

which is conducive and beneficial toward the Dharma. The Buddha advises monks to seek out

environments which promote their spiritual practice, often recommending forests and other quiet

and secluded areas as mentioned in the sutta known as A Little Spell of Emptiness:

“In the same way, Ánanda, as this Palace of Migara’s Mother is empty of the disturbances of the city: empty of elephants, cows, horses, asses; empty of dealings with gold and silver; empty of groups of men and women, and there is only this that remains to disturb the emptiness: that is, the vibration emanating off the beggars here; in the same way, a beggar, paying no attention to the disturbances of the city, paying no attention to human beings, pays attention only to the vibration emanating off the forest.”

As noted, the primary concern of the Buddha involved the reduction and elimination of dukkha,

and this remains the case in regards to worldly engagement. In the Vimalakirti Nirdesa Sutta, the

Buddha describes what are known as a ‘Buddha-field’:

“A bodhisattva embraces a Buddha-field to the same extent that he causes the development of living beings. He embraces a Buddha-field to the same extent that living beings become disciplined. He embraces a Buddha-field to the same extent that, through entrance into a Buddha-field, living beings are introduced to the Buddha-gnosis. He embraces a Buddha-field to the same extent that, through entrance into that Buddha-field, living beings increase their holy spiritual faculties.”

A Buddha-field, then, can be visualized as a sphere of influence around a bodhisattva which aids

and supports surrounding beings in their pursuit of the Dharma. Building on this point, it thus

becomes the goal of Buddhists to remove as many obstacles to the Dharma as possible.

Obstacles specifically referred to by the Buddha include poverty, ill-health, malnutrition, hunger,

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loneliness, ill-will, greed, and so on. One who is forced to work long hours to support

themselves, or is occupied with finding enough food to survive is hardly in a position to

prioritize Dharma practice. We are thus advised to organize a society in which these obstacles

are lessened and minimized as much as possible to support the development of the Dharma.

In summary, there is a strong doctrinal case for social engagement and other forms of

participation in the external world. While some passages seem to contradict this, it seems likely

that this stems from a failure to consider these suttas in the full context of Buddhism. From the

perspective of pratityasamutpada and other philosophical concepts, as well as ethical principles

such as karuna, there is a consistent underlying assumption of engagement found throughout the

teachings. It is likely that the Buddha considered social involvement as intimately and

inextricably connected with human existence, and thus failed to see the relevance of addressing

this concept specifically. Rather, much of his discourse on the subject seeks to guide one in how

best to undertake this engagement [i.e. using moderation, dana, etc.]. From this perspective, it

seems the texts both assume and expect participation in economics, politics, social groups, and

so on. A good Buddhist is expected to interact in a moral, wise, and considerate way. Klein

seems to make a similarly case, arguing that the solutions we need will require interest and

participation from a wide range of sources, particularly the involvement of individuals and social

movements. Buddhism provides a context and outline for how one should go about involving

and organizing oneself within society. It not only supports social movements, but it also provides

an ethical and philosophical justification for enacting and participating in such activities.

NATURALIZING CAPITALISM:

Paul Hawken and Amory and L. Hunter Lovins, in their 2000 book Natural Capitalism,

make a significant critique of capitalism, taking a different though similar approach from that

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found in This Changes Everything. Rather than question the entire system, Hawken, Lovins and

Lovins argue that the underlying premises of capitalism are sound, but that intensive

deregulation and an increasing separation from physical reality has led to an erosion of the

capitalist framework. The authors seek to identify a series of reforms and institutional changes

which they argue can contribute to constraining capitalism in a way that is sustainable, humane,

and beneficial to the most people. As part of their framework, capitalism is understood as an

economic system which has brought immense prosperity and improvements in quality of life to

millions of people around the world. It is highly efficient, capable of strategic organization, and

is effective at motivating determination and effort. As such, the ideas in Natural Capitalism seek

to avoid ‘throwing the baby out with the bath water’ and instead institute the following four

changes in order to bring capitalism to a more sustainable and contributive level:

1. “Radically increase the productivity of natural resources.”2. “Shift to biologically inspired production models and materials.”3. “Move to a ‘serve-and-flow’ business model.”4. “Reinvest in natural capital.”(Hawken, Lovins and Lovins 2000:10-11)

These reforms will be examined from a Buddhist perspective in the following sections, while

incorporating themes and critiques found in Klein’s arguments.

“Radically increase the productivity of natural resources”: This goal is a plan to ‘buy

time’ for the later and much larger changes proposed by the authors. By changing the way we

design and create products, extract resources, and so on, industries can stretch the use of

remaining resources further. The authors focus primarily on increasing efficiency and tend to

leave out discussion regarding the resources themselves. For example, one of the ways to stretch

the use of fossil fuels is to invest in renewable technologies which reduce the need for such

resources. However, under the proposition given by the authors, fossil fuel industries have no

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such incentive. Rather, the focus is placed on the technologies which consume fossil fuels

[motors, petroleum-based products, etc.], removing attention from exploring alternatives to the

resource itself. This is slightly offset by the discussion of resource substitution, but this ‘solution’

brings its own problems, notably issues resulting from the scarcity and extraction of the ‘new’

resource. The goal here is rather narrow, in the sense that it seeks to preserve the resources we

have long enough to transition into a healthier and more sustainable system. That being said, the

underlying motive of allowing a stable transition is understandable and well-argued by the

authors.

In that sense, a Buddhist framework supports the idea to an extent. For starters, the idea

of efficiency and intelligent use of resources is a consistent principle found in Buddhism, and as

such the Buddha would likely argue that this premise should have been ingrained in the capitalist

system from the start [a position likely shared by Hawken, Lovins and Lovins]. Buddhism also

supports the idea of identifying problem areas within capitalism, and systematically addressing

and solving these issues; a process of reform similar to the moral and spiritual transformation of

individuals. The concept of anitya may also support this suggestion, acknowledging that all

things are subject to change and that the transitory nature of phenomena should be considered

when organizing [or reorganizing] a socioeconomic system. However, the Buddha would likely

emphasize pratityasamutpada and the connection between economies and the physical resources

which fuel them. According to the Buddha, it is reasonable to suggest that substitution would be

seen as ignoring the root of the problem [in this case inefficient and unsustainable methods of

resource extraction and use].

“Shift to biologically inspired production models and materials”: Here the authors

begin to touch on larger ideas. The underlying goal of this idea is to reform capitalism to

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replicate, as closely as possible, natural [and thus self-sustaining and efficient] systems. A prime

example the authors suggest is to remove the concept of waste. In natural systems, nothing is

wasted. What is excreted by one organism is consumed by another. Human systems, at least

those presently in use, have here been unsuccessful. On the contrary, the current capitalist system

tends to encourage externalizing waste, often placing it back into the environment or transporting

it to an area more lenient in terms of waste disposal. The profit motive, intentionally or

unintentionally discourages the considerate, responsible, and safe care of waste products, as this

often increases operating costs.

The Natural Capitalism alternative calls for the internalization of waste, utilizing the

Japanese term “muda” [waste, futility, purposelessness] and the system of waste-elimination

outlined by Japanese thinker Taiichi Ohno (Hawken, Lovins and Lovins 2000:125). If a process

produces waste, this should be seen as a potential input for another process. Ohno, famous for

improving the efficiency of Toyota assembly lines, assessed processes at every level to identify

unnecessary, redundant, or inefficient process [such as inspecting a product for quality, when it

should have this quality in the first place] (Hawken, Lovins and Lovins 2000). Cadmium

released from a factory can be sold to another company who cleans and extracts this cadmium

[removing the waste] and resulting in a usable resource which can be sold and reused. This

process already exists in the agricultural sector, where animal waste is transformed into fertilizer

and other materials which can then be used in other spheres. This process creates jobs, protects

the environment, and ensures industry responsibility for the effects of products and actions.

A Buddhist framework can provide a significant body of support to this concept. First

and foremost, the idea of emulating the natural is well-supported within Buddhism. We are

instructed to live our lives and acquire wealth harmlessly as a honeybee does (Sigalovada Sutta).

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In addition to this, pratityasamutpada rejects the practice of externalization of both negative and

positive outputs. Everything is connected, so from a Buddhist standpoint, waste never disappears

and we are never completely separated from it [even if there is an ocean between us and it].

Lastly, the consistent use of natural metaphors and similes found in Buddhist suttas suggests that

the natural world is a valuable source of examples, guidelines, and lessons to be learned, and

thus provides an ideal system for us to emulate economically. The Japanese concept of muda has

similar concepts in Buddhism, predominately expressed through the Buddha’s rejection of

wastefulness. Good Buddhists are not only encouraged to be moderate and efficient, but are also

expected to avoid unnecessary waste or destruction.

“Move to a ‘service-and-flow’ business model”: This goal involves reformulating the

way in which economic systems view and understand goods and services. The authors explain

that in this system, value is not derived from the sale of goods. Rather, value is expressed in

terms of the sustained delivery of a service. For example, instead of purchasing a light bulb for

one’s home, this product is sold in terms of the service it provides: illumination. While this

fundamentally alters the zeitgeist of modern capitalism, it may potentially pave the way for a

well-developed system which is better able to value abstract goods and services which prove

difficult to value in monetary terms. In the present system, a timber company values a forest

based on the estimated profits generated by harvesting and selling the lumber [forest as a

product]. Instead, under the authors system, the forest would be viewed as a provider of habitat,

biodiversity, water filtration and storage, carbon storage, recreational value, and so on, which

could then be compared against the value of the forest in another form [i.e. harvested timber].

Again, the Buddhist concept of pratityasamutpada provides a wealth of support to the

above suggestion. This philosophy encourages us to consider all connections which may be

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found within a given resource. A river, from a Buddhist standpoint, is a source of drinking water,

a sustainer and home for flora and fauna, a means of transportation, and much more. A good

Buddhist is instructed to use mindfulness, wisdom, and morality to consider the potential

ramifications of one’s actions: ‘how might damming this river affect organisms, people in the

area, the area where the river meets the sea, or the quality of food grown in the area?’

Essentially, Buddhism emphasizes accepting the interrelations between phenomena, and acting

accordingly. In a less direct but similarly important fashion, this suggestion to emphasize

services encourages one to think beyond the physical. Buddhism gives value to a wide range of

intangible concepts, virtues, and so on, and thus is in a prime position to analyze psychological,

social, emotional, and other effects which may result from economic practices, capitalist or

otherwise. For example, not harvesting a forest for timber provides recreation and habitat under

current capitalist models [though the valuing of these services may be lacking]. A Buddhist

considers these benefits, as well as other benefits to individuals and society: solitude, peace,

reflection, simplicity, and more, all of which are undervalued or unacknowledged under a

traditional capitalist system.

“Reinvest in natural capital”: This fact considers the premises of the second

contradiction of capitalism, specifically the potential for capitalism to destroy its own

foundations. Since all industries ultimately depend on many direct and indirect natural inputs

such as healthy workers, clean air and water, continuing supply of resources, and so on, the

authors argue that any sustainable economy must acknowledge this dependence and seek to

protect and preserve this natural foundation. By emphasizing the support of natural systems, and

profiting from them in a way that allows preservation and continuation, capitalism may create a

much more stable environment in which to operate. Many of the changes necessary for such a

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transition will require new or alterred inputs of capital and labor, providing and/or sustaining

both investment and employment opportunities.

Here we again find a wealth of Buddhist support, though some opposing arguments may

be found. Again, pratityasamutpada must be mentioned, as this emphasizes the connections

between natural and human systems. Morality and karuna also provide strong support for

protecting natural systems, since all beings are considered deserving of respect, compassion, and

humane treatment. It may be argued from a Buddhist framework that the act of destroying part of

an ecosystem to access a resource is immoral, in the sense that it compromises an established

natural system and threatens the well-being of the numerous organisms which compose it. A

bodhisattva, vowed to protect and act with consideration toward all beings, would likely be

opposed to such actions. On the other hand, the concept of anitya may seem to conflict with this

solution, since it may be interpreted as trying to create a ‘permanent’ capitalism. Thus a Buddhist

could argue that capitalism will come to an end eventually, and to strive against this is futile.

However, I argue this is flawed, assuming that capitalism is existing in the same form. After

going through a series of fundamental changes such as the four given in Natural Capitalism,

capitalism would not be violating the principle of anitya since it would be changing and

transforming, constantly adapting to new inputs and situations.

CONCLUSIONS:

All in all, it seems entirely reasonable and well supported by scriptural evidence that

Buddhism may provide strong philosophical and ethical support for a capitalist reform,

specifically those suggested and supported by Naomi Klein in This Changes Everything and

Hawken, Lovins and Lovins in Natural Capitalism. While some components of the Buddhist

worldview may seem to oppose or contradict such claims, I argue that the majority of these result

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from a misinterpretation of Buddhist philosophy or a failure to consider the teachings and

messages within their proper context, and as such do not remove the significance or calling

provided by those texts and doctrines which encourage social involvement.

Providing the largest and most stable lines of reasoning are the Buddhist philosophical

concepts surrounding anitya [impermanence], pratityasamutpada [dependent origination], and

wealth, as well as the ethical concepts if dana [generosity], metta [loving-kindness], and karuna

[compassion]. Though as discussed in many of these sections, all of these concepts are

interrelated and all are expected to be undertaken with prajñā [wisdom], sila [morality],

mindfulness, and so on. In a similarly important and connected fashion, Buddhism assumes and

expects a certain level of social engagement. In the tradition of the middle way, one is

encouraged to pursue both internal and external development; individual development and

communal development. Again, this fact strongly supports and furthers the arguments made by

Klein as well as Hawken, Lovins and Lovins.

Buddhism also seems to largely support the reforms and suggestions provided in Natural

Capitalism, especially in terms of emphasizing human control over the capitalist system and the

importance of bringing humanity, morality, and reason back into the modern economy. A

Buddhist outlook removes the fantastical and mystical forces from the market, and pushes us to

acknowledge and accept responsibility for any ramifications such a market may cause. This push

for responsibility, combined with a deep philosophical and ethical analysis of capitalism,

provides a logical and understandable approach to begin moving global socioeconomic systems

toward sustainability, humanity, and widespread equitable development.

In terms of large-scale social movements, there is little direct mention of such activities

found within the suttas. That being said, there is a large body of evidence which indirectly relate

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to such engagement, and thus many have extrapolated doctrinal justification and support.

Buddhist-inspired social movements have become commonplace in many areas of the world, and

have become involved in a wide range of spheres including sustainable development,

environmental protection, health and medicine, politics, family wellness, welfare projects, and

more. The Sarvodaya Sramana movement, founded in Sri Lanka and now found in countries

around the world, provides an example of the wide variety of social areas in which Buddhism

has found a hold [though they include influences from the ideas of Gandhi, Quakerism, and

others (Harvey 2000)]. The movement has many goals, but Peter Harvey writes that, “The key

aim of the movement is to break down barriers between people – whether based on caste,

political party, wealth, age, gender, race, or religion – by encouraging people to work side by

side to improve local facilities.” (Harvey 2000:276). In similar fashion, Buddhist groups have

emerged all over the world with socially intensive methods of interaction, reform, and grassroots

organization.

Though Buddhism by no means provides all the solutions to the current socioeconomic

crisis, it certainly provides a large body of significant insights into the nature of the problem and

what can and should be done about it. With a relatively open philosophical and ethical system

that consistently focuses on change and how to respond to it, the pursuit of happiness and

reduction of stress and suffering, and placing extreme value on ethical concepts [generosity,

moderation, compassion, etc.], Buddhism has already, and will likely continue to be an

influential and shaping force in the realm of holistic development [both personal and social],

environmental relations, and the sustainability of natural systems well into the future.

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Paccaya Sutta. 2016. Requisite Conditions. Translated from the Pali by Thanissaro Bhikkhu. Retrieved online 5/31/16 from http://buddhasutra.com/files/paccaya_sutta.htm

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Parabhava Sutta. 2016. Downfall. Translated from the Pali by Narada Thera. Retrieved online 6/1/16 from http://buddhasutra.com/files/parabhava_sutta.htm

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Phassa Sutta. 2016. Contact. Translated from the Pali by Thanissaro Bhikkhu. Retrieved online 6/1/16 from http://buddhasutra.com/files/phassa_sutta.htm

Pilahaka Sutta. 2016. The Dung Beetle. Translated from the Pali by Thanissaro Bhikkhu. Retrieved online 5/31/16 from http://buddhasutra.com/files/pilahaka_sutta.htm

Piyajaatika Sutta. 2016. Loved Ones. Retrieved online 6/2/16 from http://buddhasutra.com/files/piyajaatika_sutta.htm

Rahogata Sutta. 2016. Secluded. Translated from the Pali by Nyanaponika Thera. Retrieved online 5/31/16 from http://buddhasutra.com/files/rahogata_sutta.htm

Raja Sutta. 2016. The King. Translated from the Pali by Thanissaro Bhikkhu. Retrieved online 6/3/16 from http://buddhasutra.com/files/raja_sutta.htm

Rupa Sutta. 2016. Forms. Translated from the Pali by Thanissaro Bhikkhu. Retrieved online 6/1/16 from http://buddhasutra.com/files/rupa_sutta.htm

Sabbasava Sutta. 2016. All the Fermentations. Translated from the Pali by Thanissaro Bhikkhu. Retrieved online 6/3/16 from http://buddhasutra.com/files/sabbasava_sutta.htm

Saddha Sutta. 2016. Conviction. Translated from the Pali by Thanissaro Bhikkhu. Retrieved online 6/3/16 from http://buddhasutra.com/files/saddha_sutta.htm

Sakunagghi Sutta. 2016. The Hawk. Translated from the Pali by Thanissaro Bhikkhu. Retrieved online 6/3/16 from http://buddhasutra.com/files/sakunagghi_sutta.htm

Salla Sutta. 2016. The Arrow. Translated from the Pali by John D. Ireland. Retrieved online 6/3/16 from http://buddhasutra.com/files/salla_sutta.htm

Sallatha Sutta. 2016. The Arrow. Translated from the Pali by Thanissaro Bhikkhu. Retrieved online 6/1/16 from http://buddhasutra.com/files/sallatha_sutta.htm

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Samádhi Suttas. 2016. The Samádhi Suttas (One Through Five). Translated from the Pali by Nyanaponika Thera. Retrieved online 6/1/16 from http://buddhasutra.com/files/samadhi_suttas.htm

Sammaditthi Sutta. 2016. The Discourse on Right View. Retrieved online 6/3/16 from http://buddhasutra.com/files/sammaditthi_sutta.htm

Samaññaphala Sutta. 2016. The Fruits of the Contemplative Life. Translated from the Pali by Thanissaro Bhikhu. Retrieved online 6/1/16 from http://buddhasutra.com/files/samannaphala_sutta.htm

Sangaha Sutta. 2016. The Bonds of Fellowship. Translated from the Pali by Thanissaro Bhikkhu. Retrieved online 6/3/16 from http://buddhasutra.com/files/sangaha_sutta.htm

Sankhitta Sutta. 2016. In Brief (Good Will, Mindfulness, and Concentration). Translated from the Pali by Thanissaro Bhikkhu. Retrieved online 6/2/16 from http://buddhasutra.com/files/sankhitta_sutta.htm

Sermon at Rajagaha. 2016. The Sermon at Rajagaha. Retrieved online 5/31/16 from http://buddhasutra.com/files/sermon_at_rajagaha.htm

Sermon of the Seven Suns. 2016. Sermon Of The Seven Suns. Retrieved online 6/1/16 from http://buddhasutra.com/files/sermon_of_the_seven_suns.htm

Shorter Discourse on the Lion's Roar. 2016. The Shorter Discourse on the Lion’s Roar. Translated from the Pali by Nanamoli Thera; edited and revised by Bhikkhu Bodhi. Retrieved online 6/2/16 from http://buddhasutra.com/files/lions_roar_short.htm

Sigala Sutta. 2016. The Jackal. Translated from the Pali by Thanissaro Bhikkhu. Retrieved online 5/31/16 from http://buddhasutra.com/files/sigala_sutta.htm

Sigalovada Sutta. 2016. The Discourse to Sigala: The Layperson’s Code of Discipline. Translated from the Pali by Narada Thera. Retrieved online 6/3/16 from http://buddhasutra.com/files/sig_sutra.htm

Siha Sutta. 2016. On Generosity. Translated from the Pali by Thanissaro Bhikkhu. Retrieved online 6/2/16 from http://buddhasutra.com/files/siha_sutta.htm

Silavant Sutta. 2016. Virtuous. Translated from the Pali by Thanissaro Bhikkhu. Retrieved online 6/3/16 from http://buddhasutra.com/files/silavant_sutta.htm

Snake Simile. 2016. The Snake Simile. Retrieved online 6/1/16 from http://buddhasutra.com/files/snake_simile.htm

Sunakkhatta Sutta. 2016. To Sunakkhatta. Translated from the Pali by Thanissaro Bhikkhu. Retrieved online 6/2/16 from http://buddhasutra.com/files/sunakkhatta_sutta.htm

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Suñña Sutta. 2016. Empty. Translated from the Pali by Thanissaro Bhikkhu. Retrieved online 6/1/16 from http://buddhasutra.com/files/sunna_sutta.htm

Tanha Sutta. 2016. Craving. Translated from the Pali by Thanissaro Bhikkhu. Retrieved online 6/2/16 from http://www.buddhasutra.com/files/tanha_sutta.htm

Thana Sutta. 2016. Traits. Translated from the Pali by Thanissaro Bhikkhu. Retrieved online 6/3/16 from http://www.buddhasutra.com/files/thana_sutta.htm

The First Sermon. 2016. The First Teaching. Retrieved online 5/31/16 from http://www.buddhasutra.com/files/first_teaching.htm

The Penitent Thief. 2016. Exhibiting Buddha’s Doctrine of the New Birth and the Forgiveness of Sins. Translated from the Pali by Albert J. Edmunds. Retrieved online 6/2/16 from http://buddhasutra.com/files/penitent_thief.htm

Theragatha. 2016. Single Verses. Translated from the Pali by Thanissaro Bhikkhu. Retrieved online 5/30/16 from http://www.buddhasutra.com/files/Theragatha.htm

Udumbarika Sihanada Sutta. 2016. The Great Lion’s Roar to the Udumbarkans. Retrieved online 6/2/16 from http://www.buddhasutra.com/files/udumbarika_sihanada_sutta.htm

Upadana Sutta. 2016. Clinging. Translated from the Pali by Thanissaro Bhikkhu. Retrieved online 6/3/16 from http://www.buddhasutra.com/files/upadana_sutta.htm

Upajjhatthana Sutta. 2016. Subjects of Contemplation. Translated from the Pali by Thanissaro Bhikhu. Retrieved online 5/30/16 from http://www.buddhasutra.com/files/upajjhatthana_sutta.htm

Upakilesa Sutta. 2016. The Minor Defilements. Retrieved online 5/30/16 from http://www.buddhasutra.com/files/upakilesasuttam.htm

Upaya Sutta. 2016. Attached. Translated from the Pali by Thanissaro Bhikkhu. Retrieved online 6/2/16 from http://www.buddhasutra.com/files/upaya_sutta.htm

Uraga Sutta. 2016. The Snake. Retrieved online 6/2/16 from http://www.buddhasutra.com/files/uraga_sutta.htm

Utthana Sutta. 2016. On Vigilance. Translated from the Pali by John D. Ireland. Retrieved online 6/1/16 from http://www.buddhasutra.com/files/utthana_sutta.htm

Vagrakkhedika. 2016. The Diamond Cutter. Retrieved online 6/2/16 from http://www.buddhasutra.com/files/vagrakkhedika.htm

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Vasala Sutta. 2016. Discourse on Outcasts. Translated from the Pali by Piyadassi Thera. Retrieved online 6/3/16 from http://www.buddhasutra.com/files/vasala_sutta.htm

Vedana Sutta. 2016. Feeling. Translated from the Pali by Thanissaro Bhikkhu. Retrieved 5/30/16 from http://www.buddhasutra.com/files/vedana_sutta.htm

Vimalakirti Nirdesa Sutta. 2016. Purification of the Buddha-Field. Translated by Robert A. F. Thurman. Retrieved online 6/3/16 from http://www.buddhasutra.com/files/vimalakirti_nirdesa_sutra.htm

Viññana Sutta. 2016. Consciousness. Translated from the Pali by Thanissaro Bhikkhu. Retrieved 5/30/16 from http://www.buddhasutra.com/files/vinnana_sutta.htm

Vipallasa Sutta. 2016. Perversions. Translated from the Pali by Thanissaro Bhikkhu. Retrieved online 5/31/16 from http://www.buddhasutra.com/files/vipallasa_sutta.htm

Vitthara Sutta. 2016. Strengths in Detail. Translated from the Pali by Thanissaro Bhikkhu. Retrieved online 6/3/16 from http://www.buddhasutra.com/files/vitthara_sutta.htm

Vyagghapajja Sutta. 2016. Conditions of Welfare. Translated from the Pali by Narada Thera. Retrieved online 6/1/16 from http://www.buddhasutra.com/files/vyagghapajja_sutta.htm

Yavakalapi Sutta. 2016. The Sheaf of Barley. Translated from the Pali by Thanissaro Bhikkhu. Retrieved online 5/30/16 from http://www.buddhasutra.com/files/yavakalapi_sutta.htm

Yoga Sutta. 2016. Yokes. Translated from the Pali by Thanissaro Bhikkhu. Retrieved online 6/1/16 from http://www.buddhasutra.com/files/yoga_sutta.htm

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