Thinking About Psychology: The Science of Mind and Behavior 2e
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Transcript of Thinking About Psychology: The Science of Mind and Behavior 2e
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THINKING ABOUT PSYCHOLOGY:
THE SCIENCE OF MIND AND BEHAVIOR 2E
Charles T. Blair-BroekerRandal M. Ernst
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Motivation and Emotion Chapter
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Motivation Concepts and Theories
• Motivation—factors within and outside an organism that cause it to behave a certain way at a certain time
• Drive—an internal condition or impulse that activates behavior to reduce a need
and restore homeostasis • Incentive—external goal that “pulls” or
“pushes” behavior
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Theories of Motivation
• Instinct—motives are innate• Drive—biological needs as motivation• Incentive—extrinsic things push or pull
behavior• Arousal—people are motivated to
maintain optimum level of arousal• Humanistic—hierarchy of needs
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Drives as Tissue Needs
• Homeostasis—the constancy of internal conditions that the body must actively maintain
• Drives may be due to an upset in homeostasis, inducing behavior to correct the imbalance
• Animals do behave in accordance with their tissue needs (e.g., increasing or decreasing caloric intake, drive for salt)
• However, homeostasis cannot explain all drives
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Drives as States of the Brain
• The hub of many central drive systems lies in the hypothalamus
Cerebral cortex
Portion of
limbic system
Hypothalamus
Pituitary
gland
Brainstem
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Hunger Drive
• Two areas of the hypothalamus, the lateral and ventromedial areas, play a central role in the hunger drive
Hypothalamus
Hypothalamus
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Lateral Area
• However, chemical lesions to specific cell bodies reduce hunger drive as well as general arousal
Hypothalamus
Hypothalamus
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Ventromedial Area
Hypothalamus
Hypothalamus
• Lesions alter digestive and metabolic processes
• Food is converted into fat rather than energy molecules, causing animal to eat much more than normal and gain weight
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Hunger DriveOther stimuli that act on the brain to
increase or decrease hunger include– satiety signals from the stomach (CCK)– signals indicating the amount of food
molecules in the blood (insulin)– leptin, a hormone indicating the amount
of fat in the body– internals vs. externals
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Research on Weight Regulation and Dieting
• No consistent personality trait differences found between obese and non-obese people (e.g., willpower, anxiety)
• Dieters and obese are more likely to eat in response to stress than non-dieters
• Family environment of little importance in determining body weight; genetics plays a large role
• Number of fat-storage cells is a major determinant of body weight
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Research on Weight Regulation and Dieting
• Fat cells are determined by genetics and food intake
• They increase with weight gain, but merely shrink with weight loss; may stimulate hunger
• Weight loss causes a decline in basal metabolism
Fat cells
Normal
diet
High-fat
diet
Return to
normal diet
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Effects of Culture and Habits on Body Weight
• Baseline body weight—cluster of genetic and environmental factors that cause a person’s weight to settle within a given range
• Weight can be affected by factors like diet, exercise, and daily habits (e.g., stairs instead of elevator)
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Basal Metabolic Rate• The rate at which the body uses energy
for vital functions while at rest• Factors that influence BMR
– Age– Sex– Size– Genetics– Food intake
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Excess Weight and Obesity
• Obesity—condition characterized by excessive body fat and a BMI equal to or greater than 30.0
• Overweight—condition characterized by BMI between 25.0 and 29.9
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Factors Contributing to Being Overweight
• Highly palatable food—we eat because it tastes so good
• SuperSize It—food portions are larger than necessary for health
• Cafeteria Diet Effect—more food and more variety leads us to eat more
• Snacking—does not cause us to eat less at dinner
• BMR—changes through the lifespan• Sedentary lifestyles
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Factors in Obesity• Genetic susceptibility—some people are
more likely to be predisposed to obesity• Leptin resistance—condition where
higher-than-normal levels of leptin do not produce desired physiological response
• Weight cycling—repeated dieting, weight loss and weight gain tends to result in higher weight and reduced BMR.
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Eating Disorders• Anorexia nervosa—characterized by
excessive weight loss, irrational fear of gaining weight and distorted body image
• Bulimia nervosa—characterized by binges of extreme overeating followed by self-induced purging such as vomiting, laxatives
• Binge-eating—disorder characterized by recurring episodes of binge eating without purging.
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Humanistic Theories
Abraham Maslow suggested that motives are divided into several levels from
basic survival needs to psychological and self-fulfillment needs
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Self-Determination Theory
• Optimal human functioning can occur only if the psychological needs of autonomy, competence and relatedness are met.
• Proposed by E. L. Deci and R. M. Ryan
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Self-Determination Theory• Autonomy—need to determine,
control, and organize one’s own behavior and goals
• Competence—need to effectively learn and master challenging tasks
• Relatedness—need to feel attached to others
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Arousal Theory
• People are motivated to maintain an optimum level of arousal—neither too high nor too low
• Curiosity motive—helps us understand our environment
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Sensation Seeking
A person high in sensation seeking tends to look for exciting (and sometimes risky) activities
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Competence and Achievement
• Competence motivation—behavior aimed at demonstrating competence and exerting control in a situation
• Achievement motivation—behavior aimed at excelling, succeeding, or outperforming others at some activity
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EMOTION
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Basic Emotions• Fear, surprise, anger, disgust,
happiness, sadness• Basic emotions are innate and “hard-
wired”• Complex emotions are a blend of many
aspects of emotions• Classified along two dimensions
– Pleasant or unpleasant– Level of activation or arousal associated
with the emotion
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Physical Arousal and Emotions
• Sympathetic nervous system is aroused with emotions (fight-or-flight response)
• Different emotions stimulate different responses– Fear—decrease in skin temperature (cold-
feet)– Anger—increase in skin temperature (hot
under the collar)
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Emotions Whole-organism
responses, involving:Physiological
arousalExpressive
behaviorsConscious
experience
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Debates in Emotion Research
Which comes first, physiological arousal or the subjective experience of an emotion?
Can we react emotionally before appraising a situation, or does thinking always precede emotion?
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THEORIES OF EMOTION:
HISTORICAL APPROACHES
Module 11: Emotion
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Common Sense Theory Emotion-arousing stimulus leads to a
conscious feeling (fear, anger) and a physiological response.
Seeing and physical responses such as trembling. an angry dog triggers feelings of fear
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Theories of Emotion
• Common sense might suggest that the perception of a stimulus elicits emotion which then causes bodily arousal
Perception(Interpretation of stimulus—danger)
Stimulus(Tiger)
Emotion(Fear)
Bodilyarousal(Pounding heart)
Common-Sense Theory
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James-Lange Theory The theory that we experience emotion
because we are aware of our bodily response to an emotion-arousing stimulus
Our awareness of the physiological reaction leads to our experience of an emotion.
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James-Lange Theory
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Cannon-Bard Theory
The theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers physiological responses and the subjective experience of an emotion.
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THEORIES OF EMOTION:
COGNITION AND EMOTION
Module 11: Emotion
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Cognitive Appraisal
One’s thoughts about a situation
How a person interprets a situation in the environment
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Cognitive-Mediational Theory
• Emotions result from the cognitive appraisal of a situation’s effect on personal well-being
• Similar to two-factor, but cognitive mediational theory’s emphasis is on the cognitive appraisal as the essential trigger for the emotional response
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Two-Factor Theory
The theory that to experience emotion we must be physically aroused and must cognitively label the arousal
Emotions involve two factors:A physiological arousalA cognitive label of the
arousal Also called the Schachter-Singer
Theory
Stanley Schachter
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Theories of Emotions Review
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Robert Zajonc (1923- ) American psychologist who concluded
that some emotional reactions involve no deliberate thinking and cognition is not always necessary for emotion
Some emotions skip the thinking part of the brain
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Robert Zajonc (1923- )
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Richard Lazarus (1922- )
American psychologist who concluded that some emotional responses do not require conscious thought
However, there must be a minimum of unconscious thought.
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Lazarus His theory of emotion centered on the
concept of appraisal - how an individual evaluates the impact of an event on his or her self or well being - subception
He also did classic work in the area of stress and coping
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FEAR: A CLOSER LOOK
Module 11: Emotion
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Brain and Emotions
Amygdala– evaluate the significance of stimuli and
generate emotional responses– generate hormonal secretions and autonomic
reactions that accompany strong emotions– damage causes “psychic blindness” and the
inability to recognize fear in facial expressions and voice
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Autonomic Nervous System
The division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and muscles of the internal organs
Monitors the autonomic functions Controls breathing, blood pressure, and
digestive processes Divided into the sympathetic and
parasympathetic nervous systems
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Divisions of the Nervous System
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Sympathetic Nervous System
The part of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body to deal with perceived threats
Fight or flight response
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Divisions of the Nervous System
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Parasympathetic Nervous System
The part of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body
Brings the body back down to a relaxed state
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Divisions of the Nervous System
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The Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System
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THE EXPRESSION OF EMOTION: NONVERBAL
COMMUNICATION
Module 11: Emotion
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Nonverbal Communication
Communicating feelings without words: --Facial expressionsTone of voiceHand gestures
Also called “body language”
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Emotion and Facial Expressions
• Each basic emotion is associated with a unique facial expression
• Facial expressions are innate and “hard-wired”
• Innate facial expressions the same across many cultures
• Display rules—social and cultural rules that regulate emotional expression, especially facial expressions.
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THE EXPRESSION OF EMOTION: GENDER AND
CULTURAL EFFECTS ON
EMOTION
Module 11: Emotion
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Gender Effects
Women are better at reading nonverbal communication of emotions.
Women tend to express emotions more than men do.
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Display Rules
The cultural rules governing how and when a person may express emotion
Rules greatly vary from culture to culture.
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Facial Expressions
Paul Ekman studied facial expressions in an attempt to determine if they are inborn or culturally based.
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Ekman’s Facial Expression Study
Insert “Ekman’s Studies on Facial Expression of Emotion” Video #28 from Worth’s Digital Media Archive for Psychology.
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