DOCUMRNT .118SUNN

ED 031 626 AC 004 568Training Methodology. Part 1: Background Theory and Research. An Annotated Bibliography.Public Health Service (DREW), Washington, D.C. Health Services and Mental Health Administration.Pub Date May 69Note -98p.; Public Health Service Publication No. 1862, Part I.Available from-Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402(0-334-245, $1.00).

EDRS Price MF-50.50 HC Not Available frcm EDRS.Descriptors -*Annotated Bibliographies, Behavior Change, *Behavior Theories, Communication (ThoughtTransfer), *Educational Philosophy, Croup Dynamics, Human Engineer as, Motivation, Perception, ProgramedInstruction

The annotated bibliography, including 310 abstracts, pertains to research andtheory on individual behavior, group behavior, and educational and trainingphilosophy. This is the first of four publications on training methodology; its contentwas selected from over' 6,000 items mostly published from January 1960 to March1968. Areas included are: human factors engineering, human behavior and behavioralchange, perception, motivation, communication, the adult learner, learning theory andresearch, programed learning theory and research. and group dynamics. process andstructure. A subject index is included. (pt)

r

C)MI Soli 6 94

THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRODUCED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROM THE

PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIGINATING IT. POINTS OF VIEW OR OPINIONS

Z) STATED DO NOT NECESSARILY REPRESENT OFFICIAL OFFICE OF EDUCATION

r--I--

POSITION OR POLICY.

Pr\CD

LIJ

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION & WELFARE

OFFICE OF EDUCATION

0 0 0 0 e 4130 0 0 0 (0 0 (9 0 (?) 0 0

PART I: BACKGROU D THEVY A D RESEARCH

An Annotated Bibliography

This annotated bibliography is the first of four indicating current thought ontraining methodology. Content for the four publications was selected from over 6,000items. Most were published from January 1960 to March 1968. A few earlier items arealso included because of their significance. Some useful material had to be omittedbecause of budgetary limitations related both to search and final printing; the sheer scopeof the field precluded complete coverage of the literature. Certain annotations wereborrowed from other publications (details are explained on the Credits page).

In the expectation that these bibliographies will be ongoing, the projectadministrators (listed in the Introduction) welcothe comments and suggestions withrespect to additions, deletions, classification system, indexing, and technical ortypographical errors.

ERRATA SHEET

Training MethodologyPart I: Background Theory and Research

p. 5 Reference #24: second author: KURTZ, not KRUTZ

p. 6 Reference #28: editor's name:

p. 8 Reference #34: issue no. 4 of vol. 25

p. 8 Reference after#34(not indexed): PAUL, BENJAMIN E. (ed.)

p.15 Reference after#59(not indexed): 1st column, 3rd line from bottom: change studies to studied

p.19 Reference #82: Personnel management quarterly, not Management and personnel quarterly

p.20 Reference #83: author: GENEVIEVE B. OXLEY, not GENEVIEVE G. OXLEY

p.26 Reference #111: in title: change message to massage

p.38 Reference #147: in periodical title: change English to engineering

p.39 Reference #153: 948 pp.

p.43 Reference #165: author: GROSE, ROBERT F., not GROSE, ROBERT R.

p.49 Reference #193: Review of educational research, not resources

p.49 Reference #194: 173 pp.

p.51 Reference #196: pp. 1-4, not pp. 1-3

p.51 Reference #199: 22 pp.

p.55 Reference #216: pp. 370-373, not 367-370

p.56 Reference #220: periodical title: Journal of abnormal and social psychology

p.58 Reference #231: pp. 2-14, not 2-13

p.62 Reference #246: second author: SILLS, not STILLS

p.64 Reference #254: author: KELLEY, not KELLY

p.73 Reference #292: 1247 pp., not 127 pp.

Biderman, not Bidderman

TRAINING METHODOLOGY

Part 1: Background Theory and Research

An Annotated Bibliography

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION. AND WELFAREPUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE

HEALTH SERVICES AND MENTAL HEALTH ADMINISTRATIONNATIONAL COMMUNICABLE DISEASE CENTER

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF MENTAL HEALTHATLANTA, GEORGIA 30333CHEVY CHASE, MARYLAND 20203

Public Health Service Publication No. 1862, Part I

U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE

WASHINGTON : 1969

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing OfficeWashington, D.C. 20402 - Price $1

This bibliography pertains to research and theory on individual behavior, groupbehavior, and educational and training philosophy. It is the first of a group of four ontraining methodology. References in all four are arranged in classified order, annotated,and indexed. Additional information about concepts emphasized in this publication maybe located by references to indexes of other publications in the group. (In somereferences coverage of a particular concept was secondary or even peripheral to the majortopic, but its inclusion was noted in the indexing to emphasize relationships.)

Other titles in the group are:

Training MethodologyPart II: Planning and Administration

Training MethodologyPart III: Instructional Methods and Techniques

Training MethodologyPart IV: Audiovisual Theory, Aids, and Equip-ment

In a related group of classified, annotated, and indexed bibliographies on mentalhealth inservice training, training concepts are highlighted in annotations and indexing.The group consists of three publications:

Annotated Bibliography on Inservice Training for Key Professionals inCommunity Mental Health

Annotated Bibliography on Inservice Training for Allied Professionalsin Community Mental Health

Annotated Bibliography on Inservice Training in Mental Health forStaff in ResidentialInstitutions

These seven publications were developed as a joint effort of the National Institute ofMental Health and the National Communicable Disease Center of the Health Services andMental Health Administration, Public Health Service, U.S. Department of Health,Education, and Welfare. The project was administered by the National Institute of MentalHealth's Community Mental Health Centers Staffing Branch of the Division of MentalHealth Service Programs; the Continuing Education Branch of its Division of Manpowerand Training; and the Training Methods Development Section of the NationalCommunicable Disease Center's Training Program.

iii

lf

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Due to the nature of this series of publications, the amount of coordination andcooperation required for its development, and the range of skills employed in getting itpublished, the following persons should be recognized: Miss Patricia Rogers, TechnicalInformation Specialist (Education), Training Methods Development Section, TrainingProgram, National Communicable Disease Centercompiler and project supervisor; Dr.Ross Grumet, Psychiatrist, Region IV Mental Health Servicetechnical reviewer; Mr.Alfred R. Kinney, Jr., Chief, Training Methods Development Section, Training Program,National Communicable Disease Centeradvisor; Mrs. Anne W. Morgan, Health Educator,Region IV Office of Comprehensive Health Planningtechnical reviewer; Dr. Robert D.Quinn, Staff Psychologist, Community Mental Health Centers Staffing Branch, Divisionof Mental Health Service Programs, National Institute of Mental HealthNIMHcoordinator; Dr. Dorothy Schroeder, Professor of Social Work, University of Michi-ganconsultant; Mrs. Betty S. Segal, Evaluation Specialist, Training Methods Develop-ment Section, Training Program, National Communicable. Disease Centertechnicalreviewer; Miss Marguerite Termini, Associate Professor of Psychiatric Nursing, Universityof Delawareconsultant; Dr. Thomas G. Webster, Chief, Continuing Education Branch,Division of Manpower and Training, National Institute of Mental Healthadvisor. Originalannotations and abstracts were written by seven graduate students and technical assistantsemployed especially for the project. These individuals were: Miss Connie Benson, MissMary Lavinia Campbell, Miss Rosemary Franklin, Miss Sharon Grilz, Miss Gale Lawrence,Mr. Garrett McAinsh, and Mr. Stephen Von Allmen.

iv

Permission toacknowledged:

(ASTD):

(ASW):

(ERIC):

(HumRRO):

(USCSC 1):

(USCSC 2):

(USCSC 3):

(USCSC 4):

CREDITS

reprint abstracts and annotations from the following sources is gratefully

"Training Research Abstracts," edited by Gerald H. Whitlock. INTraining and Development Journal, published by the American Societyfor Training and Development, January 1966 to date. Separatelypublished by the Society before January 1966.

Abstracts for Social Workers. Albany, N. Y.: National Association ofSocial Workers. Quarterly.

ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult Education. Human RelationsTraining andResearch, No. 1: Current Information Sources. Syracuse, N. Y.: SyracuseUniversity, January 1968. 17 pp.

Smith, Robert G., Jr. An Annotated Bibliography on the Design ofInstructional Systems (Technical Report 67-5). Alexandria, Va.: TheGeorge Washington University, Human Resources Research Office, May1967. 132 pp.

U. S. Civil Service Commission Library. Personnel Literature. Washing-ton, D. C.: The Library. Monthly.

U. S. Civil Service Commission Library. Planning, Administration, andEvaluation of Executive Development Programs (Personnel BibliographySeries Number 4). Washington, D. C.: The Library, June 1961. 64 pp.

U. S. Civil Service Commission Library. Planning, Organizing andEvaluating Training Programs (Personnel Bibliography Series Number18). Washington, D. C.: The Library, January 1966. 87 pp.

U. S. Civil Service Commission Library. training Methods and Tech-niques (Personnel Bibliography Series Number 19). Washington, D. C.:The Library, January 1966. 53 pp.

CONTENTS

HUMAN FACTORS ENGINEERING 1

HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND BEHAVIORAL CHANGE (GENERAL) 4

PERCEPTION 11

MOTIVATION 13

COMMUNICATION 23

SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING 30

THE ADULT LEARNERSOCIO-PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS 32

LEARNING THEORY AND RESEARCH (GENERAL) 35

LEARNING THEORY AND RESEARCH (SPECIFIC TYPESAND ASPECTS)

PROGRAMMED LEARNING THEORY AND RESEARCH

SYSTEMS THEORY AND APPLICATIONS

ROLE THEORY

GROUPSDYNAMICS, PROCESS, STRUCTURE

ORGANIZATIONS AND ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE

EDUCATIONAL AND TRAINING PHILOSOPHIES

INDEX (by reference numbers)

40

46

51

55

59

70

77

81

HUMAN FACTORS ENGINEERING

CHAPANIS, ALPHONSE. Man-machine engineering.Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth Publishing Com-pany, 1965. 134 pp.

A basic, non-technical introduction to humanengineering is presented. The book is intended for thegeneral reader and deals with the development of thefield, as well as its current theories and practices.Chapters are: (1) Introduction; (2) Man in Man-MachineSystems; (3) The Visual Presentation of Information;(4) Speech Communication Systems; (5) The Design ofControls; (6) Perspectives and Postscript. References andan index are included.

DEESE, JAMES. Skilled performance and conditions ofstress. IN Glaser, Robert (ed.). Training researchand education. Pittsburgh: University of Pitts-burgh Press, 1962. pp. 199-222.

Stress refers to a collection or class of stimulusevents with common response-producing propertieswhich elicit reports of discomfort or correlates ofdiscomfort. It is necessary to know both the detailedeffects of stressful stimuli upon behavior generally andthe components of particular skills to be performedunder stress to design appropriate training. Factoranalysis of tasks is useful in understanding the variableinfluence of stress upon skilled behavior. (2)

DREYFUSS, HENRY. The measure of man: humanfactors in design. New York: Whitney Library ofDesign, 1959. 16 pp. plus charts.

This miniature encyclopedia presents humanfactors data in graphic form for the industrial designer.Four of the charts include "anthropometric data"(human measurements) of the adult American male andfemale; five charts deal with applications. Data is givenfor reach, sight lines, and placement of common objectsfor maximum convenience. Another chart containsdetailed measurements of the hand. A table of anthro-pometric data on children from birth to age 17 is alsoincluded on a chart. Two charts give detailed measure-ments of the head and feet. Three charts contain basicdata on strength, body clearances, climbing, ingress andegress, control, and display. A chart on thresholds is onthe cover of the booklet. These diagrams are intended aspoints of departure for the solution of specific problems

1

in industrial design; they are valuable especially as achecklist. Explanatory material is offered on manualcontrols, pedals, visual displays, auditory signals, sensorysignals, anthropometric conformity, safety, illumination,environment, and maintenance. A bibliography is in-cluded. (3)

Environmental abstracts. Ann Arbor, Mich.: The Uni-versity of Michigan, 1965. 768 pp.

This volume, the first in the School EnvironmentResearch Project; establishes the limits of knowledge onhow the environment affects human behavior in generaland learning in particular. It includes some 600 referencedocuments, classified as follows: (1) Environment andthe Human Senses; (2) Behavior and the AtmosphericEnvironment; (3) Behavior and the Luminous Environ-ment; (4) Behavior and the Sonic Environment; and(5) Behavior and the Social Environment. (4)

Environmental analysis. Ann Arbor, Mich.: The Uni-versity of Michigan, 1965. 72 pp.

Material is presented in three sections:(1) method of investigation, a suggested way of definingvarious environmental relationships; (2) processing ofinformation, a suggested way of treating the environ-mental research data; and (3) environmental designimplications, an appraisal of how man's own well-beingand further development is related to the control ofenvironment for increasing productivity. (5)

Environmental evaluations. Ann Arbor, Mich.: TheUniversity of Michigan, 1965. 186 pp.

Drawing heavily on the volume EnvironmentalAbstracts, this volume summarizes and appraises thepresent state of knowledge with respect to variousenvironmental relationships. The contents are: (1) TheInteraction of Man and His Environment, by Daniel H.Carson; (2) Architectural Space as a Component ofEnvironment, by Harold W. Hines; (3) The ThermallyRelated Environment and Its Effects on Man, by JosephR. Akerman; (4) The Luminous Environment and ItsEffects on Man, by Robert A. Boyd; (5) The SonicEnvironment and Its Effects on Man, by Norman

Barnett; and (6) The Social Environment and theLearning Situation, by Robert S. Fox. (6)

FITTS, PAUL M. Engineering psychology and equip-ment design. IN Stevens, S. S. (ed.). Handbookof experimental psychology. New York: JohnWiley & Sons, 1951. pp. 1287-1340.

Psychological data can help solve display prob-lems (how best to present information to the senses),and problems concerning the design of control systems(how best to utilize human motor output). The effec-tiveness of displays depends upon recognition of princi-ples concerning visual, audio, and tactual perceptions.Psychological data can also be applied to the arrange-ment of controls for maximum convenience in sequen-tial operations. As a general hypothesis, the probabilityof an error increases directly with the number ofseparate stimulus-response operations required. (7)

FLEISHMAN, EDWIN A. Studies in personnel andindustrial psychology. Homewood, Ill.: The Dor-sey Press, 1961. 633 pp.

Useful as a reference in industrial psychology,this book can also be used as a primary textbook. Eachof the nine key sections has an introduction; the sectionscombine review and discussion articles within particularareas with articles emphasizing key empirical studies. Anattempt has been made to give expanded treatment tothe social-motivational aspects without minimizing de-velopment in the traditional aspects of the field (such asselection, training, or work methods). Sections are:(1) Personnel Selection, (2) Performance Appraisal,(3) Training Employees and Managers, (4) Motivation,Attitudes, and Morale, (5) Leadership and Supervision,(6) Communication and Organizational Behavior, (7) Fa-tigue, Monotony, and Working Conditions, (8) Accidentsand Safety, and (9) Engineering Psychology. (8)

McCORMICK, ERNEST J. Human factors engineering(2nd edition of Human Engineering). New York:McGraw-Hill, 1964. 653 pp.

This text is intended as a survey of humanfactors engineering. Materials are drawn from a varietyof disciplines that have relevance to the human factorsarea, including physical anthropology, physiology, andclimatology, though the bulk of the material comes fromthe field of psychology. Much of the content deals withthe results and implications of research investigations ofsome of the practical problems of design of man-

2

machine systems and environments. Chapter titles de-scribe the contents: Part One, The Human Aspects ofMan-Machine Systems (1) Introduction; (2) Man-Machine Systems; (3) The Development and Use ofHuman Factors Informations; Part Two, The HumanOrganism (4) Sensory and Motor Processes; PartThree, Human Processes in Man-Machine Systems(5) Human Information Processes; (6) Information Dis-plays; (7) Speech Communications; (8) Human MotorActivities; (9) Man-Machine Relationships; (10) Con-trols and Related Devices; Part Four, Space Arrange-ment (11) Work Space and Personal Equipment;(12) Arrangement of Elements and Components; PartFive, Environment (13) Illumination; (14) Noise andVibration; (15) Atmospheric Conditions; (16) Man inMotion; Part Six, Personnel and System Integration(17) Human Factors in System Development; (18) Sim-ulation; and (19) Summary. Name and subject indexesare included.

(9)

MEISTER, DAVID and GERALD F. RABIDEAU. Hu-man factors evaluation in system development.New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1965. 307 pp.

Though designed primarily for the practicinghuman engineer, the book is also intended for readersinterested in examining the processes by which com-plex man-machine systems are developed and evaluated,in how human factors evaluation is performed duringsystem development, and in the limitations and poten-tialities inherent in the system development situation.Chapter titles describe the contents: (1) Introduction toHuman Factors Evaluation; (2) The System and SystemDevelopment; (3) Analysis and Evaluation; (4) HumanEngineering Evaluation of System Products; (5) SystemPerformance Evaluation Parameters; (6) Planning thePerformance Evaluation; (7) Data Collection Methods;(8) Data Analysis Methods; (9) Human Factors Evalua-tion of Production Processes; and (10) Problems andApplications. An index is included. (10)

MILLER, ROBERT B. Psychological considerations inthe design of training equipment (WADC techni-cal report 54-563). Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio:Air Research and Development Command, Devel-opment Center, December 1954. 133 pp. +

This is a general treatment of design considera-tions for training equipment. Topics covered include(1) some principal concepts in learning and transfer oflearning, (2) problems of physical simulation, (3) stageof learning and degree of physical simulation, (4)knowledge of results and scoring._ (5) recording proce-dures, (6) proficiency measurement, (7) the design ofthe instructor's station, (8) the trainer as a demonstratorof principles. and (9) outline of steps in designing atraining device. (11)

NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION. DEPART-MENT OF AUDIOVISUAL INSTRUCTION. Thedesign of instructional equipment: two views(Occasional paper no. 8). By Humboldt W.Leverenz and Malcolm G. Towns ley. Washington,D. C.: National Education Association, 1962. 51pp.

Three problems of designing instructional equip-ment are recognized: human factors, economic (andorganizational) factors, and attitudinal factors. The twoessays included herein are papers designed to answer twoquestions: How has instructional equipment been design-ed in the past, and how can it be designed in the future?The papers are complementary: Leverenz deals primarilywith the design process itself, and Townsley addresseshimself more to the problems associated with economicsand organization as they affect the design process. Abibliography and some general references are included atthe end of each paper. (12)

STEVENSON, SANDRA A. and LAVON E. TRYGG. Abibliography of reports issued by the BehavioralSciences Laboratory: engineering psychology,training psychology, environmental stress, simu-lation techniques, and physical anthropology.Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio: Behavioral SciencesLaboratory, June 1966. 140 pp.

"The Behavioral Sciences Laboratory, one of twolaboratories of the Aerospace Medical Research Labora-tories, conducts.research and development in the fieldsof human engineering, training, psychophysiology,physical anthropology, and simulation techniques. TheHuman Engineering Division executes research anddevelopment on human performance capabilities andlimitations as they relate to operation and maintenanceof aircraft, missile, and manned space vehicle systems.The Training Research Division accomplishes researchand technical development in the areas of trainingtechniques, psychological and engineering aspects oftraining equipment, personnel requirements of newweapon systems, and the effects of environmental stresson human performance. This bibliography lists, byfunctional groupings, the technical reports, technicalnotes, contractor reports, memorandum reports, andjournal articles prepared by the Beh4vioral Sciences

3

Laboratory and its contractors from April 1946 throughDecembet. 1965." (ASTD) (13)

TUFTS COLLEGE. INSTITUTE OF APPLIED EXPERI-MENTAL PSYCHOLOGY. Handbook of humanengineering data. 2nd edition. Port Washington,N. Y.: Office of Naval Research, Special DevicesCenter, n.d. (no cumulative pagination).

The handbook attempts to report some of theresults of human engineering in a concise and usefulform. It is intended primarily for design engineers and ismeant to serve as a comprehensive orientation to thefield of human engineering. The book is divided intonine parts: Part I has an introduction and discusses themethods used to collect and evaluate the data presented;Part II lists physical dimensions of men and women;Parts III, IV and V are concerned with vision, hearing,and touch and proprioception, the three senses mostoften dealt with in design problems; Part VI discussessome aspects of the responses made by the individual tothe stimulation of these senses; Part VII deals with thevarious physiological conditions that affect the function-ing of the human machine; Part 'VIII briefly reviewsintelligence and aptitude testing; and Part IX contains anoverview of learning, including sections on basic con-cepts, basic processes of learning, characteristics of theindividual that influence learning, and training. The basicideas and problems of the subjects and the pertinentexperimental findings are described. A bibliography, aglossary of terms, and author and subject indexes areincluded. (14)

WAGNER, ROBERT. Design in education. The newsletter (Ohio State University, Bureau of Educa-tional Research) 27:1, October 1961. 4 pp.

The concept of educational design involvinghuman engineering is seen as the link for humanisticallyrelating technology and the educational process. Designdefined as thoughtful, artful, organic use and creativecontrol of necessary systems, is seen to be a necessarycounterbalance to systems development which, by itsnature, tends to dehumanize the educational process.Technology, it is argued, must be balanced with a senseof design, with encouragement of individual creativeeffort, and with spirit. (15)

HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND BEHAVIORAL CHANGE (GENERAL)

BENNETT, THOMAS R., II. The leader looks atplanning for change (Looking Into Leadershipseries). Washington, D. C.: Leadership Resources,Inc., 1961. 15 pp.

Five questions often asked regarding the changeprocess are cited in the introduction to this booklet. Thegeneral importance and increasing rapidity of requiredchange in human behavior is discussed, and someguidelines for the leader are offered. Types of change,what leaders need to give careful attention to, reasonsfor resistance to change, some ineffective leader re-sponses to resistance, some values of resistance, specificleader functions in making creative use of opposition,some ways of analyzing forces in a change situation, andthree specific methods for change are discussed. Ques-tions which the leader might ask in self-appraisal areoffered. A briefly annotated 8-item bibliography isincluded. (16)

BENNIS, WARREN G. The planning of change: readingsin the applied behavioral sciences. New York:Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1962. 781 pp.

This book consolidates some current ideas aboutaspects of the change process and ties them togetherwith critical and theoretical comments. It deals with thesystematic and appropriate application of knowledge tohuman affairs to evoke intelligent action and change.Part One, The Roots of Planned Change, includeschapters on (1) The Basis of Planned Change in theConditions of Contemporary Change; (2) The SocialSciences and the I, _arming of Change; (3) Goal and ValueDilemmas in the Planning of Change; and (4) TheConcept of Planned Change. Part Two, Conceptual Toolsfor the Change Agent: Social Systems and ChangeModels, includes chapters on: (5) Social Systems inStability, Change and Conflict; (6) The Small Group inStability and Change; (7) Characteristics of OtherClient-Systems; and (8) Some Strategic Leverage Points.Part Thre,t, Dynamics of the Influence Process, includeschapters on: (9) Three Pivotal Functions in PlannedChange: Training, Consulting, and Research; and(10) The Small Group in Processes of Planned Change.There are extensive references and an index. (17)

4

BERELSON, BERNARD and GARY A. STEINER.Human behavior: shorter edition. New York:Harcourt, Brace & World, 1964. 225 pp.

The behavioral scientist uses the scientific meth-od to develop descriptions and explanations upon whichpredictions of human behavior can be based. Somegeneralizations from recent behavioral studies are de-scribed. The social, anthropological, and social psycho-logical aspects of man's behavior in social groupings ofvarious sizes is followed by the psychological aspects ofindividual behavior. Chapter titles are: Culture andSociety; Social Institutions; Groups and Organizations;Social Class; Ethnic Relations; Opinion and Communica-tion; !Behavioral Development and Learning; Perceiving;Motivation; Personality; and Intelligence. A bibliog-raphical index is included. (18)

BROWN, DANIEL G. A selected bibliography on behav-ior modificationbooks, articles, and films. At-lanta, Ga.: U.S. Public Health Service, Region IV,Mental Health Service, October 1967. 24 pp.

The bibliography is divided into three sections:(I) Books: a relatively comprehensive bibliography ofbooks that are concerned primarily with behaviormodification, conditioning approaches in psycho-therapy, behavior therapy, reinforcement therapy, andrelated subjects (several basic references that discussfundamentals and principles of the learning process witha framework of Respondent [Pavlovian] and OperantConditioning are included); (II) Articles: a sample ofwhat are considered some of the more significantcontributions to the literature that should be of generalinterest and value throughout the mental health profes-sion, including articles concerned with behavior modifi-cation, operant conditioning in psychotherapy, behaviortherapy, reinforcement therapy, and related topics; (III)Films: a list of films concerned with demonstrations ofprinciples and techniques in behavior modification,operant conditioning, behavior therapy, reinforcementtherapy, and related subjects, some involving demonstra-tions of basic operant conditioning phenomena inanimals, others in humans, and still others in bothanimals and humans. (19)

FERNALD, L. DODGE and PETER S. FERNALD.Overview of general psychology: a basic program.Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1966. 354pp.

This programmed text attempts to clarify andemphasize only the major basic principles of generalpsychology. It is meant to be a comprehensive overview.The major problems and achievements in psychology areexamined together with practical and meaningful exam-ples. Chapter titles indicate contents: (1) The Science ofPsychology; (2) The Human Organism; (3) IndividualDifferences: Measurement; (4) How Individual Differ-ences Originate; (5) Intelligence; (6) Motivation;(7) Feeling and Emotion; (8) Conflict and Adjustment;(9) Personality; (10) The Learning Process; (11) Founda-tions of Learning; (12) Remembering and Forgetting;(13) Thinking; (14) Communication and Language;(15) Knowing Our World; (16) Attending and Perceiving;(17) Social Behavior; and (18) Working Efficiently. Adiagnostic summary, appendices containing a samplechapter outline, evaluation studies, a cross-referencechart, and an index-glossary are included. (20)

GILES, H. HARRY. Seven strangers at the feast.Educational technology 5:11, June 15, 1965. pp.1-6.

Seven ideas which could have a determiningeducational effect are suggested: (1) Human potential islimitless; (2) Emotional growth is basic to social andintellectual growth; (3) Cultural patterns may aid orblock development; (4) Shared experience is the basisfor communication; (5) Man is a meaning-seeking crea-ture; (6) The creative act emerges from field and focus;and (7) Problem-solving is the road to learning. (21)

GOLDIAMOND, ISRAEL. Justified and unjustifiedalarm over behavioral control. IN Milton, Ohmer(ed.). Behavior disorders: perspective and trends.New York: J.B. Lippincott Company, 1965. pp.237-262.

The alarm caused by studies and experimentswith behavioral control comes from a misunderstandingof the science of behavior itself. Close attention tostudies of certain aspects of behavioral control disclosethat much of this alarm is not reievant to the issue ofscientific control of behavior. Studies that have beenmisunderstood include those related to subliminal per-ception, operant conditioning, behavioral analysis, cy-bernetics, freedom and behavioral analysis, self-control,and behavior technology and conformity. By applyingthe scientific method to behavior, man can himselfbecome a behavioral force that might be applied to hisown behavior and self-control. Justified alarm is occa-sioned by the growth of two languages about man's

5

behavior. This dichotomy in communication alienatesliterate man from the developing analysis and tech-nology of behavioral control. (22)

GRINKER, ROY R. (ed.). Toward a unified theory ofhuman behavior. New York: Basic Books, 1956.375 pp.

Twenty-four essays originally presented at fourannual conferences on human behavior are included.Authors represent a variety of disciplinesbiology,psychology, psychiatry, and the social sciences. Contentsare: (1) The Intra-personal Organization, by Roy R.Grinker; (2) A Model for Relationships Among Systems,by John P. Spiegel; (3) The Psychological System, byDavid Shakow; (4) The Observer and the Observed:Human Communication Theory, by Jurgen Ruesch;(5) The Social System: A General Theory of Action, byTalcott Parsons; (6) The Societal System, Culture andthe Community, by Laura Thompson; (7) Value Orienta-tions, by Florence Kluckhohn; (8) A System of Socio-Psychiatric Invariants, by Jules Henry; (9) General Dis-cussion Terminating the First Conference;(10) Comparisons Between Systems of Organizations, byRoy R. Grinker; (11) Multiple Origins of the Uniquenessof Human Society, by James E. P. Toman; (12) Homeo-stasis and Comparison of Systems, by Alfred E. Emer-son; (13) Comparison of Psychological and Group Foci,by John P. Spiegel; (14) Comparison of Psychologicaland Group Foci (continued), by David Shakow;(15) The Relation Between the Small Group and theLarger Social System, by Talcott Parsons; (16) SocialSystems and Culture, by Lawrence K. Frank;(17) Homeostasis Reconsidered, by Anatol Rapoport;(18) Stability vs. Adaptation: Some Speculations on theEvolution of Dynamic Reciprocating Mechanisms, byJames E. P. Toman; (19) Homeostasis in a Special LifeSituation, by Jules Henry; (20) Autonomy and Bound-aries According to Communications Theories, by KarlDeutsch; (21) Concluding Discussion of the Third Con-ference and an Outline for Future Conference Delibera-tions; (22) Statistical Boundaries, by Anatol Rapoport;(23) Boundary Relations Between Sociocultural andPersonality Systems, by Talcott Parsons; (24) Analysisof Various Boundaries, by Jurgen Ruesch. (23)

HANDY, ROLLO and PAUL KRUTZ. A current ap-praisal of the behavioral sciences. Great Bar-rington, Mass.: Behavioral Research Council1964. 154 pp.

Each of 16 fields surveyed is discussed uniformlyusing the following nine principal topics: (1) WorkingSpecification of the Field; (2) Other Specifications ofthe Field; (3) Schools, Methods, Techniques; (4) ResultsAchieved; (5) Contemporary Controversy; (6) Problemsof Terminology; (7) Comment and Evaluation; (8) Se-

lected Bibliography; and (9) Germane Journals. Thefields are divided into two sections: The Older FieldsAnthropology, Sociology, History, Economics, PoliticalScience, Jurisprudence, Psychology, Education; andThe Newer FieldsCommunication Theory (Informa-tion Theory, Cybernetics, Linguistics, Sign-Behavior),Preferential Behavior (Game Theory, Decision-MakingTheory, Value Inquiry), and General Systems. Anindex is included. (24)

HUBER, GEORGE P. The application of behavioralscience theory to professional development.Academy of management journal 10:3, Septem-ber 1967. pp. 275-286.

The author explores and categorizes basic behav-ioral science findings useful to managers in devisingprofessional development systems, and under each cate-gory lists a set of propositions with applicable strategiesand tactics. (USCSC 1, edited) (25)

KNUTSON, ANDIE L. The individual, society, andhealth behavior. New York: Russell Sage Foun-dation, 1965. 533 pp.

This book deals with man as a member of societyand with his concern for public health. Theory, research,and practice are united for the public health practi-tioner. Tht. book's parts and chapter titles are: Part I,General Characteristics of Man (Man as Part of Environ-ment; The Unity of Man; Man as a Social Animal, TheUniqueness of Man; Patterns of Individual Variation;The Behavioral Cycle); Part II, Man in His SocialEnvironment (Society and Culture; Placing Man in HisSocial Habitat; Position, Status, and Role; The Meaning.of Food); Part III, Perceiving the World (Man's Knowl-edge Comes from Experience; The Function and Processof Perception; Man's Private World); Part IV, SocialMotivation (The Search for the Sources of Man's Energy;Motivation Research: an Elusive Challenge; Motivatioin Health Action; Patterns of Striving); Part V, Values,Attitudes, and Beliefs (Values and Value Patterns;Attitudes and Beliefs, by Ronald C. Dillehay); Part VI,The Process of Socialization (Acquiring Social Behaviors;Perceptual Development and Deprivation); Part VII,Human Learning and Health Action (Learning Theoriesand Health Action; Learning Components of PublicHealth Programs; Verbal Conditioning); Part VIII, TheCommunication Process (The Crisis in Medical Commu-nication; The Communicator for Public Health Agencies;Frames of Reference in Public Health; The Role of MassMedia in Public Health, by William Griffiths and AndieKnutson; Interpersonal Communication Within Organi-zations). There is a name and subject index. (26)

6

KRAMER, BERNARD. Social context as a determinantof behavior. IN Abrams, Arnold, Harry Garnerand James Toman (eds.). Unfinished tasks in thebehavioral sciences. Baltimore: The Williams &Wilkins Company, 1964. pp. 181-194.

The most pressing need in the behavioral sciencesis to master the implications flowing from the context ofbehavior. Some of the pressing social and moral prob-lems of mankind will find their solution not in the studyof individual behavior, but rather in the study of thedynamic implications of broad social system character-istics. We ought to consider the possibility of resumingthe nineteenth century tradition of social experimenta-tion in order to see how in consciously planned,large-scale communities, particular environmental ar-rangements affect human behavior in broad terms ofvalues, attitudes, belief systems, and moral fiber. Thescope of behavioral science should be widened to includefields relevant to the context of human events, such ashistory, economics, and political science. (27)

KUBZANSKY, PHILIP E. The effects of reduced en-vironmental stimulation on human behavior: areview. IN Bidderman, A. D. and H. Zimmerman(eds.). The manipulation of behavior. New York:John Wiley & Sons, 1961. pp. 51-96.

Variously called "sensory deprivation," "sensoryisolation," or "perceptual isolation," the effects uponhuman behavior of a reduction in either absolute orrelated amounts of sensory or perceptual stimulation arethe subject of experimental investigations reported in thisstudy. Resultant changes in behavior have been modifica-tions in thinking, perception, and feeling states, as well asan increase in imagery, often bizarre in content. Thepurpose of the study is threefold: (1) to examine brieflythe sources of interest in this problem, (2) to review theextant experimental literature in order to assess thecurrent status of knowledge about this problem, and(3) to review briefly its implications for our generalunderstanding of behavior. The material is discussedaccording to the following outline: background, method-ological considerations, empirical findings, perceptual andmotor abilities, cognitive and learning abilities, suggestibil-ity, personality findings, feeling states, imagery, physio-logical findings, length of stay in experimental isolationand time perception, stimulus hunger, influence ofexperimental setting, clinical and anecdotal reports, andinterpretations and implications. A list of 81 referencesis included. (28)

LAMBERT, WILLIAM W. and WALLACE E. LAMBERT.Social psychology. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Pren-tice-Hall, 1964. 110 pp.

An introductory text in social psychology de-signed for college level courses is presented. Chaptertitles and topic headings describe the contents: (1) So-da Psychology, Its Major Concerns and Approaches;(2) Socialization (Resocialization, The Social Context ofPersonality Formation, Some Strands of the Socializa-tion Process); (3) Perceiving and Judging Social Events(On Failure of Perception, The Problems of Perception,The Perception of the Line of Regard, The Perception ofFacial Expression, Forming Impressions of Others, Con-ditions for Judging Social Events, Perception and Con-ceptualization, The Perception of Social Roles); (4) TheSocial Significance of Attitudes (The Nature of Atti-tudes, The Measurement of Attitudes, The Function ofAttitudes, The Development of Attitudes, The Modifica-tion of Attitudes); (5) Social Interaction (Social Inter-action and the Principle of Need Satisfaction, Inter-action and Theory of Social Systems); (6) The Individualin Group Settings (The Psychological Effect of Participa-tion in Groups, Psychological Effects of Variations inGroup Organization, The Psychology of IntergroupConflict, The Psychological Effects of Multiple-GroupAllegiances); (7) Culture and Social Psychology (A LargeQuestion, Personality and Economic Development, Per-sonality and Expressive Cultural Models, Other Sourcesof Personality and Culture). A list of selected readingsand an index are included. (29)

MANN, JOHN. Changing human behavior. New York:Charles Scribner's Sons, 1965. 235 pp.

This volume concentrates on an approach,adopted by scientists interested in behavior changes,that utilizes experimental methods to study specificaspects, or components, of behavior-change processesunder controlled conditions. It therefore limits itself totopics about which clear, scientific evidence is avail-able. Chapter titles are: The Evaluation of Behavior-Change Processes; Models of Behavior-Change Systems;The Psychopharmacology Revolution; Hypnotic Sug-gestion; Learning and Conditioning; Components ofPsychotherapy; The Small Group as a Behavior-ChangeMedium; Attitude Change Produced by InterpersonalInfluence; The Mass Media as Vehicles for AttitudeChange; Improving Intergroup Relations; Creativity;The Extension of Human Development; Eastern Re-ligions and Philosophies; and Western Religions andPhilosophies. The two appendixes are entitled "Techni-cal and Social Difficulties in the Conduct of EvaluativeResearch" and "The Outcome of Evaluative Research."References, a glossary, suggestions for further reading,and an index are included. (30)

7

MEAD, GEORGE H. Mind, self, and society from thestandpoint of a social behaviorist (edited, with anintroduction by Charles W. Morris).. Chicago:University of Chicago Press, 1934. 401 pp.

The book represents the larger outlines of GeorgeH. Mead's system of social* psychology. Though hepublished many papers in the field of social psychology,Mead never systematized his position and results inlonger form. The present volume aims to do this task ofsystematization, partly by the arrangement of thematerial and partly through references at the appropriateplaces to the published writings. Four supplementaryessays by Mead are included in the volume, along with abibliography and index. (31)

MILLER, GEORGE A., EUGENE GALANTER andKARL H. PRIBRAM. Plans and the structure ofbehavior. New York: Henry Holt & Company,1960. 226 pp.

The fundamental concern of the debate on whichthis book is based was to discover whether cyberneticideas have any relevance for psychology. Since thenotion of a plan that guides behavior is quite similar tothe notion of a program that guides an electroniccomputer, the cybernetic literature on analysis betweenbrains and computers, minds and programs, was re-viewed in the course of the debate. The authors state,"There must be some way to phrase the new ideas sothat they contribute to and profit from the science ofbehavior that psychologists have created. It was thesearch for that favorable intersection that directed thecourse of our year long debate." Chapter titles are:(1) Images and Plans; (2) The Unit of Analysis; (3) TheSimulation of Psychological Processes; (4) Values, Inten-tions, and the Execution of Plans; (5) Instincts;(6) Motor Skills and Habits; (7) The Integration of Plans;(8) Relinquishing the Plan; (9) Nondynamic Aspects ofPersonality; (10) Plans for Remembering; (11) Plans forSpeaking; (12) Plans for Searching and Solving; (13) TheFormation of Plans; (14) Some NeuropsychologicalSpeculations. There are name and subject indexes. (32)

MURPHY, GARDNER. Toward a science of indi-viduality. IN Abrams, Arnold, Harry Garner andJames Toman (eds.). Unfinished tasks in thebehavioral sciences. Baltimore: The Williams &Wilkins Company, 1964. pp. 202-213.

The, relationship between genetics and environ-ment suggests several hypotheses: There is an interactionbetween an identifiable heredity component and arecognizable environmental determinant in perceiving,remembering, imagining, or thinking; a science of indi-

viduality must be simultaneously behavioral and percep-tual, and it must be transactional, recognizing commercebetween the inside and the outside components; ecologi-cal variables, biological variables, and the relationshipsbetween them need to be measured. The science ofindividuality is ultimately the science of biography; andits development will call for more use of programmingand teaching machines and sensitive, personal clinicaldevices for studying individuals. (33)

NIEHOFF, ARTHUR H. and J. CHARNEL ANDER-SON. Peasant fatalism and socioeconomic inno-vation. Human organization, vol. 25, Winter1966. pp. 273-283.

Fatalism as discussed is a type of negativismwhich is considered by many social scientists andtechnical assistance workers to be a barrier to change inpeasant societies. Fifty-seven case histories of the intro-duction of new ideas or techniques into social units ofdeveloping nations in which traditional belief systemswere in conflict with the innovations were analyzed toreveal more exactly the nature of fatalistic attitudes andbeliefs (those which imply that conditions cannot bechanged through practical, mundane effort). Three typesof fatalism are isolated: supernatural, situational (realunderstanding of limited possibilities for improvement),and project negativism (apathy resulting from previousproject failures). It is concluded that fatalistic forces aresignificant but do not constitute a critical influencenearly as often as do other characteristics of thetraditional society or of change agent behavior. Negativ-ism alone is not considered a tenable explanation forrejection of an innovation. Project negativism seems tobe increasing. This kind of fatalism can be prevented bychange agents, for "past and present change agents arethemselves generating this negative force through badlyplanned and executed projects." Sociocultural awarenessin sociotechnical change projects is needed so that theprojects will not only be technically sound, but inte-grated with the lives of people concerned. (34)

PAUL, BENJAMIN E. Health, culture and community;case studies of public reactions to health pro-grams. New York: Russell Sage Foundation,1955. 493 pp.

The major purpose of the collection is todemonstrate the importance to the health worker ofclearly understanding the people whom he serves, and toillustrate the contribution which the behavioral or socialscientist with his special concepts, tools, and method-ology can make to this understanding. "The threads of .

health and illness are woven into the sociocultural fabricand assume full significance only when perceived as partof the total design. Each study in this book is a case inpoint." Parts and case subjects are: Part I, Reeducating

8

the Community (a comprehensive health program inSouth Africa; mental health education in a Canadiancommunity; water boiling in a Peruvian town); PartII, Reaction to Crises (medicine and faith in Rajasthan; acholera epidemic in a Chinese town; diphtheria immuni-zation in a Thai community); Part III, Sex Patterns andPopulation Problems (birth control in Puerto Rico;abortion on a Pacific Island); Part IV, Effects of SocialSegmentation (Western medicine in an Indian village; anAlabama town health needs survey; a mental healthproject in Boston); Part V, Vehicles of Health Admin-istration (the clinical team in a Chilean health center; acommunity improvement project in Brazil; a medicalcare program in Colorado); Part VI, Combining Serviceand Research (medicine and politics in a Mexican village;a nutritional research program in Guatemala). A finalsection, Review of Concepts and Contents, discussesconcepts of society and culture, race and culture, cultureand perception, the patterning of culture, and inno-vation. References and an index are included. [Locatedtoo late for indexing.]

PIAGET, JEAN. The origins of intelligence in children,translated by Margaret Cook. New York: Inter-national Universities Press, 1952. 419 pp.

This work is the first of three studies dedicatedto the beginnings of intelligence, that is, to the variousmanifestations of sensorimotor intelligence and to themost elementary forms of expression. Part and chaptertitles indicate contents: Introduction: The BiologicalProblem of Intelligence; Part I, Elementary Sensori-motor Adaptations(1) The First Stage: The Use ofReflexes, (2) The Second Stage: The First AcquiredAdaptations and the Primary Circular Reaction; PartII, The Intentional Sensorimotor Adaptations(3) TheThird Stage: The "Secondary Circular Reactions" andthe Procedures Destined to Make Interesting Sights Last;(4) The Fourth Stage: The Coordination of the. Secon-dary Schemata and Their Application to New Situations;(5) The Fifth Stage: The "Tertiary Circular Reaction"and the "Discovery of New Means Through ActiveExperimentation"; (6) The Sixth Stage: The Inventionof New Means Through Mental Combinations; Conclu-sions: "Sensorimotor" or "Practical" Intelligence andthe Theories of Intelligence. [Located too late forindexing.]

RUSSELL, CLAIRE and W. M. S. RUSSELL. Humanbehavior: a new approach. Boston: Little, Brown& Company, 1961. 532 pp.

The new approach explicitly stated in the prefaceinvolves: (a) classification of behavior as "instinctive "or automatic (as in lower animals), or as "intelligent" (asin fully-human, self-conscious, civilized beings); (b) thesuggestion that Freud accepted too readily the symbols

of infantile rationalization as being of universal validitythat these really derive from the neurotic fantasies ofparents who, in exploiting their children, ensure theperpetuation of these fantasies in them; and (c) theclaim that recognition of (a) and (b) could lead to acontinually evolving and progressive state of mind in theindividual, with a corresponding state of society. Thechapters are: (1) Introduction; (2) Intelligence, Instinct,and Rationalization; (3) Social Relations and the Uses ofSpeech; (4) Behavioral Inheritance; (5) Threefold andFourfold Relationships; (6) Pseudosex; (7) Phases ofPersonality; (8) Sophocles and the King of Thebes;(9) Shakespeare and the Prince of Denmark; and(10) Cultural Evolution. Appendices on '17 related sub-jects are included, as well as references, a source index,and a subject index. (35)

SKINNER, B. F. Science and human behavior. NewYork: Macmillan, 1953. 461 pp.

The basic questions of the scientific analysis ofhuman behavior are explored against traditional concep-tions of human nature and traditional ways of observing,classifying, and judging human behavior. Some of theunderlying, basic questions that the author examinesare: In what way can the behavior of the individual or ofgroups of individuals be predicted or controlled?, Whatare laws of behavior like?, What overall conception ofthe human organism as a behaving system emerges?Section and chapter titles describe the contents: SectionI, The Possibility of a Science of Human Behavior(1) Can Science Help?, (2) A Science of Behavior,(3) Why Organisms Behave; Section II, The Analysis ofB e h av ior (4) Reflexes and Conditioned Reflexes,(5) Operant Behavior, (6) Shaping and Maintaining Oper-ant Behavior, (7) Operant Discrimination, (8) The Con-trolling Environment, (9) Deprivation and Satiation,(10) Emotion, (11) Aversion, Avoidance, Anxiety,(12) Punishment, (13) Function versus Aspect,(14) The Analysis of Complex Cases; Section III, TheIndividual as a Whole(15) "Self-Control," (16) Think-ing, (17) Private Events in a Natural Science, (18) TheSelf; Section IV, The Behavior of People in Groups(19) Social Behavior, (20) Personal Control, (21) GroupControl; Section V, Controlling Agencies(22) Government and Law, (23) Religion, (24) Psycho-therapy, (25) Economic Control, (26) Education; Sec-tion VI, The Control of Human Behavior(27) Cultureand Control, (28) Designing a Culture, (29) The Prob-lems of Control. An index is included. (36)

STEVENS, S. S. (ed.). Handbook of experimental psy-chology. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1951.1436 pp.

This indexed collection of 36 essays by special-ists in experimental psychology includes units on

9

psychological mechanisms, growth and development,motivation, learning and adjustment, sensory processes,and human performance. The last unit has severalchapters relevant to training. Each essay has a list of ref-erences. (37)

STRAUSS, ANSELM L. Mirrors and masksthe searchfor identity. Glencoe, Ill.: The Free Press, 1959.186 pp.

The book is an extended essay divided into sixchapters: (1) Language and Identity; (2) Self-Appraisalsand the Course of Action; (3) Interaction; (4) Trans-formations of Identity; (5) Change and Community;(6) Memberships and History. The author attempts "tobring together an emphasis upon symbolic behaviorand another emphasis upon social organizationand bydoing so to suggest a fruitful, systematic perspectivefrom which the traditional problems of social psy-chology might be viewed." References and an indexare included. (38)

THOMAS, EDWIN J. and ESTHER GOODMAN(eds.). Socio-behavioral theory and inter-personal helping in social work; lectures andinstitute proceedings. Ann Arbor, Mich.: CampusPublishers, 1965. 65 pp.

Lectures, summaries of classification sessions anddiscussions, and the list of readings for an institutedesigned to introduce some of the key notions ofsocio-behavioral theory to selected field instructors ofthe University of Michigan School of Social Work arepresented. Readers are urged to coordinate the readingof references listedor analogous writingswith thelecture content presented. Subjects of lectures whichwere presented by Edwin J. Thomas with the assistanceof Esther Goodman. are: objectives of the institute;relevance of the socio-behavioral approach; the socio-behavioral approach; reinforcement; maintaining behav-ior; extinction; punishment; discrimination; imitation;implications for social work practice; and some limita-tions of socio-behavioral theory. Objectives of theinstitute were: to prepare the field instructors to delveinto the growing literature on the subject; to help themrelate the ideas to more familiar conceptions andpractices; to supplement and sharpen current concep-tions and helping activities; to familiarize them withanother technical language; to help them understandwhat others were talking about in this area; and to helpthem begin the thinking, experimentation, and appraisalof the innovations that must necessarily accompany theintroduction of important scientific knowledge in aprofession such as social work. Six required readings andnine optional readings are listed. (39)

ULRICH, ROGER, THOMAS STOCHNIK and JOHNMABRY. Control of human behavior. Glenview,Ill.: Scott, Foresman & Company, 1966. 349pp.

This is a compilation of papers by variousspecialists arranged under the following parts and sub-parts: (I) The Scientific Analysis of Behavior (assump-tions underlying behavioral control; principles andmethods in the experimental analysis of behavior;early examples of the analysis of human behavior);(II) Applications of Behavior Control (behavior modi-fication in educational settings; principles and controlof social behavior; modification of disordered be-havior; modification of severe behavior disorders;psychological and chemical modification of behaviorin industry and advertising; the use of animals toperform typically human tasks); (III) Fallacies in theInterpretation and Control of Behavior (fallacies ininterpretation; fallacies in control); and (IV) Implica-tions of Behavior Control (concern over the controlof human behavior; the future of behavior control).There are 11 pages of references. (40)

10

YOUNG, MARJORIE A. C. and JEANNETTE J. SIM-MONS. Review of research and studies related tohealth education practice (1961 -1966)psycho-logical and cultural factors related to healtheducation practice. Health education mono-graphs, no. 24, 1967. 64 pp.

The study is the second in a series of monographson review of research and studies related to healtheducation practice (1961-1966). The chapter titles indi-cate the contents: Introduction and General Orienta-tion; Dynamics of Behavior (Motivation and Percep-tion); Role Theory and Analysis; Small Group Re-search and Studies; Studies of Organizations andOrganizational Change; Community Studies; StudiesRelated to Social Change; Summary. References areincluded at the end of each chapter. (41)

ZANDER, ALVIN. Resistance to changeits analysisand prevention. Advanced management 15:1,January 1950. pp. 9-11.

Obvious improvements have sometimes causedintense resistance. Research shows that any change maybe resented unless intelligent planning is done in advanceto help the "changees" understand their own feelings.The nature of resistance, the conditions that appear tobe associated with its development, and some meanswhereby resistance may be prevented or decreased arediscussed. (42)

PERCEPTION

BROADBENT, D. E. Perception and communication.New York: Pergamon Press, 1958. 338 pp.

Chapter titles indicate contents: (1) Intro-duction: Healing and Behavior; (2) Selective Listeningto Speech; (3) Verbal and Bodily Response; (4) TheAssessment of Communications Channels for Ease ofListening; (5) The Effect of Noise on Behavior;(6) The General Nature of Vigilance; (7) Some Dataon Individual Differences; (8) The Nature of Extinc-tion; (9) Immediate Memory and the Shifting of At-tention; (10) The Selective Nature of Learning;(11) Recent Views of Skill; (12) Retrospect and Pros-pect. There is a 16-page bibliography. Name andsubject indexes are provided. (43)

DEMBER, WILLIAM N. The psychology of perception.New York: Henry Holt & Company, 1960. 402pp.

This is a basic text on the psychology ofperception designed for use in a one-semester laboratorycourse (undergraduate level). Chapter titles and topicheadings describe the contents: (1) Introduction (TheStudy of Perception, The Basic Perceptual Processes);(2) Threshold Measurement Techniques (Two Basic As-pects of Threshold Measurement, Detection; Discrimina-tion, Recognition and Identification); (3) SimilarityMeasurement and Stimulus Scaling (What Is an At-tribute?, Stimulus Scaling); (4) Visual Psychophysics(Detection, Discrimination); (5) The Organization ofVisual Perception (Figure Formation and Stability,Two-Dimensional Spatial Organization, Three-Dimensional Spatial Organization); (6) The Influence ofContext (Intramodal Manipulations, Intermodal Manipu-lations); (7) Effects of Learning on Perception (Learningin Perceptual Development, Discrimination Training,Learning in Complex Human Perception); (8) Set andPerception (Recognition, Attributive Judgments andFigure-Ground); (9) Motivation Effects on Perception(Motivation and Stimulus Thresholds, Motivation andSuprathreshold Phenomena); (10) Stimulus Complexity,Motivation, and Emotion (Curiosity and ExploratoryBehavior, Stimulus Complexity, Learning, and Emo-tion). References, an author index, and a subject indexare included. (44)

11

EPSTEIN, WILLIAM. Varieties of perceptual learning.New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967. 323 pp.

Perceptual learning refers to the broad range ofmodifications of perception that have been attributedto learning. Intended for an audience of varying levelsof sophistication in the field of perceptual learning, thebook has three primary goals: (1) a critical review ofthe diverse literature pertaining to the question ofperceptual learning; (2) a delineation of importantunresolved questions related to perceptual learning;(3) a determination of the possibilities for derivingempirically based descriptive generalizations about per-ceptual learning. The contents are: (1) Varieties ofPerceptual Learning; (2) The Assumptive Context: I,The Perception of Size and Distance; (3) The Assump-tive Context: II, The Perception of Shape, Slant, andMotion; (4) The Assumptive Context: III, The Percep-tion of Color; (5) Controlled Practice of Training: I,The Role of Practice and Prior Exposure; (6) Control-led Practice or Training: II, The Acquired Distinctive-ness of Cues; (7) Controlled Practice of Training: III,The Effect of Reward and Punishment; (8) PerceptualConflict; (9) Adaptation to Transformed Stimulation;(10) Developmental Studies of Perception; (11) GeneralConclusions and Proposals. A glossary and a name andsubject index are included. (45)

FORGUS, RONALD H. Perception: the basic process incognitive development. New York: McGraw-Hill,1966. 402 pp.

The basic thesis of the book, set forth in thebeginning chapter, is that perception is the superset ofinformation extraction, with learning and thinking assubsets. In connection with this theory, it is argued, onlogical and experimental grounds, that an exclusivelynativistic or empirical theory of perception is untenable.Rather, as argued in Chapter 2, perception is organizedin an ordinal hierarchy, beginning with built-in programsand developing by increasing degrees to modified pro-grams. Chapters 3 and 4 deal with some basic psycho-physical functions and problems of methodology, andthe principles organized around each level of thehierarchy are analyzed from brightness through form tosocial perception and conceptualization. Since the con-cept of information extraction was used to analyze andconceptualize the process of perception, this analysis isextended to the area of thinking in the last four

chapters, although technical language is held to aminimum. A bibliography and index are included. (46)

GIBSON, JAMES J. The senses considered as perceptualsystems. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company,1966. 335 pp.

The chief aim of the book is to explain how thesenses, as active interrelated systems, provide continu-ous, stable information that alone makes adaptive livingpossible. Successive chapters embrace the contributionmade by each of the main receptor systems that arebasic to the adjustment of the organism to its world. Theauthor introduces the concept of "ecological optics,"and in terms of this point of view the book examinessome fundamental questions in psychology: What isinnate and what is ad'quired in perception?, What is therole of learning in establishing adult perception?, How isperceiving related to expectancy?, What is the effect oflanguage on perceiving?, What are perceptual illusions? Abibliography and index are included. (47)

ITTELSON, WILLIAM H. and HADLEY CANTRIL.Perception: a transactional approach. GardenCity, New York: Doubleday & Company, 1954.33 pp.

The transactional approach, a scientific philoso-phy, is applied to human perception. Illustrating theperspective offered is the summary of the major charac-teristics of perception in the statement: "Perceiving is

12

that part of the process of living by which each of us,from his own particular point of view, creates forhimself the world within which he has his life'sexperiences and through which he strives to gain hissatisfactions. . . . Without taking any metaphysical posi-tion regarding the existence of a real world, independentof experience, we can nevertheless assert that theworld-as experienced has no meaning and cannot bedefined independent of the experience. The world as weexperience it is the product of perception, notthe causeof it." The nature of perception, how it is studied, itsdevelopment, and perception in operation are reviewed.Suggestions for further reading are included. (48)

TAYLOR, JAMES G. The behavioral basis of percep-tion. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press,1962. 379 pp.

The thesis of the book is that all consciousexperience is a function of learned behavior, althoughthe detailed exposition is confined to a relativelyrestricted sector of experience, the visual perception ofthe material environment. Chapter titles are: (1) Intro-duction; (2) The Beginning of Adaptation to the En-vironment; (3) The Beginnings of Space Perception;(4) Further Development of Space Perception; (5) Grav-ity; (6) Expanding the Visual Field; (7) Parallax; (8) Ex-perimental Evidence (Mathematical Appendix, by Sey-mour Paper); (9) Three Experiments; (10) The Percep-tion of Color; (11) The Modalities; (12) Other Theories;(13) Philosophical Implications. References and an indexare included. (49)

MOTIVATION

ATKINSON, JOHN W. An introduction to motivation.Princeton, N. J.: D. Van Nostrand Company,1964. 335 pp.

Designed for both beginning and advanced stu-dents of the subject, the book is intended as a basicintroduction to and identification of the concepts of thepsychology of motivation. Chapter titles describe thecontents: (1) Introduction: The Viewpoint of CommonSense; (2) Introspective Analysis of Conscious Volition;(3) Indirect Analysis of Unconscious Motives; (4) Con-ceptual Analysis of Motivation and Conflict; (5) Experi-mental Analysis of Purposive Behavior; (6) The Founda-tion of S-R Behavior Theory; (7) The Evaluation of S-RBehavior Theory; (8) Systematic Study of Human Moti-vation; (9) A Theory of Achievement Motivation; (10) ASpeculative Review and Prospectus. References andname and subject indexes are included. (50)

ATKINSON, JOHN and NORMAN T . FEATHER (eds.).A theory of achievement motivation. New York.John Wiley & Sons, 1966. 392 pp.

"This book is a report of research growing out ofa project on personality dynamics sponsored by theFord Foundation at the University of Michigan from1956 to 1962. It is also a progress report of a programstudying achievement motivation which was initiated inexperiments on projective expression of needs by Mc-Clelland and coworkers (McClelland and Atkinson,1948)." This is a collection of papers with overallemphasis on "contemporaneous determinants of achieve-ment-oriented activities." (USCSC edited) (51)

BIRCH, DAVID and JOSEPH VEROFF. Motivation: astudy of action. Belmont, Calif.: Brooks ColePublishing Company, 1966.98 pp.

Theories of motivation based on a behavioralapproach are presented. Motivational principles areformulated on the basis of experimental observations ofanimal and human actions in a variety of contexts.Chapter titles are: (1) A Theoretical Context for theStudy of Motivation (The Principles of Action, Deter-minants of Tendencies); (2) The Experimental Approachto Motivation (Activities Studies in the Laboratory,Incentive, Motive, Consummatory Value, Drive); (3) Ex-planations of Recurrent Instrumental and Consum-

13

matory Behavior (The Sensory Incentive System, TheCuriosity Incentive System, The Achievement IncentiveSystem, The Affiliative Incentive System, The AggressiveIncentive System, The Power Incentive System, TheIndependence Incentive System). References and anindex are included. (52)

BRETHOWER, DALE M. and GEARY A. RUMMLER.For improved work performance: accentuate thepositive. Personnel 43:5, September-October,1966. pp. 40-49.

Examples are cited of common situations whichrequire a manager to attempt to change employees'behavior to a specified goal, and the value of applyingbehavioral technology as a management technique inthese situations is discussed. How behavioral technologymay be used to identify, train, and maintain relevant jobbehavior is discussed under the topic headings: Carrotsand Sticks, Analyzing Problems, Job Behavior, DesigningLearning Systems, The Nature of Reinforcers, Schedulesof Reinforcement, Time Between Act and Consequence,Motivation and Behavior, Theory and Practice, and TheWhole Job. (53)

BRUNING, JAMES L. and DAVID R. METTEE. Theeffects of various social factors on motivation ina competitive situation. Journal of social psy-chology, vol. 70, second half, December 1966.pp. 295-297.

This is a report of two experiments. One investi-gated the effects of opponent proximity on per-formance; the other, performance as it was affected bythe proportion of wins and losses experienced by thesubjects. (USCSC 1, edited) (54)

BUCHANAN, PAUL C. The leader looks at individualmotivation (Looking Into Leadership series).Washington, D. C.: Leadership Resources, Inc.,1961.11 pp.

Six questions which leaders often ask aboutmotivation are cited as evidence of the importince ofunderstanding this factor in human behavior. rive forcesin human behavior are examined: (1) behavior dependson both the person and his environment; (2) each

individual behaves in ways which make sense to him; (3)an individual's perception of a situation influences hisbehavior in that situation; (4) an individual's view ofhimself influences what he does; (5) an individual'sbehavior is influenced by his needs, which vary fromperson to person and from time to time. Hierarchy ofneeds from physiological to self-actualizing is discussed.The importance of past learning and its integrative effecton behavior are stressed. Guidelines and specific ques-tions for self-appraisal are offered. Six references aresuggested for further reading. (55)

COFER, C. N. and M. H. APPLEY. Motivation: theoryand research. New York: John Wiley & Sons,1967. 958 pp.

The major purpose of this volume is to examinesome of the main forms that motivational conceptshave assumed in the major theoretical systems currentin contemporary psychology. To increase the compre-hensiveness of the authors' own views, critical reviewsare presented not only of the major theoretical systemsof motivation, but also of fundamental research in thefield that is not part of any one systematic outlook.The authors are concerned throughout the book pri-marily with concepts and evidence pertinent to motiva-tional construction themselves, rather than motivationconcepts secondary to principles of learning, percep-tion, or personality organization. Chapter titles furtherdescribe the contents: (1) The Concept of Motivation;(2) Motivation in Historical Perspective; (3) The Con-cept Instinct: Ethological Position; (4) Bodily Condi-tions: I; (5) Bodily Conditions: II; (6) Activity andExploration; (7) HomeOstatic Concepts and Motivation;(8) Hedonic and Activation Theories of Emotion;(9) Frustration, Conflict, and Stress; (10) Motivation inLearning Theory: Drive and Incentive; (11) Learning,Performance, Reinforcement, and Acquired MotivationTheory; ( 1 2) Psychoanalytic Motivation Theory;(13) Self-Actualization and Related Concepts;(14) Some Aspects of Human Motivation; (15) SocialMotivation; (16) Toward a Unified Theory of Motiva-tion. A bibliography and author and subject indexesare included. (56)

FELDMAN, SHEL (ed.). Cognitive consistency: motiva-tional antecedents and behavioral consequences.New York: Academic Press, 1966. 312 pp.

The contributors to this volume represent anumber of different viewpoints on the consistencytheories and their relationship to other aspects ofpsychology. Despite their differences, however, theyseem to agree that the motivational issue is the mostpressing problem for each of the theories: each theorymust clarify its stand on the nature of the consistency-seeking motivation and the motivational determinants of

14

that behavior. Some contributors make this point incomprehensive reviews of the entire area; some, indetailed analysis of that single issue, or in reviews ofstudies highlighting that issue; and some, in carefulconsideration of the behavioral implications of motiva-tional assumptions. Nine studies are included, along withauthor and subject indexes. (57)

FESTINGER, LEON. A theory of cognitive dissonance.Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1957.291 pp.

The two basic hypotheses underlying the theoryof motivation developed in the book are: (1) Theexistence of dissonance (inconsistencyi.e., inconsistentbehavior), being psychologically uncomfortable, willmotivate the person to try to reduce the dissonance andachieve consonance (consistencyi.e., consistent behav-ior); and (2) when dissonance is present, in addition totrying to reduce it, the person will actively avoidsituations and information which would likely increasethe dissonance. The theory is set forth in chapters:(1) An Introduction to the Theory of Dissonance;(2) The Consequences of Decisions: Theory; (3) TheConsequences of Decisions: Data; (4) The Effects ofForced Compliance: Data; (5) The Effects of ForcedCompliance: Theory; (6) Voluntary and InvoluntaryExposure to Information: Theory; (7) Voluntary andInvoluntary Exposure to Information: Data; (8) TheRole of Social Support: Theory; (9) The Role of SocialSupport: Data on Influence Process; (10) The Role ofSocial Support: Data on Mass Phenomena; (11) Recapit-ulation and Further Suggestions. References and anindex are included. (58)

FRANKL, VIKTOR E. Man's search for meaning; anintroduction to logotherapy. New York: Wash-ington Square Press, 1963. 220 pp.

The basic tenet of logotherapy is that man'sdeepest motivation is to find meaning and a sense ofresponsibility in his existence. In the author's words,"Logotherapy ... makes the concept of man into awhole . . . and focuses its attention upon mankind'sgroping for a higher meaning in life." This school oftherapy has been called the Third Viennese School ofPsychotherapy (the predecessors being the Freudian andAdlerian Schools). It stresses frustration in the will-to-meaning. This theory developed as the author survivedthe experience of life in a concentration camp. Themajor part of the book is an autobiographical descrip-tion of these experiences in which the author attempts,to answer the question: "How was everyday life in aconcentration camp reflected in the mind of the averageprisoner?" The author gradually introduces his philoso-phy of logotherapy within the narrative. This book is arevised and enlarged version of From Death Camp to

Existentialism. Part Two contains a discussion of basicconcepts of logotherapy, among which is emphasis onman's freedom of decision (as opposed to absoluteconditioning of choice). As Dr. Frankl states: "Ap-parently pan-determinism is an infectious disease withwhich educators have been innoculated; and this is eventrue of many adherants of religion who are seeminglynot aware that they are thereby undermining the verybasis of their own convictions. For either man's freedomof decision for or against God, as well as for or againstman, must be recognized, or else religion is a. delusion,and education an illusion." There is an English bibliog-raphy of books, book chapters, articles, and miscel-laneous sources on logotherapy and existential analysis.The preface is by Gordon W. Allport, who describes thebook as having literary and philosophical merit andproviding "a compelling introduction to the mostsignificant psychological movement of our day." (59)

FREUD, ANNA. The bearing of the psychoanalytictheory of instinctual drives on certain aspects ofhuman behavior. IN Loewenstein, Rudolph M.(ed.). Drives, affects, behavior. New York: Inter-national Universities Press, 1953. pp. 259-277.

This paper amplifies the main points of a lecturedelivered to the United Nations Educational, Scientific,and Cultural Organization in 1948. It contains sugges-tions on how to apply psychoanalytic principles to atheoretical discussion of techniques for changing mentalattitudes affecting international understanding and con-sequently how to use psychoanalytic knowledge practi-cally to further the aims of a World Organizationinterested in spreading insight into the basic nature of achild's instinctual drives and their bearing on thesocialization and character formation of human individ-uals. Part I is a discussion of the theories of conflict andtension in terms of early emotional dependence onparents, sex development, early aggressive development,ambivalence of feeling as a source of tension, displace-ment of hate onto strangers, projection of aggression as asource of tension, and persistence of established atti-tudes. Part II, Difficulties of Verification and PracticalApplication, discusses acceptance by the general public.Part III is entitled, Wartime Demonstrations and Experi-ments. Part IV, Conclusions and Recommendations,contains a summary of 18 specific conclusions from thedata. It is suggested that in order to achieve noticeablealterations in the attitudes of a new generation ofchildren, current educational methods will have to berevised. A program of research with children in variousparts of the world is suggested and 5 specific problemswhich might be studies as a way to demonstrate theeffects of childhood experience on adult behavior areoutlined. [Located too late for indexing.]

15

FRYER, FORREST W. An evaluation of level ofaspiration as a training procedure (The FordFoundation doctoral dissertation series). Engle-wood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, 1964. 92 pp.

An experiment concerned with the followingspecific questions is reported: "(1) Does the procedureof level of aspiration, consisting of knowledge of resultsplus goal - setting, possess a motivational prop-erty . . . above that of knowledge of results alone ?; (2) Isthis procedure . . . differentially effective with trainingof varying difficulty levels?; (3) Do the instructionalvariations of soliciting 'expectations' compared to`hopes' differentially influence subsequent perfor-mance?; (4) Does the method of expressing the level ofaspiration, private or public, influence subsequent per-formance?" (USCSC 3, edited) (60)

GALBRAITH, JAY and L. L. CUMMINGS. An empiricalinvestigation of the motivational determinants oftask performance: interactive effects betweeninstrumentalityvalence and motivationability.Organizational behavior and human performance2:3, August 1967. pp. 237-257.

This is a study of the relationship between abilityand motivation as related to performance. Considerationis given to the impact of the supervisor on performancewithin the scope of this study. (USCSC 1, edited) (61)

GEHMAN, W. S. Application of motivational theory tothe teaching process. The educational forum28:3, March 1964. pp. 347-354.

This article looks into the possibility of usingmotivational theory in the instruction process. Themotivational theory is a dynamic approach to under-standing human behavior which involves a number ofbasic assumptions which in conjunction with humanneeds can create a more effective instruction. Theassumptions about human behavior are: (1) All behavioris caused; (2) All behavior is purposive; (3) All behaviorresults from multiple causation; (4) Unconscious pro-cesses can and often do operate in determining behavior;(5) Behavior is a continuing process; and (6) Behaviorinvolves the total organism. Examples are given whichshow how the above assumptions and human needs cancombine to give more effective training. (ASTD) (62)

GELLERMAN, SAUL W. Motivation and productivity.New York: American Management Association,1963. 304 pp.

The three main purposes of the book are: (1) todraw together the most significant achievements in thestudy of work motivation; (2) to present a theory that

puts most of this research into a single, understandableperspective; and (3) to show the practical implicationof all this research and theory for management policy.The selected materials represent either older studies(10 years old or more) that have lasting significance orrecent material that makes an important contributionto the understanding of work motivation. The book isdivided into three parts. The first deals with motiva-tion from the standpoint of the environment, that is,the various kinds of rewards and pressures withinwhich people operate at work. The second part con-siders motivation from the standpoint of the individualhimself, his needs and purpose and how he acquiresthem. In the third part an attempt is made to showhow the environment and the individual interact, andhow most of the studies considered in parts one andtwo can be integrated by a set of linked ideas thataccommodates most of what is presently (1963) under-stood about work motivation. In the final chapter anumber of major managerial problems are analyzed inthe light of the theory. Titles of parts and chaptersare: Part I, The Motivating Environment (1) Mayoand the Harvard Studies; (2) The Michigan Studies;(3) The Pittsburgh Studies; (4) Further HarvardStudies; (5) The Impact of Money, by William F.Whyte; (6) The Impact of Organization, by ChrisArgyris; (7) The Import of Management Philosophy, byDouglas McGregor; (8) Implications; Part II, The Moti-vated Individual Introduction; (9) The ClassicalTheories; (10) The Competence Motive, by Robert W.White; (11) The Affiliation Motive, by Stanley Schac-ter; (12) The Achievement Motive, by David C. McClel-land; (13) Biographical Studies: The Achievement, Pres-tige, and Security Motives; (14) The Money Motive;Part III, Motivation in Perspective Introduction;(15) Dynamics of Motive; (16) The Concept of Self;(17) The Environment; (18) Psychological Advantage;(19) Determinants of Advantage; (20) Leadership; (21)Recruitment; (22) Morale; (23) Change; (24) Labor Un-ions; and (25) The Meaning of Motivation. An index isincluded. (63)

Gellerman motivation and productivity series (films).Rockville, Md.: BNA Films Division of Bureau ofNational Affairs, Inc.

This is a series of five films: "UnderstandingMotivation"; "Human Nature and Organizational Reali-ties"; "The Self-Motivated Achiever"; "The Managementof Human Assets"; and "Motivation Through JobEnrichment." In these films the informal-interviewerformat is used; thus, complicated theories becomeunderstandable, believable, and applicable to the realityof modern organizations (industry-oriented). (64)

16

GORHAM, WILLIAM A. and JAMES P. JADLOS. Themotivations to be trained. Washington, D.C.:U.S. Civil Service Commission, 1963. 11 pp.

A study made to determine conditions thatcaused satisfaction or dissatisfaction with a trainingprogram is reported. Herzberg's "Movitation to Work"was used as a model for the project. 1USCSC 3, ed-ited) (65)

HABER, RALPH N. (ed). Current research in motiva-tion. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston,1967. 800 pp.

A compilation of 76 research papers (usingboth humans and animals as subjects) and theoreticalessays on motivation is presented. The papers arearranged in nine chapters: (1) Instinctive Behavior;(2) Primary and Secondary Drives; (3) Punishment_Frustration, and Stress; (4) Arousal of Activation;(5) Exploratory Behavior; (6) Rewards and Incentives;(7) Conflict; (8) Anxiety and Guilt; (9) Fantasy,Dreams, and Unconscious Processes. References and anindex are included. (66)

HAYWOOD, WILLIAM T. Two critical C's in academe.Journal of the College and University PersonnelAssociation 18:1, November 1966. pp. 41-45.

The author maintains that the morale and effec-tiveness of nonacademic personnel rest on four corner-stones: "proper classification ... , full and adequate jobdescriptions, competitive and just compensation forservices rendered, and due recognition important to theego. . ."(USCSC 1, edited) (67)

HECKHAUSEN, HEINZ. The anatomy of achievementmotivation (Translated from the German by KayF. Butler, Robert C. Birney, and David C.McClelland). New York: Academic Press, 1967.215 pp.

The author presents a comprehensive account ofthe empirical investigations that have been conducted onachievement motivation in many parts of the world. Healso presents an integrated account of the theoreticalimplications of the data both for a theory of achieve-ment motivation in particular and for theories ofmotivation in general. Chapters are: (1) Introduction;(2) Content Analysis; (3) Evaluation Dispositions (ValueAttitudes); (4) Important Dimensions of Experience;(5) Conflict; (6) The General Structure of Goals andPerformance; (7) Foreperiod: Valence and MotiveArousal; (8) Goal Settings and Level of Aspiration;(9) The Performance Period; (10) The PostperformancePeriod; (11) Accomplishments; (12) Origin and Develop-

ment of Achievement Motivation; (13) ConcludingRemarks. References and author and subject indexesare included. (68)

HERZBERG, FREDERICK. Work and the nature ofman. New York: World Publishing Company,1966. 203 pp.

This is the third book of a trilogy concerning jobattitudes and industrial mental health, the first twobeing Job Attitudes: Review of Research and TheMotivation to Work (1959). The three represent thethree stages of scientific inquiry: knowledge of what hasgone before, new research, and finally a theory. Thisthird study is a specific product of more than four yearsof participation in a multitude of management programsall over the nation and in many parts of Europe in whichthe author attempted to explain and apply results of hisresearch. In this volume followup studies are reported,and some obscure points in the motivation-hygienetheory are clarified. Chapters are entitled: (1) BusinessDominant Institution of Modern Times; (2) Adam andAbraham; (3) Industry's Concepts of Man; (4) The BasicNeeds of Man; (5) Psychological Growth; (6) The Moti-vation-Hygiene Theory; (7) Verification of the Theoryof Motivation-Hygiene; (8) Further Verification of theMotivation-Hygiene Theory; and (9) What Do We Do?The appendix contains descriptions of criteria for eachof 16 categories in the coding scheme of objectiveelements in job situations leading to good or badfeelings. References are cited for each chapter. (69)

HERZBERG, FREDERICK, BERNARD MAUSNERand BARBARA BLOCH SNYDERMAN. Themotivation to work. 2nd edition. New York:John Wiley & Sons, 1959. 157 pp.

A theory of job motivation, job satisfaction, andjob attitude derived from results of more than 200studies of reports by management personnel of theirfeelings about their jobs is presented. The followingbasic problems are discussed: assessing an individual'sfeelings about his job, occurrences on jobs that changepeople's feelings about them, and the effects of thesechanges. The motivation-hygiene theory suggests thatjob factors leading to recognition, achievement, and asense of personal growth in responsibility are the truemotivators and that environmental factors usually usedto motivate (i.e., facilities, interpersonal factors, certainfringe benefits) are hygiene factorsnecessary to avoiddissatisfaction but not related to real job motivation. Itis suggested that current practices are not meeting theneeds of employees. Methods are discussed for avoidingharmful employee behavior and increasing employeeperformance, effectiveness, and personal satisfaction.The major sections of the book contain background andprocedure of the study, results, and implications. In the

17

final chapter, Perspective, the theory is discussed inrelation to the topics indicated by the fallowing head-ings: The Meaning of Work in a Primitive Society,Transition to the Machine Age, Work in the Con-temporary World, The Consequences of Bureaucracy,The Search for Motivation, The Managerial and Profes-sional World, The Consequences for the Individual andfor Society, Suggestions, The Structure of Jobs, ShouldJobs Be Made More Interesting?, The Problem ofSelection, Supervision, What Then Becomes of theConcept of Participation?, A Program in MentalHealth, The Final Goal. Appendices contain a jobattitude interview pattern and a categorized list of jobattitude factors. There are 61 references and a nameand subject index. (70)

HOMME, L. E. and D. T. TOSTI. Contingency manage-ment and motivation. National Society for Pro-grammed Instruction journal 4:7, September1965. pp. 14-16.

The primary aspect of the practical applicationof the laws of behavior is motivation, and to controlreinforcing events is to control motivation. The natureof reinforcement is discussed, and the reinforcing stimu-lus and the reinforcing response are examined andintegrated into a single concept, the "reinforcing event."The control of the reinforcing event is termed contin-gency management. In using this technique of motiva-tional control, "one simply takes notice of whichbehaviors are reinforcing responses, then permits thisbehavior to occur only after behavior one wishes toreinforce." Specific illustrations of the method areoffered and discussed, and the practical difficultiesinvolved are noted. (71)

HOUSE, ROBERT J. and LAWRENCE A. WIGDOR.Herzberg's dual-factor theory of job satisfactionand motivation: a review of the evidence and acriticism. Personnel psychology 20:4, Winter1967. pp. 369-389.

"The purpose of this paper is to review thetheory, the criticisms, and the empiric investigationsreported to date, in an effort to assess the validity of thetheory." (USCSC 1, edited) (72)

HUGHES, CHARLES L. Goal setting, key to individualand organizational effectiveness. New York:American Management Association, 1965. 159pp.

"Today there are many good theories of motiva-tion, many potentially useful concepts about increasingemployee commitment to company objectives and goals.This book is an attempt to synthesize these many

eclectic ideas and translate them into terms meaningfulto the business manager. To do so we must look notonly at the theories themselves, but at company prac-tices and management attitudes. This process will bringto light numerous conflicts between theory and ap-plication and inevitably point up obsolete thinking andinadequate management behavior." Part and chaptertitles are: Part One, Motivation and Management(1) ConflictInevitable or Not?; (2) Needs, Purpose,and Organization; (3) Corporate Planning and Indi-vidual Achievement; (4) Theories of Motivation andManagement; (5) Goal-Oriented People; (6) IncreasingGoal-Oriented Action; Part Two, The Goal Achieve-ment Process(7) Conditions for Motivation; (8) Moti-vation Opportunities; (9) Motivation Media; Part Three,Goal-Setting Systems; (10) A Systems Approach toMotivation; (11) A General Model for Goal-SettingSystems; (12) Organizational Goal-Setting Systems;(13) Individual Goal-Setting Systems; (14) Individualand Organizational Goal Interaction; (15) Abilities andPerformance; (16) A Total System for Motivation; PartFour, Final Thoughts(17) The Role of MaintenanceNeeds; (18) Personal and Private Goals. References arecited in footnotes. (73)

INDIK, BERNARD P. Measuring motivation to work.Personnel adminstration 29:6, November-December 1966. pp. 39-44.

The author reports information obtained as aby-product of a study on the selection process for themanpower training program under the Manpower Devel-opment and Training Act. He applies the theory ofDavid McClelland and John Atkinson on achievement,power, and affiliation motivation to work motivation.(USCSC 1, edited) (74)

LAWRIE, JOHN W. Motivation and organization. Per-sonnel journal 46:1, January 1967. pp. 4249.

"People need organizations and organizationsneed people. . . . Yet we find that the mutual facilitationof the satisfaction of these needs has been hindered byincomplete or simplified notions of human motivationon the one hand, and organizational inertia on theother." The author discusses various theories of motiva-tion. (USCSC 1, edited) (75)

MADSEN, K. B. Theories of motivation: a comparativestudy of modern theories of motivation. 2ndedition. Cleveland, Ohio: Howard Allen, Inc.,1961. 356 pp.

The book deals with psychological concepts andtheories of motivation of the past 30 years, and is asystematic analysis and comparison of what the author

18

considers the most important concepts and theories ofmotivation. There are 20 chapters, divided into threesections: (1) Meta-Theoretical Psychology; (2) Analysisof Theories (20 theories are covered); (3) Comparison ofTheories. A bibliography and an index are included. (76)

MASLOW, A. H. Motivation and personality. New York:Harper & Brothers, 1954. 411 pp.

The concept that "basic human needs [physiolog-ical, safety, belongingness and love, esteem, and self-actualization needs] are organized into a hierarchy ofrelative prepotency" is the focus of this book. Applica-tions to theories of science, personality, psycho-pathology, psychotherapy, and general psychology aresuggested. Chapter titles further indicate contents:(1) Elements of a Psychological Approach to Science;(2) Problem Centering vs. Means Centering in Science;(3) Holistic-Dynamic Theory in the Study of Personal-ity; (4) Preface to Motivation Theory; (5) A Theory ofHuman Motivation; (6) The Role of Basic Need Gratifi-cation in Psychological Theory; (7) The InstinctoidNature of Basic Needs; (8) Higher and Lower Needs;(9) Psychopathogensis and the Theory of Threat;(10) Is Destructiveness Instinctoid?; (11) The Expres-sive Component of Behavior; (12) Self-ActualizingPeople: A Study of Psychological Health; (13) Love inSelf-Actualizing People; (14) Cognition of the Indi-vidual and of the Generic; (15) Unmotivated and Pur-poseless Reactions; (16) Psychotherapy, Health, andMotivation; (17) Normality, Health, and Values;(18) Toward a Positive Psychology. An appendix con-tains brief discussions of questions generated by apositive approach to psychology in the areas of learn-ing; perception; emotions; motivation; intelligence; cog-nition and thinking; clinical, animal, and social psy-chology; and personality. There is a 331-item bibliog-raphy. Name and subject indexes are included. (77)

McCLELLAND, DAVID C. The achieving society.Princeton, NJ.: D. Van Nostrand Company,1961. 512 pp.

This study isolates certain psychological factorsand demonstrates rigorously, by quantitative scientificmethods, that these factors are generally important ineconomic development. The primary purpose of thebook is to contribute to an understanding of why somemen concentrate on economic activities and are conspic-uously successful at them. Chapters are: (1) ExplainingEconomic Growth; (2) The Achievement Motive: How' ItIs Measured and Its Economic Effects; (3) AchievingSocieties in the Modern World; (4) Achieving Societiesin the Past; (5) Other Psychological Factors in EconomicDevelopment; (6) Entrepreneurial Behavior; (7) Chvac-teristics of Entrepreneurs; (8) The Spirit of Hermes;(9) Sources of Need for Achievement; and (10) Acceler-

ating Economic Growth. Ten pages of references areincluded. Appendices are: (1) Representative Storiesfrom Children's Readers in Various Countries; (2) Mo-tive Scores and Other-Directedness Rank by CountryBased on Children's Stories; (3) Values Coding Systemfor Children's Stories; (4) Comparative Validity of Ver-bal and Graphic Measures of Need for Achievement inFour Countries; (5) Codes and Scores from the Cross-Cultural Study of Preliterate Tribes; (6) Questionnaireused in the Four-Country Study of Adolescent Boys andTheir Mothers; and (7) Questionnaire and Motive Scoresin the Cross-Cultural Study of Businessmen and Profes-sionals. The book is indexed. (78)

McCLELLAND, DAVID C., JOHN W. ATKINSON,RUSSEL A. CLARK and EDGAR L. LOWELL.The achievement motive. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1953. 384 pp.

` This book contains a summary of research onthe achievement motive conducted mainly at WesleyanUniversity during the period January 1, 1947, toJanuary 1, 1952, under the continuous moral andfinancial support of the Office of Naval Research." Itattempts to summarize the results of five years ofintensive research into the nature of achievement moti-vation. Its purpose is twofold: (1) to bring together themany diverse findings accumulated in an attempt todevelop some kind of a theory that would at least beginto put them in order; and (2) to make available to otherinvestigators an instrument for measuring human motiva-tion. Chapter titles are: Toward a Theory of Motivation;Arousing the Achievement Motives and Obtaining Imagi-native Stories; Analysis of Imaginative Stories for Moti-vational Content; Effects on Fantasy of ArousingAchievement Movitation; General Applicability of the N(need for) Achievement Scoring System; The MeasuringInstrument; Relation of N Achievement Score to Behav-ior; Origins of Achievement Motivation; and Review.The three appendices are: (1) Illustrative Four-StoryRecords from Thirty Subjects; (2) Scoring for theIllustrative Stories; and (3) Pictures and Verbal Cues usedto Elicit Stories. A bibliography of N achievement titlesand a reference and author index are included. (79)

McINTOSH, ROBERT W. Employee motivation andwork incentives in the service industries (Exten-sion bulletin 483, recreation and tourism series).East Lansing: Michigan State University, Cooper-ative Extension Service, 1966.6 pp.

Practical guides for developing more productiveand better satisfied employees include use of the teamapproach and specific incentive awards systems. (USCSC1, edited) (80)

19

MYERS, M. SCOTT. Who are your motivated workers?Harvard business review 42:1, January-February1964. pp. 73-88.

A 1961-1962 study at Texas Instruments clearlypoints out that the factors in the work situation whichmotivate are different from the factors that dissatisfy.Motivation stems from the challenge of the job throughsuch factors as achievement, responsibility, growth,advancement, work itself, and earned recognition. Dis-satisfactions spring from factors peripheral to the task(such as work rules, titles, and fringe benefits). Effectivejob performance depends on the fulfilment of bothmotivation and maintenance needs. Maintenance needsinvolve physical environment, social relationships, status,orientation, security, and economic provisions. Thesupervisor's role is (1) to provide conditions of motiva-tion, and (2) to satisfy maintenance needs. The motiva-tion-maintenance theory helps the company achieve itsgoals by providing opportunities for employees toachieve personal goals. (81)

MYERS, M. SCOTT and EARL D. WEED, JR. Behav-ioral change agents: a case study. Managementand personnel quarterly 6:3, Fall 1967. pp.12 -19.

A 1962 motivation research project at TexasInstruments concluded that the integration of involve-ment and personal commitment resulted in produc-tivity increase. Employees benefited immediately frommore meaningful work and, furthermore, earned morein profit-sharing funds as productivity increased. Jobsatisfaction, in terms of more interest in the workitself, achievement, , and fewer personnel problems, wasnoted by operating;imanagers as a direct consequenceof employee involvement in the management of theirwork. One condition favoring positive change is acorporate goal-setting system which enables managersto support company goals through a hierarchy ofobjectives, strategies, and tactical action programswhich, when properly implemented, provide employeesat every organizational level with a meaningful respon-sibility. A second condition is the application of amanagement philosophy which includes respect for theindividual, high performance expectations, opportunityto influence and set goals, freedom to act, encourage-ment of technical and managerial innovation, and amerit compensation system. Ingredients for behavioralchange in any organization include: (1) a clear-cut,workable theory of motivation; (2) a climate thatencourages management innovation; (3) managers willingand able to act aggressively and experimentally in testingthe improvement possibilities defined by behavioraltheory; and (4) a personnel staff psychologically ori-ented to provide the direction, stimulation, and bufferneeded in the change process. (82)

OXLEY, G. M. and GENEVIEVE G. OXLEY. Expecta-tions of excellence. California management re-view 6:1, Fall 1963. pp. 13-22.

The use of expectations as a motivational deviceand as a means of setting standards within the topmanagement group of organizations is discussed. Proper-ly communicated expectations, it is maintained, willinfluence the behavior of production and clerical work-ers as well as of vice-presidents and staff experts whomaintain professional independence. Methods of com-municating expectations, from explicit statement tocommunication by example, are reviewed. Twenty-eightreferences are included. (83)

PATTON, ARCH. Executive motivation; how it ischanging. Management review 57:1, January1968. pp. 4-20.

The author sees key components in changingmotivation programs as including changing the physicaland psychological environment, increasing job excite-ment through setting high goals, frequent changes inassignment, better use of performance appraisal, andapplication of a new three- track, compensation system.(USCSC 1, edited) (84)

Psychoanalysis and education. The Reiss-Davis ClinicBulletin. Los Angeles: Reiss-Davis Clinic forChild Guidance. Annual issue.

Each year a special issue of the Bulletin, editedby Rudolf Ekstein, Ph.D., and Rocco L. Motto, M.D., isdevoted to the relationship between psychoanalysis andeducation. Contents of issues published to date are:

Vol. 1:1Spring 1964

Vol. 2:1Spring 1965

Foreword, by Fritz Redl; Introduction,by R. L. Motto; Psychoanalysis and Edu-cationAn Historical Account, by RudolfEkstein and R. L. Motto; The BoundaryLine Between Education and Psycho-therapy, by Rudolf Ekstein; The LearningProcess: From Learning for Love to Loveof Learning, by Rudolf Ekstein; Psycho-analysis and EducationThe Emergenceof a New Collaboration, by R. L. Motto,Bernard Bail, Rudolf Ekstein, and ArthurMalin.

Foreword, by G. H. J. Pearson; Introduc-tion, by Rudolf Ekstein and Rocco L.Motto; "It Hurts Me More Than It HurtsYou"An Approach to Discipline as aTwo-Way Process, by E. James Anthony;A Tribute to Anne Sullivan Macy, AGreat Teacher of Discipline, by RudolfEkstein; The School's Role in Discipline,

20

Vol. 3:1Spring 1966

Vol. 4Spring 1967

Vol. 5Spring 1968

by Sybil K. Richardson; Some Reflectionson the Problem of Discipline, by GeorgeSheviakov; Management of DisciplineProblems in Normal Students, by FritzRedl.

Introduction, by Rudolf Ekstein and Roc-co L. Motto; Three Great PsychoanalyticEducators, by Edith Buxbaum; J. C. Hill'sPsychoanalytic Contributions to Teach-ing, by Rudolf Ekstein; The UnconsciousMind in Teaching, by J. C. Hill; Psycho-analytic Notes on the Function of theCurriculum, by Rudolf Ekstein.

Introduction, by Rudolf Ekstein and Roc-co L. Motto; Lili E. Peller's Psycho-analytic Contributions .to Teaching, byRudolf Ekstein; Psychoanalysis and Pub-lic Education, by Lili E. Peller; Who Ownsthe School in Our Changing Society?,Albert J. Solnit; Task and Conflict, byRudolf Ekstein; Further Thoughts on theUnconscious Mind in Teaching, by J. C.Hill; Play and Mastery, by Maria Piers.

Introduction, by Rocco L. Motto andRudolf Ekstein; Willi Hoffer's Contribu-tion to Teaching and Education, byRudolf Ekstein; How Can the EducationalProcess Become a Behavioral Science?, byLawrence S. Kubie; The Influence of theCurriculum and Teaching on the Develop-ment of Creativity, by Ralph Tyler; TheUnconscious Mind in Teaching, III, by J.C. Hill; Psychoanalysis and Education:From Prevention of Emotional Disordersto Creative Learning and Teaching, byRudolf Ekstein.

[Located too late for indexing.]

RUSH, HAROLD M. F. The language of motivation.Suggestion system quarterly 3:4, Winter 1967.pp. 14-15, 24-28.

The author offers a shorthand definition ofmotivation: "Individual, internally generated behaviordesigned to fill a purposethe individual's purpose." Hediscusses its various facets: the hierarchy of needs,belongingness and identification, commitment and in-volvement, self-actualization, supportive relationship. Hebelieves that behavioral scientists would maintain thatthe aggregate of these concepts is what management isseeking when it speaks of creating the climate forindividual growth: the climate for motivation. (USCSC1, edited) (85)

SHOSTROM, EVERETT L. Man, the manipulator; theinner journey from manipulation to actualiza-tion. Nashville, Tenn.: Abingdon Press, 1967.256 pp.

"A manipulator may be defined as a person whoexploits, uses, and/or controls himself and others asthings in certain self-defeating ways. While every man isto some degree a manipulator. . . , modern humanisticpsychology suggests that out of these manipulations wecan develop the positive potential which AbrahamMaslow and Kurt Goldstein call 'self-actualizing.' Theopposite of the manipulator is the actualizor (a rare birdin pure form) who may be defined as a person whoappreciates himself and his fellow man as peisons Ofsubjects with unique potentialan expresser of his actualself. The paradox is that each of us is partly anactualizor, but we can continually become more actual-izing" (from author's preface). The development andapplication of these concepts is indicated by part andchapter titles: Part I, The Human ChoiceManipulationor Actualization(1) The Problem; (2) The Manipulator;(3) The Actualizor; Part II, The Goals of Actualization(4) Contact vs. Manipulation; (5) Honestly Being YourFeelings; (6) Trusting Yourself in the Here and Now;(7) Freedom and Awareness; (8) Personal Control; PartIII, Examples of Manipulation and Actualization(9) Children and Parents; (10) Teen-Agers; (11) Lovers;Part IV, The Process of Actualization(12) Husbandsand Wives; (13) Profit vs. Persons; (14) ActualizationTherapy; (15) From Manipulation to Actualization.There is a bibliography of books and articles and sourcesof further help through workshops and films. A nameand subject index concludes the book. (86)

TEEVAN, RICHARD C. and BARRY D. SMITH.Motivation. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967. 172pp.

A programmed text on the subject at an elemen-tary level is presented. Three specific questions form theunderlying theme of the text: (1) Can most motives beclassified into broad categories? That is, do certain kindsof motives have properties in common? (2) How domotives operate? (3) Are motives innate or are theyacquired through experience? Chapters discuss in detailthe partial answers that have been offered to these andother questions concerning motivation. The classifica-tion and operation of motives are first discussed,followed by a discussion of specific motives, movingfrom the relatively simple to the more complex motives.Research and various theories related to the problemscovered are discussed. (87)

21

TEEVAN, RICHARD C. and ROBERT C. BIRNEY(eds.). Theories of motivation in personality andsocial psychology: an enduring problem inpsychology. Princeton, N. J.: D. Van NostrandCompany, 1964. 186 pp.

Eight selections by various psychologists areincluded in this book and were chosen (1) to reveal themanner in which motivational questions are subject toconception from disparate points of view, and (2) toserve as a brief but comprehensive overview of theliterature on motivation theory. The essays are: (1) In-stincts and Their Viscissitudes, by Sigmund Freud;(2) The Hormic Psychology, by William McDougall;(3) The Functional Autonomy of Motives, by GordonW. Allport; (4) Facts Which Support the Concept ofNeed or Drive, by Henry A. Murray; (5) Toward aTheory of Motivation, by D. C. McClelland, J. W.Atkinson, R. A. Clark, and E. L. Lowell; (6) DeficiencyMotivation and Growth. Motivation, by AbrahamMaslow; (7) Motivation Leading to Social Behavior, byLeon Festinger; (8) The Role of the PsychologicalSituation in Determining the Direction of HumanBehavior, by J. B. Rotter. (88)

UGELOW, ALVIN. Motivation and the automation oftraining: a literature review (Technical documen-tary report MRL-TDR-62-15). Wright-PattersonAFB, Ohio: Air Force Systems Command, Aero-space Medical Division, Behavioral Sciences Lab-oratory, March 1962. 30 pp.

A review is presented of the literature con-sidered relevant to motivating students to participate inautomated training. Topics reviewed include (1) teach-ing machines and the motivation problem, (2) knowl-edge of results, (3) praise and reproof, (4) competition,(5) task interruption, and (6) some contextual factors.(HumRRO) (89)

WEISER, HERBERT J. Motivating personnel. MSUbusiness topics (Michigan State University) 15:4,Autumn 1967. pp. 21-32.

The author presents an overview of such theoriesof motivation as Theory X, Theory Y, Basic Needs,Self-Actualization, and the Scanlon Plan. He points outsteps that an accounting firm or any other organizationcan take to develop achievement motivation in employ-ees. (USCSC 1, edited) (90)

WHITSETT, DAVID A. and ERIK K. WINSLOW. Ananalysis of studies critical of the motivator-hygiene theory. Personnel psychology 20:4, Win-ter 1967. pp. 391415.

"The purpose of this article will be to review thehistory of the theory, to present an oversimplifiedversion of the complex Motivator-Hygiene theoreticalformulation, and to evaluate studies reporting resultswhich are in apparent disagreement with the theory."(USCSC 1, edited) (91)

22

WISPE, LAUREN G. A psychologist looks at motiva-tional problems in training. Occupational out-look quarterly 9:3, September 1965. pp. 13-15.

A Manpower Administration psychologist de-clares that motivational factors may be completelydifferent in people from culturally impoverished child-hood homes than from those with middle-class upbring-ing. Especially significant is the absence or presence of afather. This points up a tremendous need for training inmotivation-changing. (USCSC 3, edited) (92)

COMMUNICATION

BORDEN, RICHARD. How to communicate ideas.Montclair, N.J.: The Economic Press. 20 pp.

This booklet is condensed from a book by theauthor published in 1935. It contains his four-pointformula for communication. Originally intended pri-marily for public speakers, it is considered applicableto every form of communication. The four stepsdiscussed center around getting attention, appealing tointerests of listeners, orderly presentation of concretecases or examples as illustration, and soliciting somespecific action response within the power of the listen-er to give. (93)

CAMPBELL, JAMES H. and HAL W. HEPLER (eds.).Dimensions in communication; readings. Bel-mont, Calif.: Wadsworth Publishing Company,1965. 230 pp.

Readings are divided into four sections: concep-tual frames, persuasion, language, and writing. All aredirected toward an understanding of communicationgoals and techniques. (USCSC 1, edited) (94)

CHERRY, COLIN. On human communication; a review,a survey, and a criticism. New York: John Wiley& Sons, 1957. 333 pp.

This book was written as an introduction to theseries "Studies in Communication" published jointly bythe Massachusetts Institute of Technology and thepublisher. It consists of a series of simple essays writtenin nontechnical language and intended for an audiencewith no specialized background in the subject. Chaptertitles indicate contents: (1) Communication and Organi-zationan Essay; (2) Evaluation of CommunicativeSciencean Historical Review; (3) On Signs, Language,and Communication; (4) An Analysis of Signals, Espe-cially Speech; (5) On the Statistical Theory of Commu-nication; (6) On the Logic of Communication (syntac-tics, semantics, and pragmatics); (7) On Cognition andRecognition. References and an index are included. (95)

23

DUKER, SAM. Listening bibliography. New York: TheScarecrow Press, 1964. 211 pp. (revised edition,1968, now available)

The increasing amount of expository writing andresearch on listening and its potential improvementthrough proper teaching prompted the development ofthis annotated bibliography. Its boundaries are indicatedby areas not included: speech, audition, hearing, infor-mation theory, communication and communicationtheory, music listening, unavailable items, chapters onlistening in textbooks and curriculum bulletins, and radioand television. All items included were personallyexamined by the compiler. It is emphasized that theannotations are not abstracts. (96)

EISENSON, JON, J. JEFFREY AUER and JOHN V.IRWIN. The psychology of communication. NewYork: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1963. 394 pp.

This illustrated text presents a comprehensivetreatment of the subject. Part and chapter titles describethe contents: I, The Nature, Origin, and Purpose ofSpeech(1) The Nature of Speech; (2) The Oral SpeechCode and its Origin; (3) The Functions and Levels ofSpeech; II, Basic Psychological Principles(4) The Ner-vous Mechanism and Speech; (5) Affective Behavior(Emotion) and Speech; (6) The Psychology of LanguageLearning; (7) How Linguistic Forms Acquire Meaning;(8) Speech and Thought; III, The Communicative Pro-cess(9) The Communicative Process: Scheme and De-sign; (10) Communication Among Animals, by WilliamEtkin; (11) Information Theory and the Psychology ofSpeech, by Milton Valentine; IV, Applications: TheIndividual(12) The Development of Speech in theChild: First Sounds to First Words; (13) LanguageDevelopment in the Child; V, Applications: Group Com-munication(14) Basic Psychological Factors in GroupCommunication; (15) Psychology of Group Discussion;(16) Psychology of Public Address; (17) Psychology ofRadio and Television; (18) Psychology of Stage Fright;VI, Personality and Speech(19) Concepts of Personal-ity; (20) Verbal Behavior of Not-So-Well-Adjusted Per-sonalities; (21) Personality Disturbances and Spee, h. Anindex is included. (97)

GIBB, JACK R. Defensive communication. ETC: Areview of general semantics 22:2,June 1965. pp.221-229.

Reducing defensiveness in interpersonal relation-ships is necessary for fundamental improvements incommunication. Defensive behavior is that behaviorwhich occurs when an individual perceives or anticipatesthreat in the group. The ways in which arouseddefensiveness interferes with communication, thus mak-ing it difficult and sometimes impossible for anyone toconvey ideas clearly and to move effectively toward thesolution of therapeutic, educational, or managerial prob-lems are discussed. Categories of communicative behav-ior characteristic of supportive and defensive climates insmall groups are discussed in the main body of the paperunder the following headings: (1) EvaluationDescription; (2) ControlProblem Orientation; (3) Strat-egySpontaneity; (4) NeutralityEmpathy; (5) Superi-orityEquality; and (6) Certainty Provisionalism. (98)

GREENHILL, LESLIE P. Communication research andthe teaching-learning process. Journal of medicaleducation 38:6, June 1963. pp. 495-502.

The highlights of recent research in communica-tion are reviewed, and the implications for medicaleducation, both undergraduate and postgraduate, arediscussed. Categories of research discussed are: Instruc-tional Film Research; Instructional Television; Combina-tion of Media; New Areas for Research (Course Develop-ment; The Systems Approach to the Management ofLearning; The Assessment of Learning; Learning Re-sources Centers; Interaction of the Learning Process;Faculty Development; Learning Research Centers). (99)

HANEY, WILLIAM V. Communication and organiza-tional behavior: tent and cases. Revised edition.Homewood, Ill.: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1967.533 pp.

This text was designed for use in college courses,management-development seminars, supervisory trainingprograms, adult education classes, and individual self-study. The book does not deal with business andprofessional speaking and writing but, rather, focuses onwhat happens inside a communicator before and as hetalks, writes, or otherwise communicates, and after helistens or reads. Organizational behavior is also discussed,and that it and communication are inextricably inter-woven is a major thesis of the opening chapters. Thereare four major parts: Part I deals with the organizationalsetting in which communication occurs. Part II discussesthe behavioral basis of the communicative act withspecial reference to the roles that perception andmotivation play in communication. A basic model ofcommunication is detailed in Chapter 5, "The Process of

24

Communication." The model describes communicationas a serial process involving the phases of encoding,sending, medium, receiving, and decoding. Each chapterin Part III deals with one or more "patterns ofmiscommunication" that arise in the encoding and/ordecoding phases. The usual chapter format in Part IIIincludes a definition of the miscommunication patternor patterns, the range and types of their consequences,some of their probable causes, and, finally, the sugges-tion of techniques for correcting them and preventingtheir recurrence. Part IV presents 'In overview of thematerial covered and an extensive bibliography. (100)

HARRIS, JEROME J. Survey of medical communicationsources available for continuing physicians' edu-cation. Journal of medical education 41:8,August 1966. pp. 737-755.

The study surveys the communication services orsources available to physicians for continuing medicaleducation, and it evaluates their worth or shortcomings.A review of studies already conducted concludes thatvery little formal or informal training is obtained bymost physicians after they have gone into practice.Major studies reveal that physicians acquire most of theirinformation from detailmen, journals, direct mail, andcolleagues, in that order, rather than from formaleducation sources. A discussion of the various sources ispresented along with lists of books and periodicals whereappropriate. The categories discussed are: Reading as aSource of Information; Periodicals (types of journals,national journals, utilization of material); CommercialSources (direct mail, detailing); Pharmacists and Col-leagues; Meetings, Conventions, and Exhibits; FormalPost - Graduate Education; Informal MiscellaneousSources; Recordings by Subscription; Additional Audio-visual Services; and Noncommercially Sponsored Educa-tional Programs. References are included. (101)

HARTMAN, FRANK R. A behavioristic approach tocommunication: a selective review of learningtheory and a derivation of postulates. AV com-

munication review 11:5, September-October1963. pp. 155-190.

The theory and research of behavior sm, includ-ing Skinner's theory of verbal behavior, the verballearning theory of interference and facilitation, and themeditation process, are reviewed, and principles appli-cable to communications are discussed. The availableempirical evidence o: behaviorism, consisting primarilyof conditioning experiments on lower animals and verballearning experiments on human subjects, is also re-viewed. An attempt is made to extrapolate the findingsof behaviorism lo applied communication, using thefollowing arguments to justify the extrapolation:(1) learning problems translate easily into communica-

tion problems; (2) learning research has been veryextensive, resulting in a large body of empirical find-ings and in procedural refinements and sophisticationin the kind of question posed; it would be time-consuming and expensive for communication researchto plow the same ground; (3) main issues which can beexplained through learning research cannot be dupli-cated in communication research because there are notechniques sufficient for controlling the relevant vari-ables at the more complex level; and (4) many of theprinciples derived from behavioristic learning researchfind confirmation in the rules of thumb of appliedcommunications. The article concludes with an outlineof 28 "Tentative Findings for Communication" extra-polated from the discussion of behaviorism. A list of104 references is included. (102)

HEAVISIDE, G. C. The principles of communication.Personnel management 48:377, September 1966.pp. 144,147-148,150-151.

The author identifies and discusses several yard-sticks for designing and measuring effective communi-cations: intention, attention, perception, retention, andparticipation. (USCSC 1, edited) (103)

HOWE, REUEL L. The miracle of dialogue. New York:The Seabury Press, 1963.154 pp.

The contents of the author's lectures at theEpiscopal Theological School, Cambridge, Massachu-setts, have been revised and expanded and are presentedhere "with the end in view of making them available andof interest to anyone who is concerned with communica-tion. All of us, in one way or another, are trying tocommunicate with (`get into significant touch with')someone, and all of us, to some degree, are baffled bythe failure of our attempts" (from the author's preface).The miracle of dialogue is that "it can bring relationshipinto being, and it can bring into being once again arelationship that has died." This thesis, with examples, isdiscussed in chapters entitled: (1) The Importance ofDialogue; (2) The Barriers to Communication; (3) FromMonologue to Dialogue; (4) The Purpose of Dialogue;(5) The Participants in Dialogue; (6) The DialogicalCrisis; (7) The Fruits of Dialogue; (8) Dialogue and theTasks Ahead. Implications for education, religious insti-tutions, and international relations are discussed in thefinal chapter, as are qualities that characterize thedialogical teacher. There is an index. (104)

25

KAISER ALUMINUM AND CHEMICAL CORPORA-TION. Communications (entire issue). KaiserAluminum news 23:3,1965.39 pp.

"The cooperation that makes human societypossible is almost wholly dependent on the skill withwhich we communicate." This issue is intended tostimulate thinking about how we communicate and howwe might try to improve the way we do it. A variety ofcolor illustrations demonstrate points in the text.(Drawings by Saul Steinberg for the New Yorker areincluded.) Multiple copies of the booklet are availablefrom the International Society for General Semantics,San Francisco, along with a bibliography of sources usedby the editor of Kaiser News in preparing this issue.Section headings indicate content and organization:How Is It We Know Something to Communicate?(perception); How Do We Create Symbols?; In Search ofthe Meaning of Meaning (semantics); The Human Trans-action (communication process or system); As a Matterof Fact (facts vs. inferences); The Trouble with Is, Is Is(problems in unqualified use of the word "is"); It's aMad, Mad Maze (importance of listening to people, notjust words); The Big Rock Candy Mountain (problems ofnon-differentiation and oversimplification in categoriz-ing and judging); and This Is the BeginningNot the End(a re-emphasis on need to understand the communica-tion process and some suggestions for improving indi-vidual skill). (105)

KNAPP, MARK L. and CARL E. LARSON. Manage-ment and labor speech communication; some'comparisons of training and research studies.Training and development journal 21:12, Decem-ber 1967. pp. 28-32.

This report of three studies of management andunion officials focuses on five areas: research involve-ment in speech communication, needed research, typesof training offered, perceived importance of this train-ing, and sources of instructors. (USCSC1, edited) (106)

LIPPITT, GORDON L. Quest for dialogue (1966 RufusJones lecture). Philadelphia: Friends GeneralConference, Religious Education Committee,1966.46 pp.

The author explores the many factors involved inthe quest for dialogue and examines what each individ-ual can do to improve his understanding and communi-cations. The booklet contains a study guide and aselected bibliography. (USCSC 1, edited) (107)

LIVINGSTON, HOWARD. Can the effects of generalsemantics be measured? ETC: a review of generalsemantics 23:2, June 1966. pp. 254-258.

The procedures and results of an investigation ofthe effects of lessons in general semantics on the criticalreading competence of secondary school students arereported. The purpose of the investigation was tocompare the changes in critical reading of a group ofstudents who received instruction in general semanticswith a similar group of students who did not. TheWatson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal was used tomeasure critical reading ability in a developmentalreading course. Results showed that the group receivinginstruction in general semantics made a significantlygreater gain than did the control group, and it isconcluded that the gain was attributable to the experi-mental factor the lessons in general semantics ratherthan to any other factor. (108)

McLAUGHLIN, TED J., LAWRENCE P. BLUM andDAVID M. ROBINSON. Communication. Colum-bus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Books, 1964.499 pp.

The book emphasizes the unity of communica-tive elements within a diversity of forms. It considershow man uses communication to satisfy his basicpsychological needs, explains the need for proficiency inperson-to-person communications in both speaking andwriting, and discusses special management problems ofcommunicating with groups outside the managementgroup itself. (USCSC 1, edited) (109)

McLUHAN, MARSHALL. Understanding media: theextensions of man. New York: McGraw-Hill,1964. 364 pp.

During the mechanical ages the western worldextended the human body in space. Today, throughelectric technology, we have extended man's centralnervous system, abolishing both time and space on earth.Such extensions affect man's whole psychic and socialcomplex. Today action and reaction "occur almost atthe same time . . . but we continue to think in the old,fragmented space and time patterns of the pre-electricage." This thesis is developed in Part I which containschapters entitled: (1) The Medium is the Message;(2) Media Hot and Cold; (3) Reversal of the OverheatedMedium; (4) The Gadget Lover: Narcissus as Narcosis;(5) Hybrid Energy: Les Liaisons Dangereuses; (6) Mediaas Translators; (7) Challenge and Collapse: The Nemesisof Creativity. Part II contains chapters discussing theextension media indicated by titles and their psychic andsocial consequences: (8) The Spoken Word: Flower ofEvil? (9) The Written Word: An Eye for an Ear;(10) Roads and Paper Routes; (11) Number: Profile of

26

the Crowd; (12) Clothing: Our Extended Skin;(13) Housing: New Look and New Outlook;(14) Money: The Poor Man's Credit Card; (15) Clocks:The Scent of Time; (16) The Print: How to Dig It;(17) Comics: Mad Vestibule to TV; (18) The PrintedWord: Architect of Nationalism; (19) Wheel, Bicycle,and Airplane; (20) The Photograph: The Brothel-Without-Walls; (21) Press: Government by News Leak;(22) Motorcar: The Mechanical Bride; (23) Ads: Keepingup with the Joneses; (24) Games: The Extensions ofMan; (25) Telegraph: The Social Hormone; (26) TheTypewriter; Into the Age of the Iron Whim; (27) TheTelephone: Sounding Brass or Tinkling Symbol?;(28) The Phonograph: The Toy that Shrank the NationalChest; (29) Movies: The Reel World; (30) Radio: TheTribal Drum; (31) Television: The Timid Giant;(32) Weapons: War of the Icons; (33) Automation:Learning a Living. There is a 47-item bibliographyentitled Further Readings for Media Study. (110)

McLUHAN, MARSHALL and QUINTIN FIORE. Themedium is the message, an inventory of effects(Coordinated by Jerome Agel). New York: Ban-tam Books, 1967. 160 pp.

"The medium, or process, of our time electrictechnology is reshaping and restructuring patterns ofsocial interdependence and every aspect of our personallife. . . . Electric technology fosters and encouragesunification and involvement. It is impossible to under-stand social and cultural changes without a knowledge ofthe workings of media." This thesis is examined in thetext and illustrated with numerous accompanying photo-graphs, drawings, and print variations. (111)

MILLER, GEORGE A. The psychology of communica-tion: seven essays. New York: Basic Books,1967. 197 pp.

Though the essays in this book treat a variety oftopics from cybernetics and automation to psychicalresearch and the supernatural their larger concern iswith the problems of scientific psychology and com-munication theory and with an attempt to formulate apsychological conception of man as an information-gath-ering, information-processing system. The essay titlesare: (1) Information and Memory; (2) The Magical Num-ber Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on Our Ca-pacity for Processing Information; (3) The Human Linkin Communication Systems; (4) Concerning PsychicalResearch; (5) The Psycholinguists; (6) Computers, Com-munication, and Cognition; (7) Project Grammarama.An index is included. (112)

NICHOLS, RALPH G. Listening is a 10-part skill(Reprinted from Nation's Business, July 1957).Washington, D.C.: Nation's Business. 4 pp.

Many businesses now include listening training intheir regular training programs with good results. Astudy of 100 best and 100 worst listeners in a Universityof Minnesota freshman class revealed 10 guides toimproved listening which can be used to analyzepersonal strengths and weaknesses. Specific suggestionsfor capitalizing on the difference in thought speed andspeech speed are emphasized. (113)

PIERCE, J. R. Symbols, signals, and noise: the natureand process of communication. New York:Harper & Brothers, 1961. 305 pp.

This book on communication theory presents acomprehensive review of the field. Mathematical illus-trations are used widely in explanation of the morecomplex aspects of communication theory. The chap-ters are: (1) The World and Theories; (2) The Originsof Information Theory; (3) A Mathematical Model;(4) Encoding and Binary Digits; (5) Entropy; (6) Lan-guage and Meaning; (7) Efficient Encoding; (8) TheNoisy Channel; (9) Many Dimensions; (10) InformationTheory and Physics; (11) Cybernetics; (12) InformationTheory and Psychology; (13) Information Theory andArt; (14) Back to Communication Theory. An ap-pendix on mathematical notation, a glossary, and anindex are included. (114)

RUESCH, JURGEN and WELDON KEES. Nonverbalcommunication. Berkeley and Los Angeles: Uni-versity of California Press, 1959. 205 pp.

The theoretical and systematic study of commu-nication has serious limitations inasmuch as scientificthinking and reporting are dependent upon verbal anddigital language systems, whereas human interaction, incontrast, is much more related to nonverbal systems ofcodification. A number of nonverbal ways in whichpeople attempt to communicate with one another areexplored. With the aid of still photography, the informaland often spontaneous methods of communication arepresented here. Part and chapter titles indicate contents:Part I, The Frame of Reference (1) Modern Theoriesand Methods; (2) Biology and Culture as Two Determi-nants of Nonverbal Communication; (3) The Varieties ofNonverbal Languages; Part II, Message Through Non-verbal Action (4) Nonverbal Expression; (5) TheInformative Value Movement; (6) People Alone; (7) TheRole of Context in the Interpretation of Action;(8) People Together; Part III, Message Through Objectand Picture (9) Codification in Material Terms;(10) Object, Word, and Number; (11) The Language ofIdentification and Recognition; (12) Appeal and Social

27

ContrOl through Material Things; (13) The Organizationof the Material Environment as Personal Expression; PartIV, The Language of Disturbed Interaction (15) SocialConflict and Stress; (16) Language and Psycho-pathology; (17) Disturbances of Emotion and TheirCommunicative Effects; (18) Disturbances of Perceptionand Evaluation; (19) Art, Communication, and MentalIllness; and Part V, Summary (20) Toward a Theoryof Nonverbal Communication. References and an indexare included. (115)

SCHRAMM, WILBUR. The science of human communi-cation: new directions and new findings incommunication research. New York: BasicBooks, 1963. 158 pp.

Originally broadcast in a special series by theVoice' of America radio network, the eleven essayspresented here are meant to serve as rin introduction tothe problems, the findings, and some of the scholars inresearch on human communication. The contents are:(1) Communication Research in the United States, byWilbur Schramm; (2) The Theory of Cognitive Disso-nance, by Leon Festinger; (3) An Exploration intoSemantic Space, by Charles E. Osgood; (4) The New"Scientific" Rhetoric, by Nathan Maccoby; (5) Personal-ity as a Factor in Susceptibility to Persuasion, by IrvingL. Janis; (6) The Social Effects of Mass Communication,by Joseph T. Klapper; (7) The Diffusion of New Ideasand Practices, by Elihu Katz; (8) Mass Media andPersonal Influence, by Paul Lazarsfeld and HerbertMenzel; (9) The Effects of Television on Children, byEleanor E. Maccoby; (10) The Effect of Communicationon Voting Behavior, by Ithiel de Sola Pool; (11) Teach-ing Machines and Programmed Instruction, by Arthur A.Lumsdaine. (116)

THAYER, LEE. Communication and communicationsystems in organization, management, and inter-personal relations. Homewood, Ill.: Richard D.Irwin, Inc., 1968. 375 pp.

The scope of the book, as indicated by the title,is comprehensive and broadly based. The purpose is tobring into focus significant recent changes in ideas,concepts, and perspectives regarding the subject. Due tothe nature of these changes, an attempt has been madeto completely reformulate the conceptual framework ofcommunication and communication systems in theindicated areas. Suggestions for further reading areincluded in each chapter. Chapter 19 also has bibliog-raphies and commentaries on contributions from a widevariety of specialized fields on communication theoryand research. Author and subject indexes are included.Part and chapter titles describe the contents: Part I, Onthe Nature and Dynamics of Human Communication(1) The Study of Communication: Some Basic Premises;

(2) People, Communication, and Organization: SomeBasic Perspectives; (3) On the Nature of Communica-tion: I; (4) People, Behavior, and Communication: OnBeing Communicated With; (5) People, Behavior, andCommunication: On the Motivation and Control ofHuman Behavior; (6) People, Behavior, and Communica-tion: Some Interpersonal Factors; (7) People, Behavior,and Communication: Some Organizational and "Manage-ment" Factors; (8) On the Nature of Communication:II; Part II, Communication, Message, and Communica-tion System: Qualities and Characteristics (9) Com-munication: Effectiveness; (10) Communication: Econ-omy; (11) Messages: Comprehensibility, Validity, andUtility; (12) Communication System: Efficacy; Part III,The Functions of Communication (13) The Informa-tion Function; (14) Command and Instructive Func-tions; ( 15 ) Influence and Persuasive Function ,;(16) Integrative Functions; Part IV, Technology andTechniques (17) The Technology of Communication;(18) On Communication Methods and Techniques; PartV, Theory and Research: Problems and Issues(19) Communication Theory and Research: Tributariesand Trends; (20) Problems and Issues. (117)

THIS, LESLIE E. The leader lc aks at communication(Looking Into Leadership series). Washington,D.C.: Leadership Resources, Inc., 1961. 11 pp.

Six questions which leaders often ask aboutcommunication are cited as evidence of its importanceto groups and organizations. Problems with threewidely accepted theories of communication are brieflydiscussed: the "decibel" theory (loudness and fre-quency as key factors in communication); the "sell"theory (the total burden is on the communicator orsender); and the "minimal information" theory (thereceiver isn't too interested in what the leader iscommunicating anyway). The complexity of the com-munication process is discussed in terms of filters andbarriers which distort messages: verbal and nonverbalfactors, selective inattention, the nature of the organi-zation, defects in the formal network of communica-tion, status and role ambiguities, language, personality,misunderstanding, and emotions and feelings. Resultsof research on one-way and two-way communicationare summarized and some guidelines for improvingcommunication are offered with respect to recognizinglevels of interaction, dealing with specific barriers, andmaking self-appraisals. A briefly annotated 6-item bibli-ography is included. (118)

28

WAGNER, ROBERT W. A galaxy of motion picturedocuments on communication theory and the neweducational media (Produced for the Departmentof Health, Education, and Welfare, U.S. Office ofEducation). Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State Uni-versity Department of Photography, 1966.82 pp.

This manual is an integrated part of a filmedinstructional program designed for a wide audience withinterest in communication theory, educational technol-ogy, perception, and the new educational media. Using aspace-age analogy, the films are viewed as forming agalaxy of documents at the heart of which are 4 basic"planetary films" I. The Information Explosion; II.Perception and Communication; III. The Process ofCommunication; and IV. The Teacher and Technology.These move from the simple to the complex, concrete toabstract, and each is composed of sequences designatedas "Asteroid Films." These may be detached, usedseparately, and returned to original sequence. Thesegments for each of the 4 major films above are: I. [TheInformation Explosion] Communication Revolution;Information Storage, Retrieval, Control; Communicationin Government; Communication in Industry; Communi-cation in the Professions; Media and Children; II.[Perception and Communication] Sensory Learning;Theories of Perception; Perception Training; Intercul-tural Perception; Perception & Deprivation; Perception& Education; III. [The Process of Communication] AModel of Communication; Theory of Communication;Industry Model; Military Model; Administration Model;Teacher Training Model; Computer Model; The Teacheras a Model of Communication; IV. [The Teacher andTechnology] Learning as Self Learning; History ofInstructional Technology; Media & the Military; Media &the Humanities; Media & the Continuous ProgressSchool; The Computerized School; Media & the Curric-ulum; Media & the Masses; The Instructional ResourceCenter; The School of Tomorrow; The Teacher of To-morrow. Four supplementary in-depth films called sat-ellites are also available. The Communication Revolu-tion; Communications Conference; Teaching Machinesand Sidney Pressey; and Music Research. Among thoseparticipating in the films are Edgar Dale, I. Keith Tyler,James D. Finn, George Gerbner, and Kenneth Norberg.Part I of the manual describes the galaxy of films concept;Part II suggests patterns of use and includes examples ofthe broad range of use of films designed in this manner;Part III is a background monograph on communicationtheory by Dr. Harbans Singh Bhola of India. (119)

WIENER, NORBERT. The human use of human beings;cybernetics and society. 2nd edition, revised.Garden City, N. Y.: Doubleday Anchor Books(paperbound), 1954. 199 pp.

This is an updated reprinting of the author'soriginal book for laymen on the science of communica-

tion and control (cybernetics is the term coined by theauthor). Chapters are: (I) Cybernetics in History; (II)Progress and Entropy; (III) Rigidity and Learning: TwoPatterns of Communicative Behavior; (IV) The Mecha-nism and History of Language; (V) Organization as theMessage; (VI) Law and Communication; (VII) Communi-cation, Secrecy, and Social Policy; (VIII) Role of theIntellectual and the Scientist; (IX) The First and theSecond Industrial Revolution; (X) Some CommunicationMachines and Their Future; (XI) Language, Confusion,and Jam. The book is indexed. (120)

WILEY, J. BARRON. Communication for modern man-agement. Elmhurst, Ill.: The Business Press,1966. 327 pp.

"Today's educated person must know how tocommunicate in many different media and how tochoose the most effective one for the particular situa-tion. . . . A company may want to make use ofthe knowledge possessed by its own employees withregard to its products and company policies. Thesepeople may have only limited familiarity with the use ofaudio-visual materials in communication. They needinformation as to the medium that will best solve theircommunication problem and how to make the best useof that medium" (from author's foreword). This bookattempts to cover the whole range of industrial commu-nication using the audiovisual media and "is intended toserve as a guideline to the college student or the personjust entering the audio-visual field. it will indicate to himthe areas of communication which could take advantageof the increased efficiency which is made possiblethrough the wise use of these media, and the varioustools and techniques of communication, including theadvantages, disadvantages, and problems involved in

29

their planning, production and utilization." Bibliog-raphies of references for more detailed information oneach subject follow each chapter. Chapters and selectedtopics are: (1) Introduction (the nature of communica-tion, what audiovisual materials are, results of researchon their use in education, specific applications tobusiness communication, types of audiovisual tools);(2) Employee Recruitment and Training; (3) EmployeeRelations; (4) Public Relations; (5) Sales and Promotion;(6) Reporting to Management; (7) Reporting to Stock-holders; (8) Visualization of Information; (9) Photo-graphy; (10) Motion Pictures; (11) Slides and Filmstrips;(12) Overhead Projection; (13) Opaque Projection;(14) Flipsheets; (15) Audio Recording; (16) Exhibits;(17) Television; (18) Teaching Machines; (19) Facilitiesfor Audio-Visual Utlization (need for proper facilities,location of the room, specific suggested facilities). Thereis a name and subject index. (121)

Wiley series on human communication. New York: JohnWiley & Sons. Continuing.

Published volumes in this series include: TheSpeech Writing Guide, Professional Techniques for Regu-lar and Occasional Speakers, by James J. Welsh; GraphicCommunication, by William J. Bowman; PersonalResume Preparation, by Michael P. Jaquish; PresentingTechnical Ideas, a Guide to Audience Communication,by W. A. Mambert; Writing for Technical and Profes-sional Journals, by John H. Mitchell ;Managerial ControlThrough Communication, Systems for OrganizationalDiagnosis and Design, by George T. Vardaman andCarroll C. Halterman; Technical Correspondence, aHandbook and Reference Source for the TechnicalProfessional, by Herman M. Weisman. Additional titlesin the series are planned to cover catalogs; annualreports, house organs, technical proposals, technicalmanuals, microdocumentation, speed reading, communi-cations in research, engineering shorthand, audiovisualtechniques, and other areas. (122)

SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING*

BECKER, HOWARD S., BLANCHE GEER, EVERETTC. HUGHES, and ANSELM L. STRAUSS. Boysin white; student culture in medical school.Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1961. 456pp.

The research of a team of sociologists reportedhere attempted to answer such questions as: How domedical students feel about their training, their doctor-teachers, and the profession they are entering? Dailyinterviews and observations in classes, wards, labora-tories, and operating theaters were conducted in searchof answers. Part and chapter titles indicate organizationof the publication. Part One, Background and Methods(1) Boys in White; (2) Design of the Study; (3) Perspec-tive, Culture, and Organization; (4) The University ofKansas Medical School: A Brief Description; Part Two,Student Culture in the Freshman Year(5) The Long-Range Perspective: "The Best of All Professions";(6) The Work of the Freshman Year; (7) The InitialPerspective: An Effort to "Learn It Mr; (8) TheProvisional Perspective: "You Can't Do It All"; (9) In-teraction and Consensus: The Provisional and FinalPerspectives; (10) The Final Perspective: "What TheyWant Us to Know"; A Note on the Sophomore Year;Part Three, Student Culture in the Clinical Years(11) The Work of the Clinical Years; (12) The Respon-sibility and Experience Perspectives: The Problem andIts Setting; (13) The Assimilation of Medical Values byStudents: The Responsibility and Experience Perspec-tives; (14) The Academic Perspective: Dealing with theFaculty; (15) Student Co-operation; (16) Students andPatients; (17) Student Autonomy; Part Four, Perspec-tives on the Future(18) Student Perspectives on Stylesof Practice: The Dilemma of Independence and Respon-sibility; (19) Student Perspectives on Internships;(20) Student Views of Specialties; (21) The Develop-ment of the Medical Student. The Appendix contains areproduction of an interview guide used in the study.There is a name and subject index.

BLOOM, SAMUEL W. The sociology of medical educa-tion: some comments on the state of a field.Milbank memorial quarterly 43:2, 1965. pp.143-184.

The objective of this review is to seek a broaderand more complete view of the trends and issues that arediscernible in the sociological study of medical educa-tion in the U.S. First, some of the origins of suchresearch, both in medicine and sociology, are reviewedand a brief historical account is given of the majorexamples. Second, in the theoretical and empiricalfindings of the various researchers, it is asked what linesof convergence and disparity can be charted. What arethe implications and guidelines for future research in thefield?

HOROWITZ, MILTON J. Educating tomorrow's doc-tors. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1964.264 pp.

Though research in medical education has beenin the vanguard of professional-education developmentsin the areas of educational objectives and the teaching-learning process, much still needs to be learned abouthow any student becomes a physician and about howspecific individuals develop. Experiences of about 20students in the Western Reserve University School ofMedicine were studied in light of this need. Though thenumber of students studied is small, the problemsconsidered transcend the responses of a small number ofindividuals to a particular medical school, and thequestions raised in regard to the case studies are relevantnot only to this one school and to medical education,but also to all graduate and professional education.Some of the major questions raised and discussed are:Can different patterns of development be identified instudents during the four years of medical school? Whatare they? How do medical students change? What change

* This section was developed after the original indexing was done and too close to the publication deadline to be addedto the index. The category was considered too important to omit.

30

do they see in themselves? How do others see them?How can differences among students be described toinclude change associated with personal as well asprofessional growth? To what extent may students in amedical school be held responsible for their ownlearning? What are the specific challenges of medicaleducation? Are they different from the challenges ofother fields of study?

MERTON, ROBERT K., GEORGE G. READER andPATRICIA L. KENDALL (eds.). The studentphysicianintroductory studies in the sociologyof medical education. Cambridge, Mass.: HarvardUniversity Press, 1957. 360 pp.

The focus of this selection of studies is on theeducative process in the medical school, on the waysthat its social structure, like that of other organizations,largely forms the behavior of its members and affects themaking of the medical man. No attempt is made toappraise current medical curricula or to advocatechanges in them. In the studies reported, the medicalschool is conceived as a social environment in which theprofessional culture of medicine is variously transmittedto novices through distinctive social and psychologicalprocesses. It is the aim of these studies to find out indetail how the aspiring medical student. with hischaracteristic anticipation, fears, hopes and abilities,emerges as a socially certified physician, outfitted with adefinition of his professional status, with attitudestoward that status, with a self-image, and with a set ofprofessional values.

WALLER, WILLARD. The sociology of teaching. NewYork: Russell & Russell, 1961. 467 pp.

Originally published in 1932, this book is one ofthe pioneer textbooks in educational sociology. The

31

work is a systematic application of the concepts ofsociology and social psychology to the social phenomenaof school life. The method employed in gathering andinterpreting material was empirical and observational,the style is non-technical. There are 25 chapters dividedinto 6 major topics: I. Introduction; II. The School andthe Community; III. Some Interpretations of Life in theSchool; IV. The Teacher-Pupil Relationship; V. WhatTeaching Does to Teachers; VI. Summary and Recom-mendations.

WEBSTER, THOMAS G. Career decisions and profes-sional self-images of medical students. Workingpaper, Conference on Psychiatry and MedicalEducation, March 6-10, 1967, Atlanta, Georgia.To be published in Background papers for the1967 Conference. Washington, D.C.: AmericanPsychiatric Association, 1969. 70 pp.

This working paper reviews relevant informationand research on career decisions and points up the areaswhich should be of special interest to psychiatry andbehavioral science faculties in medical schools. Since thepaper could not refer to all the data available in theliterature relevant to career decisions of medical stu-dents, an effort was made to give at least one example ofthe many different types of relevant contributions:(1) statistical data on students and medical manpowerwhich does not include direct responses from studentinformants regarding career decisions and related mattersother than a statement of current occupational status,age, sex, geographic location, etc.; (2) surveys of careerpreferences, sociological data, MCAT and other measuresof academic ability and performance, psychological andvocational tests and other data correlated with careerpreference and self-image; (3) personal interviews anddirect observation of students with clinical type assess-ments relevant to the dynamics of career, studentculture, professional identity, self-image and learningprocess; biography and fiction; (4) textbooks, theory,summaries, recruiting literature on careers, etc., usuallywithout new data.

THE ADULT LEARNERSOCIO-PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS

HAND, SAMUEL E. A review of physiological andpsychological changes in aging and their implica-tions for teachers of adults (Bulletin .71G-2).Tallahassee, Fla.: Florida State Department ofEducation, Division of Vocational, Technical,and Adult Education, April 1968. 31 pp.

Based on an examination of literature on aging, acomposite review of the significant physiological andpsychological changes that take place as a part of thenormal aging process is presented, and the implicationsthese changes have for adult education are discussed.The material is extensively supported by illustrativegraphs and tables. A bibliography is included. (123)

HAVIGHURST, ROBERT J. and BETTY ORR. Adulteducation and adult needs. Chicago: Center forthe Study of Liberal Education for Adults, 1956.79 pp.

The report is a part of the Kansas City Study ofAdult Life conducted by the University of, ChicagoCommittee on Human Development and CominunityStudies, Inc., a Kansas City social agency. Chapter titlesindicate contents: (1) The Wisdom of Maturity;(2) Adult Needs and Developmental Tasks; (3) PersonalMotivation for the Achievement of DevelopmentalTasks; (4) Implications for Adult Education; (5) Quali-ties of an Effective Adult Education Program. Asupplemental essay entitled "Adult Education for OurTime," by Robert Havighurst, is also included. (124)

JENSEN, GALE E. Socio-psychological foundations ofadult learning. IN Hallenbeck, Wilbur C. (ed.).Psychology of adults (Adult Education Theoryand Method). Washington, D.C.: Adult Educa-tion Association of the U.S.A., May 1963. pp.20-30.

Three objectives are pursued in this paper: (1) topresent an account of the basic dynamics of socio-psychological forces present in all formal adult instruc-tional situations; (2) to provide an identification anddefinition of the socio-psychological interactions whichtake place between adults during formal instruction andwhich determine the kind of learning that will result;and (3) to present a set of principles for guiding ormanaging these socio-psychological interactions in ways

32

which maximize the probabilities of achieving stipulatedinstructional objectives. (125)

KIDD, J. R. How adults learn. New York: AssociationPress, 1959. 324 pp.

Adult education has become extensive, butlittle has been done to apply psychological theories oflearning to the teaching of adults. This book is asynthesis of theory of and experience in adult educa-tion. Chapters are: (1) Learning Throughout Life;(2) The Adult Learner; (3) Physical and Sensory Capac-ity; (4) Intellectual Capacities; (5) Feelings and Emo-tions; (6) Motivation; (7) Theories of Learning;(8) Some Fields of Practice; (9) The Environment forLearningForms and Devices; (10) The Teaching-Learning Transaction; (11) The Teacher in the LearningTransaction. Each chapter includes a summary, a list ofreferences, and a list of suggested readings. The book isindexed. (126)

LITTLE, LAWRENCE C. (ed). A bibliography of doc-toral dissertations on adults and adult education.Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh, Departmentof Religious Education, 1962. 82 pp.

This bibliography was prepared for a researchseminar in adult education at the University of Pitts-burgh. It contains titles of over 1,000 doctoral disserta-tions dealing with the experiences and needs of adultsand with various types and patterns oT adult educa-tion. (127)

LORGE, IRVING. The Adult learner. IN Hallenbeck,Wilbur C. (ed.). Psychology of adults (AdultEducation Theory and Method). Washington,D.C.: Adult Education Association of the U.S.A.,May 1963. pp. 1-9.

The learning characteristics peculair to the adultlearner are discussed. Pursuing concepts set forth byEdward L. Thorndike in his Adult Learning, the studypoints up the distinction between learning rate asperformance and learning ability as power or potential.It is agreed that though learning rate declines with age,learning ability does not necessarily decline. Factorsaffecting learning rate, such as speed of reaction,

hearing, and seeing are analyzed and discussed. Based onstatistics drawn from specialized intelligence testing, it isagreed that intelligence, as measured in terms of learningability, does not regress with the age of the individual.Problems stemming from stereotypes about aging,crystallized attitudes, weak and meager interests, and thequestion of learning new interests are discussed inrelation to adult learning and the teaching of adults. Theconditions necessary for adult learningthe crucial pointbeing that the learner himself sees that he is movingtoward his goalare posited and illustrated. A discussionon planning for adult learningthe primary premisebeing the fact of individual differencesand a brief viewof prospects for adults conclude the article. (128)

POWELL, JOHN W. Learning comes of age. New York:Adult Education Association of the U.S.A.,1956. 235 pp.

This is a valuable contribution to theories ofadult learning. "The adult seeking understanding doesnot want a classroom.. He wants companions in thesearch for greater wisdom." (USCSC 2, edited) (129)

PROCTOR, ROBERT A. Too old to learn? Nashville,Tenn.: Broadman Press, 1967. 126 pp.

Adult education is discussed in its broad appli-cation to the spiritual development of the Christianindividual. Brief backgro ad material on the psychol-ogy of learning is presented and the connectiontween education and the Christian way of life is theprimary theme developed. Key points are illustrated bycase stories. Each chapter includes a selected readinglist. The chapters are: (1) Learning Through the Ages;(2) Adults Can Learn; (3) Christian GrowthAn Im-perative; (4) The Obstacle Course; (5) Learning toLearn; (6) The Fellowship of Learning; (7) Commit-ment to Action; (8) Resources are Available; (9) TheChallenge of Change. (130)

TUFTS COLLEGE. INSTITUTE OF APPLIED EXPERI-MENTAL PSYCHOLOGY. Learning. IN ITSHandbook of human engineering data. 2nd edi-tion. Port Washington, N.Y.: Office of NavalResearch, Special Devices Center, n.d. Part IX,n.p.

A review of learning theory and research usingcollege students and naval personnel as subjects ispresented. The material is divided into chapters andsections: (I) Basic Concepts (Introduction); (II) BasicProcesses of Learning (Acquisition, Retention, Transfer);(III) Characteristics of the Subject That Influence Learn-ing (Motivation, The Learner); (IV) Training (Introduc-tion, The Instructor, Methods of Training, Synthetic

33

Trainers). Each section begins with an exposition of thesubject, then presents the design, results, and conclusionin tabular and graphic formats of experiments conductedon the subject, and concludes with a bibliography ofstudies in the area. (131)

VERNER, COOLIE and JOHN S. NEWBERRY, JR. Thenature of adult participation. Adult education8:4, Summer 1958. pp. 208-222.

Since participation in any one activity is relatedto participation in all other social relationships, theproblem of participation in adult education is consideredhere in conjunction with other phases of organized sociallife in the community. Of particular concern here isparticipation in formally organized structures whosepatterns approximate the characteristic patterns oforganized adult education. The study is divided into fourmain sections. After the introduction, the second sectiondeals with participation in general, the primary aimbeing to help adult education to identify the character-istics of those who participate, which will enable themto find significant clues to the kinds of people not nowinvolved in adult education who might become involvedif conditions were favorable. Factors related to anindividual's participation in formal organizations areinvestigated: static factors of socio-economic status; ageand sex; family stage; differences in residence; influenceof religion, race, and ethnic groups; and dynamic factors,or those which describe the relationship of the individualto the group. The third section relates the results ofstudies of participants in several different forms of adulteducation to data on general social participation given inthe preceding chapter, including data on age, sex,educational levels, socio-economic status, educationalgroups, and residence. The programs discussed are theCooperative Extension Service, public school adulteducation, junior college adult education, universityeducation, university extension, correspondence study,and packaged programs. A final section is devoted to adiscussion of the need to attract a more representativesegment of the population to adult education and '..heconcomitant need for new and different programs tomeet their need. A bibliography is included. (132)

WELFORD, A. T. Aging and human skill. London:Oxford University Press, 1958. 300 pp.

The final report of the Nuffield Unit for Re-search into Problems of Aging which was attached to thePsychological Laboratory at Cambridge University from1946 to 1956 is presented. The research unit attemptedto study changes in performance from young adulthoodto the middle years, to the sixties and seventies, and wasthus concerned with aging rather than solely with oldage. The results have shown that it is in the middle yearsthat some of the most important age changes become

noticeable and that it is often at the earlier ages thatpractical measures to deal with problems of old agemay best be taken. Chapter titles indicate contents:(I) On the Nature of Age Changes in Performance;(II) On the Nature or Skill; (III) Methods of Studying

Age Changes; (IV) Speed and Accuracy of Movement;(V) Some Implications of Slowing; (VI) TranslationProcesses; (VII) Perception; (VIII) Problem Solving;(IX) Learning and Memory; (X) Adaptibility; (XI) Con-cluding Remarks. (133)

34

LEARNING THEORY AND RESEARCH (GENERAL)

BORGER, ROBERT and A. E. M. SEABORNE. Thepsychology of learning. Baltimore: PenguinBooks, 1966. 249 pp.

The various theories of learning, along with asampling of supportive experiments, are reviewed inlanguage understandable by students of psychology,teachers, and readers with little background in the studyof psychology. The chapter titles describe the contents:(1) Introduction; (2) An Analysis of Simple LearningSituations; (3) Reinforcement and Motivation;(4) Theories of Learning; (5) The Development of Learn-ing Capacity; (6) Behavior and Perceptual Organization;(7) Skill; (8) The Retention of Learned Material;(9) Concepts and the Use of Language; (10) LearningTheory and Abnormal Behavior; (11) ProgrammedLearning; (12) Learning and Education. Recommendedreadings and an index are included. (134)

BRUNER, JEROME S. On knowing: essays for the lefthand. Cambridge, Mass.: The Belknap Press ofHarvard University Press, 1962. 165 pp.

This collection of 10 occasional essays is dividedinto three parts. Essays in the first part deal with the actof knowing itself and how it is shaped and in turn givesform to language, science, literature, and art. Those inthe second part deal with the nature of teaching andlearning. Essays in the final part examine how one'sconception of reality influences action and commit?ment. (135)

BUGELSKI, B. R. The psychology of learning. NewYork: Henry Holt and Company, 1956. 523 pp.

The author attempts to clarify the major issues inthe controversial fields of learning and 1..otivation. Thecontributions of individual theorists are presented in amanner comprehensible to the unsophisticated student,and major premises of each are considered as thy apply

35

to various questions related to the learning process.(USCSC 2, edited) (136)

DEESE, JAMES and STEWART E. HULSE. The psy-chology of learning. 3rd edition. New York:McGraw-Hifi, 1967. 514 pp.

This edition has been reorganized to bringtogether into individual chapters processes rather thantopics. Designed for undergraduate and graduate stu-dents in psychology, the text is also useful to those withno particular background in psychology. Early chaptersstress the basic process of conditioning in learning,relying heavily upon information derived from theanimal laboratory. Chapter 1 presents an introduction tothe psychology of learning, the beginning sectionsoffering review and the latter new material. Chapters 2and 3 deal with reinforcement, the former emphasizingdata and definition of basic concepts, the latter showingin a selective way how data have been handled bytheory. Chapters 4-7 treat extinction, patterns of rein-forcement, generalization and discrimination in thelearning process, and the roles of emotion and motiva-tion in that process. Chapter 5, on patterns of reinforce-ment, fits the traditional topics of partial reinforcementand schedules of reinforcement into a broader view ofthe effects of changing conditions of reward uponlearning. Topics of specific concern to human learningare treated beginning with Chapter 8. Verbal learningand the learning of skills provide the major topics.Chapter 8 introduces problems and methods in the studyof acquisition. Succeeding chapters deal with specialtheoretical problems such as mediation, transfer, reten-tion, and concept learning. A final chapter built aroundthe topic of learning skills introduces some matters ofbasic theoretical importance in the study of perceptual-motor skills. Chapters titles are: (1) Introduction;(2) Reinforcement and Learning; (3) Some TheoreticalIssues; (4) Extinction; (5) Patterns of Reinforcement;(6) Generalization and Discrimination; (7) Learning andthe Concepts of Emotion and Motivation; (8) TheExperimental Analysis of Verbal Learning; (9) Theoreti-cal Problems in Verbal Learning; (10) Transfer andTraining; (11) Retention and Forgetting; (12) ConceptLearning; (13) Problems in the Acquisition of Skill.References and an index are included. (137)

DEWEY, JOHN. How we think; a restatement of therelation of reflective thinking to the educativeprocess. Boston: D. C. Heath & Company, 1933.301 pp.

"No one can tell another person in any definiteway how he should think, any more than how he oughtto breathe or to have his blood circulate. But the variousways in which men do think can be told and can bedescribed in their general features. Some of these waysare better than others .... The better way of thinkingthat is to be considered in this book is called reflectivethinking .... " Part and chapter headings (and selectedsection topics) further indicate content and organiza-tion: Part I, The Problem of Training Thought(1) WhatIs Thinking? (different meanings of thought, the centralfactor in thinking, phases of reflective thinking);(2) Why Reflective Thinking Must Be an EducationalAim; (3) Native Resources in Training Thought (curios-ity, suggestion, orderliness); (4) School Conditions andthe Training of Thought (methods and conditions, theinfluence of the habits of others, the influence of thenature of studies, the influence of current aims andideals); Part II, Logical Considerations(5) The Processand Product of Reflective Activity: Psychological Pro-cess and Logical Form; (6) Examples of Inference andTesting; (7) Analysis of Reflective Thinking; (8) ThePlace of Judgment in Reflective Activity; (9) Under-standing: Ideas and Meanings; (10) Understanding: Con-ception and Definition; (11) Systematic Method: Con-trol of Data and Evidence; (12) Systematic Method:Control of geasoning ancKoncepts; (13)Tmpirical, andScientific Thought; Part III, The Training of Thought(15) From the Concrete to the Abstract; (16) Languageand the Training of Thought (language as the tool ofthinking, the abuse of linguistic methods in education,the use of language in its educational bearings);(17) Observatioa and Information in the Training ofMind (the nature and value of observation, methods andmaterials of observation in the schools, communicationof information); (18) The Recitation and the Training ofThought (false ideas about the recitationreciting versusreflecting, the evils of passivity, the function of therecitation, the conduct of the recitation, the function ofthe teacher, appreciation); (19) Some General Conclu-sions (the unconscious and the conscious, process andproduct). There is an index. (138)

GAGNE, ROBERT M. Varieties of learning. IN HIS Theconditions of learning. New York: Holt, Rinehart& Winston, 1965. pp.31-61.

Eight types of learning are presently distinguish-able: (1) signal learning (classical conditioning); (2) stim-ulus-response learning (operant conditioning); (3) chain-ing (two or more stimulus-response connections);(4) verbal association (verbal chains); (5) multiple dis-crimination; (6) concept learning; (7) principle learning;

36

and (8) problem solving. Each type begins with a differentstate of the organism and ends with a different capabil-ity for performance. Each variety depends on learning ofthe preceding type(s). The ideas of some earlier theoristsare briefly discussed in relation to the author's theory.

(139)

GINSBERG, ROSE, JOHN C. McCULLERS, JOHN J.MERYMAN, CALVIN W. THOMSON andROBERT S. WITTE. A review of efforts toorganize information about human learning,transfer, and retention (AMRL-TR-66-23).Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio: Air ForceSystems Command, Aerospace Medical Division,Aerospace Medical Research Laboratories, March1966.

"In this report, 14 efforts pertaining to organi-zing available information on human learning, transfer,and retention are summarized and evaluated on sixcriteria: behavioral significance of categories, scope,objectivity and reliability of categories, prognosis for thesystem, logical structures, and heuristic value of thesystem. Attention is also given to several other sourcesof guidance for organizing information on humanlearning. The review indicates at least six major ap-proaches to a taxonomy of human learning. The basesfor these different approaches are: (1) general or limitedtheoretical factors, (2) conditions of learning includingthe learner, (3) individual differences, (4) physical char-acteristics of learning tasks, (5) task characteristics inrelation to empirical variables, and (6) task character-istics in relation to learning principles. In some cases theapproaches are combined. The major conclusion is thatalthough some contributions have been made to ageneral organization of information on human learning,intense and detailed efforts toward a comprehensivetaxonomy are only in a preliminary formative phase. Anempirically grounded and logically sound taxonomy of awide range of learning situations will contribute substan-tially to the use of existing information and to theguidance of future research." (ASTD) (140)

HILGARD, ERNEST R. A basic reference shelf onlearning theory (Series I. Using EducationalMedia: Guides to the Literature). Stanford,Calif.: Stanford University, Institute for Com-munication Research, ERIC Clearninghouse onEducational Media and Technology, September1967. 17 pp.

The paper is divided into two main sections: I,Some "Principles" Potentially Useful in Practice(1) Principles Emphasized Within the S-R Theory;(2) Principles Emphasized Within Cognitive Theory; and(3) Principles from Motivation and Personality Theory;

II, Approaches to Practical Problems Via UnifiedTheories(1) Applications of Gutherie's ContiguousConditioning; (2) Applications of Skinner's OperantConditioning; (3) Drive-Reinforcement Theory Appliedin the Miller-Dollard Version; and (4) The Applicabilityof Gagne's Hierarchical Model. A short bibliography onlearning theory and its applications is included. (141)

HILGARD, ERNEST R. Methods and procedures in thestudy of learning. IN Stevens, S. S. (ed.). Hand-book of experimental psychology. New York:John Wiley & Sons, 1951. pp. 517-567.

The chapter deals primarily with the problem ofmaking learning situations quantifiable and presentsexperiments designed to measure learning behavior. Anattempt is made to demonstrate that a single experimentcan provide information about only limited aspects oflearning and that an integrated plan of attack is neededto obtain comprehensive answers about learning. Therelevance of the experiments to generalizations aboutlearning is of secondary concern, that subject being morefully treated in other sections of the book in which thechapter appears. The eight main sections of the chapterare: (1) Typical Experiments: Situations Used with BothLower Animals and Human Subjects (negative adapta-tion or habituation, classical conditioning, instrumentalor operant conditioning, the puzzle box or problem box,delayed-reaction experiments, the discrimination experi-ment, the alley maze, the temporal maze, multiplechoice, detour (insight) problems, reasoning problems,social learning); Situations Used Primarily or Exclusivelyin the Study of Human Learning (rote memorization andretention, verbal reasoning and concept formation,motor skills); (2) Classical Conditioned Response Experi-ments; (3) Experiments on Operant or InstrumentalConditioning; (4) Maze and Discrimination Experi-ments? (5) Experiments on Motor Skills; (6) Experi-ments on Memorization and Retention; (7) LearningCurves as Analytic Devices; and (8) Next Steps in theStudy of Learning. A list of references is included. (142)

HILGARD, ERNEST R. and GORDON H. BOWER.Theories of learning. 3rd edition. New York:Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1966. 661 pp.

This book provides an orientation to the maininfluences on learning theory prominent in the first halfof this century and rates how they are represented incontemporary experimentation and theorizing. Note isalso taken of the newer developments not well coordi-nated with these by now "classical" theories, and in viewof the importance of new technologies of instruction,attention is also given to them. The chapter titlesindicate the contents: (1) The Nature of LearningTheories; (2) Thorndike's Connectionism; (3) Pavlov'sClassical Conditioning; (4) Guthrie's Contiguous Condi-

37

tioning; (5) Skinner's Operant Conditioning; (6) Hull'sSystematic Behavior Theory; (7) Tolman's Sign Learn-ing; (8) Gestalt Theory; (9) Freud's Psychodynamics;(10) Functionalism; (11) Mathematical Learning Theory;(12) Information Processing Models; (13) Neuro-physiology of Learning; (14) Recent Developments: I,The Basic Conditions of Learning and Retention; (15)Recent Developments: II, Discrimination Learning andAttention; and (16) Learning and the Technology ofInstruction. References and subject and author indexesare included. (143)

HILL, WINFRED F. Learning: a survey of psychologicalinterpretations. San Francisco: Chandler Publish-ing Company, 1963. 227 pp.

This introductory survey of contemporary learn-ing theories is designed to provide a fairly elementarybut solid account of interpretations of learning forstudents in the psychology of learning and in educa-tional psychology. Chapter 1, Understanding and Ex-plaining Learning, provides an introduction to learningtheory and its uses. Chapter 2, Contiguity Theories inthe Connectionist Tradition, Chapter 3, ReinforcementTheories in the Connectionist Tradition, and Chapter 4,Cognitive Interpretations of Learning, deal with relative-ly nontechnical interpretations of learning orientedtoward educational and other applications. Chapter 5, AMajor Formal Connectionist Theory, and Chapter 6,Compromise and Emergent Theories, treat more techni-cal interpretations. Chapter 7, Recent Developments,and Chapter 8, Learning Theory Present and Future,explore various aspects of current learning theory,highlighting unsettled issues and attempting to predictfuture trends. References, suggestions for further read-ings, an index of names, an index of topics, and a partialglossary are included. (144)

LAWSON, REED. Learning and behavior. New York:Macmillan, 1960: 447 pp.

This is a psychological study of the basis oflearning, from simple habit formation to interactions ofhabits, and the acquisition of habits in complex situa-tions. (USCSC 2, edited) (145)

Learning. National Educational Association journal,March 1963. pp. 20-32.

This is a special feature by the National Educa-tion Association magazine covering various aspects oflearning. Articles are as follows: "What do We KnowAbout Learning," by Goodwin Watson; "Roadblocks to

Learning," by Bruno Bettelheim; "Structure in Learn-ing," by Jerome S. Bruner; "Learning to be Free," byCarl R. Rogers; and "Learning Through Inquiry," by J.Richard S. Suchman. (ASTD) (146)

McKEACHIE, W. J. Understanding the learning process.Journal of English education 51:5, February1961. pp. 405-408.

This is a discussion of several principles andaspects of effective learning: practice, knowledge ofresults, activity, organization, and transfer. (HumRRO)

(147)

MEDNICK, 3ARNOFF A. Learning. Englewood Cliffs,NJ.: Prentice-Hall, 1964. 118 pp.

The book is designed as a text for introductorycollege-level courses in the psychology of learning.Chapter titles and topic headings indicate the contents:(1) Some Examples of Research on Learning (HowLearning Is Studied, Motivation, Learning and HigherMental Processes); (2) The Language and Methods ofLearning (The Use of Animals, What Is Learning?, TheLanguage of Learning, The Importance of Reward);(3) Simple Learning: Classical Operant Conditioning;(4) Complex Habits (Serial Learning, The Major Phe-nomena of Serial Learning, The Learning of Concepts,The Acquisition of Skill); (5) Motivation and Learning(Motivation as an Energizer, Motivation as a Stimulus,Motivation as Something to Be Reinforced, The Needfor Change and Rest); (6) Transfer of Training (WhatTransfer Is, Learning How to Learn); (7) Rememberingand Forgetting (Measuring Memory, The Nature ofForgetting, Short-Term Memory). A list of selectedreadings and an index are included. (148)

MELTON, ARTHUR W. (ed.). Categories of humanlearning. New York: Academic Press, 1964. 356pp.

A 1962 symposium studied the interrelationshipsof seven different categories of human learning. Sevenpapers were presented; each was discussed. Titles were:Classical and Operant Conditioning, by David A. Grant;The It, lresentativeness of Rote Verbal Learning, byBrentol J. Underwood; Probability Learning, by WilliamK. Estes; Short-Term Memory and Incidental Learning,by Leo Postman; The Concept of the Concept, byHoward H. Kelidler; Perceptual-Motor Skill Learning, byPaul M. Fitts; and Problem Solving, by Robert M. Gagne.Included also is Arthur W. Melton's "The Taxonomy ofHuman Learning: Overview." Each paper and discussionhas a list of references, and the entire collection isindexed by names and subjects. (149)

38

NIBLETT, W. R. (ed.). How and why do we learn?London: Faber and Faber, 1965. 196 pp.

Originally presented in a series of public lecturesat the University of London Institite of Education, thenine essays included in the book are divided into twomain parts. The six essays of Part One are by psychol-ogists and stress the importance of environmental factorsin learning: The remaining three essays of Part Two dealwith aspects of informal or non-academic learning.Contents are: (1) Learning versus Teaching, by StephenWiseman; (2) Perception, Intuition, and Insight, by DorisM. Lee; (3) Learning to Think, by W. D. Wall; (4) Pro-grammed Learning, by Harry Kay; (5) How Does aGroup Learn. to Work Together, by Ben Morris;(6) Learning to Deal with Mass Persuasion, by RichardHoggart; (8) Learning to Enjoy, by Stephen Potter;(9) Learning to Live in a Heterogeneous World, by SirHugh Foot. (150)

THORNDIKE, EDWARD L. Human learning. Cam-bridge, Mass.: The MIT Press, 1931. 206 pp.

This book contains a series of 12 lectures. Theirtitles are: (1) Introduction: The Influence of the Fre-quency of Occurrence of a Situation; (2) The Influenceof the Frequency of Occurrence of a Connection: ThePrinciple of Belonging; (3) The Influence of the After-Effects of a Connection; (5) New Experimental Data isthe After-Effects of a Connection; (6) Identifiability,Availability, Trial, and System; (7) Other Facts Concern-ing Mental Connections: Conditioned Reflexes andLearning; (8) Purposiveness and Learning: GestaltTheory and Learning; (9) Ideational Learning;(10) Thinking and Reasoning; (11) The Evaluation ofLearning in General; and (12) The Evaluation of Learn-ing in Recent Times: Future Possibilities. A bibliographyof references in the text and an index are included.

(151)

TRAVERS, ROBERT M. W. Essentials of learning: anoverview for students of education. 2nd edition.New York: Macmillan, 1967. 560 pp.

This text on the psychology of learning is acomprehensive overview of current knowledge, withsome emphasis on theoretical issues and problems to besolved. Some implications of research results are givenbut no specific classroom procedures are suggested. Eachchapter has a summary. An epilogue lists 66 generaliza-tions useful in the management of learning, and suggestsproblems in the design of teaching methods. A 26-itembibliography and an index are included. Chapters are:(1) Some Approaches to Learning; (2) FundamentalConcepts in Research on Learning; (3) Reinforcementand Learning; (4) Generalization, Discrimination, andthe Development of Stimulus Control; (5) Concept

Learning and Verbal Learning; (6) Motivation; (7) TheNervous System and Learning; (8) The Transfer ofTraining; (9) Developmental Processes in Relation toLearning; (10) Some Acquisition and Retention Phe-nomena; (11) Problem Solving and Decision Making;(12) Social Factors Influencing Learning; (13) TheLearning of Attitudes; (14) Perceptual and Phenomenol-ogical Approaches to Learning; (15) The Measurementof Some Mediating Processes Involved in Learning:Aptitudes; (16) Learning Theory and the Mechanizationof the Classroom. (152)

39

WOODWORTH, ROBERT S. and HAROLD SCHLOS-BERG. Experimental psychology. Revised edition.New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1954.

This book covers experimental psychology ingeneral. Chapters on learning include the followingtitles: (1) Learning: Introductory Survey, (2) Condi-tioning, (3) Discrimination Learning, (4) Maze Learning,(5) Motivation in Learning and Performance, (6) Trans-fer and Interference, and (7) Economy in Learning andPerformance. (HumRRO) (153)

LEARNING THEORY AND RESEARCHSPECIFIC TYPES AND ASPECTS

AUSUBEL, DAVID P. The psychology of meaningfulverbal learning: an introduction to school learn-ing. New York: Grune & Stratton, 1963. 255 pp.

This indexed volume on the major cognitivelearning activities in schools organizes the relativelysparse research on the subject according to a unifiedtheory of verbal "reception" learning and its retention.This theory distinguishes between "rote-meaningful"and "reception-discovery" learning and suggests a con-cept of "meaning" based on nonarbitrary, substantiverelatability to cognitive structure. It distinguishes be-tween logical and psychological meaning and betweenrote and meaningful learning processes. A two-stagesubsumption process is suggested whereby new materialis meaningfully incorporated into and retained withincognitive structure. Dissociability strength is seen as acriterion of meaningful retention. The centrality ofproperties of relevance, stability, clarity, and discrimin-ability in the efficient learning and retention of newmaterial are included in this concept. A cognitivestructure concept of transfer is proposed and derivativeversus correlative subsumption is discussed. Principles ofprogressive differentiation and integrative reconciliation,both with respect to the organization of cognitivestructure and as ways of programming new material, arediscussed. The cognitive "organizer" technique of didac-tic exposition, the psychological and educational signifi-cance of the concrete-abstract dimension of cognitivedevelopment, and the psychological and educationallimitations of learning by discovery are explained.Practice and instructional materials are reinterpreted interms of their influence on cognitive structure, and interms of the mediational effects of cognitive structureon their actions. References follow each chapter. (154)

AUSUBEL, DAVID P. The use of advance organizers inthe learning and retention of meaningful verbalmaterial. Journal of educational psychology51:5, 1960. pp. 267-272.

The learning and retention of unfamiliar butmeaningful verbal material can be facilitated by theadvance introduction of relevant subsuming concepts(organizers), because cognitive structure is hierarchicallyorganized in terms of highly inclusive concepts underwhich are subsumed less inclusive subconcepts andinformational data. The facilitating influence of advanceorganizers on the incomparability and longevity of

40

meaningful learning material is attributable to twofactors: (1) the selective mobilization of the mostrelevant existing concepts in the learner's cognitivestructure for integrative use as part of the subsumingfocus for the new learning task; and (2) the provision ofoptimal anchorage for the learning material in the formof relevant and appropriate subsuming concepts at aproximate level of inclusiveness. Greater use of appropri-ate advance organizers in the teaching of meaningfulverbal material leads to more effective retention and canrender unnecessary much of the rote memorization towhich students resort because they are required to learnthe details of a discipline . before having available asufficient number of key subsuming concepts. (155)

BANDURA, ALBERT and RICHARD H. WALTERS.Social learning and personality development.New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1963. 329pp.

A set of social-learning principles that emphasizethe role of social, variables to a greater extent thancurrent learning theories are outlined. The socio-behavioristic approach used integrates the authors' ownresearch findings with findings obtained from controlledinvestigations in child development and social psychol-ogy, as well as traditional experimental psychology. Thechapter titles describe the contents: (1) The Socio-Behavioristic Approach (principles of social learning,methodological problems); (2) The Role of Imitation;(3) Reinforcement Patterns and Social Behavior (aggres-sion, dependency, sex behavior); (4) The Developmentof Self-Control; (5) The Modification of Behavior (meth-ods of producting behavioral change, some theoreticalissues). A list of references and author and subjectindexes are included. (156)

BRADFORD, LELAND P. (ed.). Forces in learning(Selected Reading Series no. 3). Washington,D.C.: National Training Laboratory and NationalEducation Association, 1961. 102 pp.

Articles under the following titles support theidea that tradition in education has prevented majorchanges in the practice of teaching, but must give way torecognition of group, social, and emotional forces andtheir influence on learning: The Teaching-LearningTransaction, by Leland P Bradford; Teacher-Pupil Con-

tacts and Mental Hygiene, by Ned A. Flanders; TheLearner and the Classroom Group, by Ronald Lippitt;Developing Potentialities Through Class Groups, byLeland P. Bradford; Sociopsychological Processes ofGroup Instruction, by Jack R. Gibb; Classroom SocialStructure as a Mental Health Problem, by Ronald Lippittand Martin Gold; Power Conflict in Classrooms andMotivation for Learning, by David H. Jenkins; TheLearning Process During Human Relations Training, byMatthew B. Miles; University Training in Human Rela-tions Skills, by Jane Srygley Mouton and Robert R.Blake; Case Methods in the Training of Administrators,by Kenneth D. Benne. (157)

BRIGGS, LESLIE J. and NANCY RUSSELL HAMIL-TON. Meaningful learning and retention: practiceand feedback variables. Review of educationalresearch 34:5, December 1964. pp. 545-558.

In the research reported in this article, theinvestigators who carried out a large proportion of thestudies concerned with practice and reinforcement inverbal learning employed rote memorizalion or problemsolving as experimental tasks. Results from these studiesare difficult to apply to education, because these tasksdiffer so much from classroom learning. Comparisons ofparticular autoinstructional programs with certain in-stances are difficult to interpret because experimentalvariables are not explicitly described. In general, whentasks lend themselves to much internal cognitive struc-turing, the function of practice is to provide theoccasion for such structuring. For rote learning, thefunction of practice is to provide relatively moreinstances of prompting, responding, contiguity, andfeedback, in order to strengthen the desired response, todissociate it from conflicting responses, and to bringdisinhibition. In relation to prompting and confirmation,the most clear-cut results of the review can be expressed.When the student needs only to acquire, by rote, theability to reproduce a verbal task, repeated trials underfull prompting are sufficient, with or without overtresponding or feedback. When the student must dis-cover how to define the goal or how to reach it, somecombination of prompting, responding, and feedbackappears optimal. When it is necessary to employ somedevice external to the task itself to keep the studentworking, reinforcement through reward or, perhaps,vicarious reinforcements may need to be added toprompting and feedback conditions. A bibliography isincluded. (158)

DeCECCO, JOHN P. (ed.). The psychology of language,thought, and instruction. New York: Holt, Rine-hart & Winston, 1967. 446 pp.

The problem of instruction in language andthought is the organizing principle of this selection of 43

41

essays by various authorities. The book is interdisciplin-ary in nature and has borrowed theory and fact fromsuch fields as linguistics, psycholinguistics, the psychol-ogy of cognition and verbal learning, developmentalpsychology, anthropology, sociology, and education.The book represents each discipline within the frame-work of the general objectivegreater knowledge andunderstanding of instruction in language and thought. Itis divided into 10 sections, each with an introduction bythe editor: (1) The Study of Language: In the Beginningwas the Sound (the relation of language mastery and thevarious intellectual processes); (2) Language, Thought,and Culture: Linguistic Trickery (the relation of lan-guage and thought to culture); (3) Language and SocialClass: Cognitive Disadvantage (identification of socialclass differences in linguistic and cognitive behavior);(4) Language and Meaning: The Union of Mind andBody (the question of the meaning of meaning and howmeaning is acquired); (5) Instruction in Reading: FromPhoneme to Grapheme; (6) The Study of Thought;(7) The Development of Language and Thought: Agesand Stages: (8) Language and Learning: How Do WeAcquire Language; (9) Language and Problem Solving;and (10) Instruction in Language and Thought: ThereMay Be a Will Without a Way. Indexes of names andsubjects are included. (159)

FLEISHMAN, EDWIN A. The description and predic-tion of perceptual-motor skill learning. IN Glaser,Robert (ed.). Training research and education.Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1962.pp. 137-175.

The facts of individual differences have rele-vance to the requirements of tasks to be learned. Theinteraction of treatment effects with individual differ-ence variables is of major theoretical and practicalsignificance. The study of ability variables and thelearning of perceptual-motor tasks assists understandingof perceptual-motor performance, and may be useful inpredicting later proficiency as well as in the structuringof training. This chapter summarizes research con-cerned with the isolation of ability variables productiveof high proficiency levels in perceptual-motor skill learn-ing. (160)

GAGNE, ROBERT M. (ed.). Learning and individualdifferences. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. MerrillBooks, 1967. 265 pp.

A 1965 symposium of the Learning Research andDevelopment Center, University of Pittsburgh, con-sidered the question of how people differ in the rate,extent, style, and quality of their learning. Each chaptercontains a major paper immediately followed by adiscussant's comments. The volume as a whole providesa survey of views on the problem of individual differ-

ences in learning. The major papers include: (1) SomeImplications of Previous Work on Learning and Individ-ual Differences, by Robert Glaser; (2) How Can Instruc-tion be Adapted to Individual Differences?, by Lee J.Cronbach; (3) Individual Differences in Verbal Learn-ing, by James J. Jenkins; (4) Individual Differences andProblem Solving, by Richard C. Anderson; (5) Individ-ual Differences in "Attention": The Orienting Reflex,by Irving Maltzman; (6) Varieties of Individual Dif-ferences in Learning, by Arthur R. Jensen; (7) Indi-vidual Performance, R-R Theory and Perception, byMurray Glanzer; (8) Individual Differences and MotorLearning, by Edwin A. Fleishman; (9) The Relation ofIQ and Learning, by David Zeaman and Betty J.House; (10) Simulation of Cognition and Learning: TheRole of Individual Differences, by Paul M. Kjelder-gaard; and (11) Individual Differences and TheoreticalProcess Variables: General Comments on the Confer-ence, by Arthur W. Melton. Each paper includes a listof references and the entire collection is indexed byauthor and subject. (161)

GAGNE, ROBERT M. Problem solving. IN Melton,Arthur W. (ed.). Categories of human learning.New York: Academic Press, 1964. pp. 293-317.

Certain variables govern problem solving as aform of learning. Dependent variables include (1) rate ofattainment of some criterion performance, and (2) de-gree of correctness of this performance. The indepen-dent variables are (1) the stimulus situation and (2) a setof instructions. The instructions are intended to changethe subject's behavior in four ways by: (1) identifyingnew stimuli; (2) identifying the expected form of theterminal performance; (3) recalling previously acquiredcapabilities; and (4) chaneling thinking in a relevantdirection. The most important difference between prob-lem-solving and other forms of learning is that thelearning situation for problem-solving never includesperformances which could, by simple summation, consti-tute the criterion performance. Problem-solving is themost complex form of human learning. The suggestedordering of types of learning is: (1) response learning;(2) chaining; (3) verbal learning; (4) concept learning;(5) principle learning; and (6) problem-solving. Problem-solving requires the establishment of a process whichcombines two or more previously learned rules in ahigher-order rule. (162)

GAGNE, ROBERT M. and ROBERT C. BOLLES. Areview of factors in learning efficiency. INGalanter, Eugene (ed.). Automatic teaching: Thestate of the art. New York: John Wiley & Sons,1959. pp. 13-53.

There are certain manipulatable conditions oflearning which may be used to ensure maximum transfer

42

from learning to tasks of the job. If these are allsystematically controlled by a machine or by an other-wise well-designed learning situation, there are greatpossibilities for increasing the efficiency of learning. Inlearning to identify, to follow procedures, and to useconcepts, there are two classes of manipulatable condi-tions: (1) "readiness factors," which are the motiva-tional or preparatory conditions that make the traineeready for learning; and (2) "associative factors," whichare the stimulus conditions that determine which spe-cific associations are formed and how strong theseassociations are relative to competing associations. Read-iness factors include (1) motivation, (2) reinforcement,(3) task set, and (4) attention, or intent to learn.Associative factors include (1) the nature of the associa-tion to be established, (2) intratrial factors, and(3) intertrial factors. It is important to determine howfar each of these variables, or combinations of them, canbe pushed in order to make learning efficient. (163)

GAGNE, ROBERT M. and NOEL E. PARADISE.Abilities and learning sets in knowledge acquisi-tion. Psychological monographs 75:14, Whole No.518,1961. 23 pp.

Individual differences in rate of completion ofand achievement in learning programs result primarilyfrom the fact that individuals begin the task of learningwith different amounts and kinds of knowledge, andonly secondarily from a difference in basic abilities or ingeneral intelligence. A set of subordinate capabilitiescalled "learning sets," arranged in a hierarchy such thatany learning set may have several learning sets subordi-nate to it, are relevant to any task. In order for learningto occur at any point in the hierarchy, each of thelearning sets subordinate to a given task must be highlyrecallable and integrated by a thinking process into thesolution of the problem posed by the task. A substantialproportion of the variance in learning program perfor-mance is attributable to the attainment or nonattain-ment of learning sets relevant to the final task which theprogram is designed to teach. An ideally effectivelearning program has the effect of reducing the perfor-mance variance attributable to number and pattern ofrelevant learning sets to zero, since in such a program alllearning sets are attained by everyone. General intelli-gence and relevant basic abilities relate to the time takenby the learner to attain any or all of the relevant learningsets, including the final task. The relation of basic andgeneral abilities to achievement (as opposed to learningrate) is more difficult to predict. According to thistheory of learning set hierarchy, the frames of a programshould be designed in such a way that they (1) consti-tute an ordered sequence logically reated to thehierarchy of learning sets for the desired final task;(2) provide for recallability of subordinate learning sets;

and (3) furnish the guidance to thinking which willenable the learner to integrate subordinate learning setsin the performance of new tasks. (164)

GROSE, ROBERT R. and ROBERT C. BIRNEY (eds.).Transfer of learning: an enduring problem inpsychology. New York: D. Van Nostrand Com-pany, 1963. 194 pp.

This book reports on studies of transfer oftraining. Contents include: (1) The influence of Im-provement in One Mental Function upon the Efficiencyof Other Functions, by Edward L. Thorndike; (2) Recip-rocal Improvement in Learning, by Peter Sandiford;(3) An Experimental Test of the Law of Assimilation, byK. S. Yum; (4) Transfer of Training in Reasoning, byM. C. Barlow; (5) Transfer of Training in Learning to Hita Submerged Target, by Gordon Hendrickson andWilliam H. Schroeder; (6) The Similarity Paradox inHuman Learning: A Resolution, by Charles E. Osgood;(7) Stimulus Predifferentiation: Some Generalizationsand Hypotheses, by Malcolm D. Arnoult; (8) Transfer ofLearning, by J. M. Stephens; (9) Transfer to a MotorTask as Influenced by Conditions and Degree of PriorDiscrimination Training, by Albert E. Goss and NormanGreenfeld; (10) The Transfer Vilue of Given and Indi-vidually Derived Principles, by G. M. Hoslereed andShirley Meyers; (11) A Comparison of Three Varieties ofTraining in Human Problem Solving, by Lloyd Morrisett,Jr., and Carl J. Hovland; (12) Problem Solving Behaviorand Transfer, by Rudolph W. Schulz; and (13) OnTransfer and the Abilities of Man, by George A. Fergu-son. (165)

HARLOW, HARRY F. The formation of learning sets.The psychological review 56:1, January 1949.pp. 51-65.

Because the human being is a reasonably rationalcreature rather than a conditioned response robot, thelearning of prinnry importance to him is the formationof learning sets or learning how to learn efficiently. This"learning to learn" transforms the organism from acreature that adapts to a changing environment by trialand error to one that adapts by seeming hypothesis andinsight. The development of certain learning sets isextremely orderly, quantifiable, and predictable. Alearning set functions to convert a problem which isinitially difficult into a problem which is so simple as tobe immediately solvabTe. Thus, the formation of alearning set leaves the organism free to attack problemsof another hierarchy of difficulty. Much of the currentresearch on learning theory forgets the experiencevariable in learning behavior, i.e., the learning sets whichsubjects bring to the experimental situation. Detailed

43

knowledge of the nature of the formation of learningsets could be of such importance to educational theoryand practice as to justify prolonged and systematic inves-tigation. (166)

HUNT, EARL B. Concept learning; an informationprocessing problem. New York: John Wiley &Sons, 1962. 286 pp.

"An attempt has been made to bring togethersome of the relevan4, milterial from fields of logic,psychological theory, and electronic computers." Chap-ter headings further indicate content and organization:(1) The Nature of Concept Learning; (2) Analysis of theProblem; (3) Concept Learning and Basic Learning;(4) Stimulus Organization; (5) Memory and ConceptLearning; (6) Strategies of Concept Learning; (7) Arti-ficial Intelligence; (8) An Information-Processing Modelof Concept Learning; (9) Concept Formation by Arti-ficial Intelligence; (10) The Near Future. (167)

KELLER, FRED S. Learning: reinforcement theory.New York: Random House, 1954. 37 pp.

The reinforcement theory of learning is ex-plained in detail; its principles are identified andclarified, and their interrelationships and possible exten-sions indicated. Included are discussions of operant andrespondent behavior; respondent conditioning; operantconditioning; positive and negative reinforcers; extinc-tion; extinction and negative reinforcement; primary andsecondary reinforcement; generalization; discrimination;differentiation; chaining; and secondary negative rein-forcement. Suggestions for further reading and a briefbibliographical essay on these readings are given. (168)

KLEINMUNTZ, BENJAMIN (ed.). Problem solving;research, method, and theory. New York: JohnWiley & Sons, 1966. 406 pp.

This book is the result of the first of an annualseries of symposia in the area of cognition under thesponsorship of Carnegie Institute of Technology. Partialcontents are: Current Trends in Problem Solving, byBert F. Green, Jr.; Human Problem Solving: Internal andExternal Events, by Robert M. Gagne; An OperantAnalysis of Problem Solving, by B. F. Skinner. (USCSC1, edited) (169)

POSTMAN, LEO. Learned principles of organization inmemory. Psychological monographs 68:3, Wholeno. 374, 1954. pp. 1-24.

A series of studies is described demonstratingthat learned rules of organization can systematicallyinfluence both amount and quality of retention. Theeffectiveness of this training increases with retentioninterval. (HumRRO) (170)

SEASHORE, ROBERT H. Work and motor perfor-mance. IN Stevens, S. S. (ed.). Handbook ofexperimental psychology. New York: John Wiley& Sons, 1951. pp. 1341-1362.

Gross motor coordination, the activity of nervesthat connect the central nervous system to muscles andglands, is manifested as strength, and differs from finemotor coordination, in which strength is secondary tospeed and precision. Among the factors underlyingindividual differences in fine motor skills are these: themusculature is of slight significance; the sensory organemployed is of moderate significance; the pattern ofmovement is likely to be of the greatest significance.The "work methods hypothesis" suggests that individualdifferences in human ability are attributable to thephysical constants (innate characteristics) of the organsinvolved, the pattern of the component actions used,and the refinement of these patterns through varyingstrength and timing to produce an optimal pattern ofaction. Empirical evidence indicates that skilled workersattain superior results by discovery of qualitative pat-terns of action (work methods) that make workeasier. (171)

SENTER, R. J. Review of mnemonics and mnemono-technics for improved memory (AMRL-TR-65-180). Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio: AirForce Systems Command, Aerospace MedicalDivision, Aerospace Medical Research Labora-tories, Behavioral Sciences Laboratory, Decem-ber 1965. 18 pp.

"A review was made of books on mnemonics andmnemonotechnics. These are techniques for improvingthe efficiency of memory. These books describe theeffect on memory of common principles of learning,such as motivation, attention, and rehearsal. They alsoillustrate the use of simple mnemonics such as 'ROY G.BIV' for remembering the hues of the visual spectrum.More extensive descriptions, however, are provided ofmore complex mnemonic systems, such as the so-called`hook' or 'peg' systems. With the hook system, informa-tion in serial order is retained by aid of vivid, evenbizarre, visual images. The information to be retained isincorporated into a visual image which had beenpreviously associated with a number. The report includes

44

some uses of these techniques and some personalobservations and analyses. These techniques offer inter-esting possibilities for improving the retention of techni-cal information. Research on these techniques probablywould be profitable." (ASTD) (172)

SMITH, WENDELL I. and J. WILLIAM MOORE.Conditioning and instrumental learning; a pro-gram for self-instruction. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1966. 169 pp.

Prepared for beginning college students, thisbook presents most of the key concepts and principles incommon use in classical conditioning and instrumentaltraining with more thorough treatment of importantconcepts such as reinforcement, extinction, and discrimi-nation. The humanistic implications of the models ofclassical conditioning and instrumental training arepresented and recent developments in interoceptiveconditioning and behavior therapy are included toprovide appreciation of the potential value of condition-ing models. The material is "semi-programmed": infor-mation is presented in prose rather than programmedform and is followed by a set of frames which (1) teachdiscriminations among concepts; (2) call attention toimportant material; (3) provide review of informationsections; or (4) test knowledge of the material. Threearticles from scientific journals are included to provideopportunity for the reader to transfer what is learned tothe reading of articles in scientific journals. Reading timefor the book ranges from 7-13 hours. A 59-itembibliography and an index are included. (173)

STAATS, ARTHUR W. (ed.). Human learning: studiesextending conditioning principles to complexbehavior. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston,1964. 520 pp.

The application of learning principles to thestudy of human behavior and its problems is theorganizing thesis in this selection of 49 essays by variousauthors, including the editor. The stated aim is twofold:(1) to "focus" this development, and (2) to provide astimulus for it. Several dominant themes are subsumedunder this aim: (1) the various studies suggest that anintegration of empirical learning principles and methodswill serve as a general approach to the study of humanbehavior and its problems; (2) information on contem-porary research procedures for this study is described inthe articles, providing an important set of tools for theempirically minded student of human behavior; (3) thearticles provide support for the view that learningpsychology is entering upon the phase of a science wherebasic principles and methods become applicable to thestudy and solution of complex problems; (4) the applica-tion of basic principles to complex cases and to actualpractical problems is an integral part of the generaliza-

tion and verification of the principles and the science.The book is divided into nine chapters: (I) Introduction;(II) Child Learning; (III) Verbal Behavior; (IV) Com-munication and Other Functions of Language; (V)Problem Solving; (VI) Attitude Learning and HumanMotivation; (VII) Social Interaction, Attitude Function,Group Cohesiveness, and Social Power; (VIII) Personal-ity; (IX) Behavioral Treatment. A bibliography andauthor and subject indexes are included. (174)

UNDERWOOD, BENTON J. and RUDOLPH W.SCHULZ. Meaningfulness and verbal learning.Chicago: J. B. Lippincott, 1960. 430 pp.

The basic experiments on which this book isbased were supported by the Office of Naval Research.The volume is divided into two parts, the first being asummary of the work of other investigators to give apicture of the state of knowledge about meaningfulnessand learning at the time these studies were undertaken.The second half is devoted to the experimental analyses

45

of the authors. Chapter titles are: The Definition ofMeaningfulness; Meaningfulness and Learning: InitialEvidence; Frequency and Meaningfulness; Word Struc-ture and Learning Materials; Frequency and the SpewHypothesis; Initial Experiments on Response Frequency;Further Experiments on Response Frequency; LetterSequence Habits; Letter Association and Learning; AFinal Appraisal. Appendixes contain technical data. Anauthor index is included. (175)

WINNICK, WILMA A. Two sources of distraction inincidental learning. The American journal ofpsychology 79:1, March 1966. pp. 104-110.

One of two experiments showed that incidentallearning, unlike intentional learning, is unaffected byexternal distractions. The other experiment showed thatinternal distraction had no effect on intentional learningand only a slight effect on incidental learning. Incidentallearning may be generally immune to distraction eitherbecause it occurs under any conditions or because of ahigh degree of selectivity in incidental learning. (176)

PROGRAMMED LEARNING THEORY AND RESEARCH

De CECCO, JOHN P. (ed.). Educational technology,readings in programme nstruction. New York:Holt, Rinehard & Winston, 1964. 479 pp.

This collection of readings brings together re-search reports and theoretical discussions of psychol-ogists and educators who have contributed to theknowledge about educational tecHology, programmedlearning, and the psychology of learning. The criteriaused for selecting the readings further elaborate thispurpose: (1) readings were chosen that emphasize therelationship between the psychology of learning andpractical applications of this knowledge in educationaltechnology and programmed learning; (2) research re-ports and discussions of research were selected for eachof the major variables of programmed material thus farinvestigated; (3) a few readings were selected in order tofamiliarize students with the basic concepts, techniques,and mechanical devices that have thus far been em-ployed; (4) major research reports, frequently referredto in the informal discussions of the field have beenselected; (5) readings of a more practical nature that dealwith the problems of school utilization have beenselected; (6) readings that are critical of many of theunwarrantedly enthusiastic claims made for programmedlearning and educational technology are included. (177)

De GRAZIA, ALFRED and DAVID A. JOHN (eds.).Programs, teachers, and machines. New York:Bantam Books, 1964. 309 pp.

Articles by leading therapists, psychologists, edu-cators, programmers, and research specialists who havebeen working with programmed instruction are pre-sented. The aim of the book is to provide the readerwith a sense of perspective about the state of the art.The thirty-four essays are arranged in five sections:(1) Programmed Instruction: Background and Setting;(2) Programming Theory; (3) Research and Developmentin Programmed Instruction; (4) Programmed Instructionfor Subject Matter Areas; and (5) The Potential ofProgrammed Instruction: Evaluation and Use. (178)

46

FINE, B. Teaching machines. New York: Sterling Pub-lishing Company, 1962. 176 pp.

This book is written for those with a low level ofprior knowledge about teaching machines. The coursefollowed is a build-up of information about teachingmachines written in simple, easy-to-understand language.Some chapter headings are: (1) What is a TeachingMachine; (2) Programmed Learning; (3) How Do Stu-dents Respond; (4) How Do Teachers React; (5) WhatCan Teaching Machines Teach; and (6) Research Find-ings. (ASTD) (179)

GAGNE, ROBERT M. and LARRY T. BROWN. Somefactors in the programming of conceptual learn-ing. Journal of experimental psychology 62:4,October 1961. pp. 313-321.

"An experiment was performed to investigate theeffects of certain variations in the programming ofconceptual learning materials on effectiveness of learningas measured by performance in a problem-solving situa-tion." Three programs incorporating differences in ex-perimental treatment were used: a rule and exampleprogram (using small steps), a discovery program (usingvery large steps), and a guided discovery program (usingsmall steps). Significant learning occurred with allprograms. However, best performance resulted fromguided discovery, worst from rule and example, andintermediate from discovery. The finding that a dis-covery method lead to greater transfer than a rule andexample method was consistent with earlier cited investi-gations. Results were interpreted as suggesting that:(1) the guided discovery program led to superior perfor-mance because it required systematic reinstatement (andin this sense, practice) of learned concepts; (2) positivetransfer of training to a problem-solving situation de-pends upon the resemblance between what is practicedin a learning situation and what is used in problemsolving; (3) to find the ways of developing effectivelearning priigrams, one must search out the specificconcepts which enter into the chain of events betweenthe stimulus situation and the overt performance itself;and (4) "what is learned" rather than "how it is learned"is the crucial factor in problem-solving performance andlearning effectiveness. (180)

GALANTER, EUGENE (ed.). Automatic teaching: thestate of the art. New York: John Wiley & Sons,1959. 198 pp.

These papers, most of which were prepared forthe first conference in the Art and Science of theAutomatic Teaching of Verbal and Symbolic Skills(1958), provide information on automatic teaching andare presented to help researchers to isolate parameters.Titles are: The Ideal Teacher, by Eugene Galanter; AReview of Factors in Learning Efficiency, by Robert M.Gagne and Robert C. Bolles; On Some Methods ofProgramming, by Jacob Beck; The Programming ofVerbal Knowledge, by B. F. Skinner; A TeachingMachine Program in Psychology, by James G. Holland; AProgram in Elementary Arithmetic: Present and Future,by Susan R. Meyer; Some Effects on Year-Long Teach-ing Machine Instruction, by Douglas Porter; Specula-tions: Characteristics of Successful Programs and Pro-grammers, by Donald E. P. Smith; Relationships Be-tween the Programmed Textbook and TeachingMachines, by Lloyd E. Homme and Robert Glaser;Automatic Tutoring by Means of Intrinsic Programming,by Norman A. Crowder; The IBM Research CenterTeaching Machine Project, by Gustave J. Rath, Nancy S.Anderson, and R. C. Brainerd; Teaching Machines forTraining of Military Personnel in Maintenance of Elec-tronic Equipment, by Leslie J. Briggs; Partial and MoreCr:raplete Automation of Teaching in Group and Indi-vidual Learning Situations, by A. A. Lumsdaine; Skin-ner's Theory of Teaching Machines, by David Zeaman;Teaching Machines and Psychological Theory, byHoward H. Kendler; Certain Major Psycho-EducationalIssues Appearing in the Conference on TeachingMachines, by S. L. Pressey. (181)

GEIS, GEORGE L. Variety and programmed instructionor what can't be programmed? AV communica-tion review 14:1, Spring 1966. pp. 109-116.

Programmed instruction is a process rather than aproduct. The programmer is engaged in the specificationand analysis of behavior, not content. This behaviororientation makes it possible to develop a program toproduce any behavioral goals that can be specified. Anytraditional content, once it has been categorized on thebasis of specifiability of the outcomes desired, can beprogrammed. It is not the sole purpose of programmedinstruction to teach rote responses, but rather to teachcrucial concepts. More programs should be developed asinstruments of concept formation rather than of infor-mation passage. (182)

47

GLASER, ROBERT (ed.). Teaching machines and pro-grammed learning, II: data and directions. Wash-ington, D.C.: National Education Association,1965. 831 pp.

Not all authors represented in this collection(indexed by subject and author) are committed to theidea of programmed instruction, but they are convincedof the validity of teaching methods based on behaviortheory and experimental evidence. This volume includesmore reference works than does its companion volume,Teaching Machines and Programmed Learning I. Seven-teen papers are divided into four sections: Section I,Perspectives and Technology(1) Reflections on aDecade of Teaching Machines, by B. F. Skinner; (2) TheAnalysis of Instructional Objectives for the Design ofInstruction, by Robert M. Gagne; (3) Research onProgramMing Variables, by James G. Holland; (4) AnAnalysis of Programming Techniques, by David J. Klaus;(5) Teaching Machines and Computer-Based Systems, byLawrence M. Stolurow and Daniel Davis; (6) The Theoryand Practice of Adaptive Teaching Systems, by Brian N.Lewis and Gordon Pat; (7) Assessing the Effectivenessof Instructional Programs, by A. A. Lumsdaine; (8) Pro-gramming Classroom Instruction, by Bert Y. Kersh;Section II, Technology and Subject Matter(9) Programming in Mathematics and Logic, by James L.Evans; (10) Science Education and Behavioral Technol-ogy; (11) Reading and Related Verbal Learning, byHarry F. Silberman; (12) Programmed Instruction inEnglish, by Susan Meyer Markle; (13) ProgrammedLearning of a Second Language, by Harlan Lane; SectionIII, Implementation-- (14) School Use of ProgrammedInstruction, by Lincoln F. Hanson and P. KennethKomoski; (15) The Use of Programmed Instruction inIndustry, by H. A. Shoemaker and H. 0. Holt; (16) Useof Programmed Instructional Materials in Federal Gov-ernment Agencies, by Glenn L. Bryan and John A.Nagay; Section N, Directions (17) Toward a Behav-ioral Science Base for Instructional Design, by RobertGlaser. Each paper lists references. (183)

GREEN, EDWARD J. The learning process and pro-grammed instruction. New York: Holt, Rinehart& Winston, 1962. 228 pp.

The author's objective in this book is to bridgethe information gap between the experimental psychol-ogist and the teacher. Programmed instruction is seen as"the first application of laboratory techniques utilized inthe study of the learning process to the practicalproblems of education." At present it employs only the

of behavioral control techniques. The authorsugvts that "looking at behavior from the point ofview of the experimentalist can provide the teacher withfresh insights that need not dehumanize his relationshipwith his students, but rather affords a more effectiveteacher-student relationship in the best sense of the

term." The first half of the book deals with behavioralpsychology concepts, the second half with aspects ofprogrammed instruction. There are 76 references and anindex of names and subjects. Chapter titles furtherindicate content and organization: (1) Assumptions;(2) Definitions; (3) Basic Conditioning Processes;(4) Motivation; (5) Complex Processes; (6) Concept ofProgrammed Instruction; (7) Teaching Machines;(8) Techniques of Programming; (9) Evaluation;(10) Problems. The appendix contains a statement onself-instructional materials and devices released by ajoint committee of the American Educational ResearchAssociation, the American Psychological Association,and the Department of Audio-Visual Instruction of theNational Educational Association. (184)

HOLLAND, JAMES G. Research on programming vari-ables. IN Glaser, Robert (ed.). Teaching machinesand programmed learning II: data and directions.Washington, D.C.: National Education Associa-tion, 1965. pp. 66-117.

Programming is the construction of carefullyarranged sequences of contingencies that lead to certainterminal performances which are the object of educa-tion. A review of experimental research in the variablesof programming discloses that: (1) a contingent relationbetween answer and content is important; (2) the abilityfor the contingency to be met (low error rate) hasreceived support; (3) sequencing is important at least formaterial that builds progressively. (Principles of progres-sion have been demonstrated in teaching verbal knowl-edge, shaping skillful response topographies, and estab-lishing or transferring stimulus control; fading of formalprompts in teaching isolated stimulus-response associa-tions has not been demonstrated); (4) a range ofexamples is probably necessary for full comprehension;and (5) for long programs, a public, overt response isnecessary if the material meets the above criteria of a pro-gram. (185)

LUMSDAINE, ARTHUR A. (ed.). Student response inprogrammed instruction: a symposium on experi-mental studies of response factors in group andindividual learning from instructional media.Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sci-ences, National Research Council, 1961. 555 pp.

This book brings together and makes available agroup of studies that have relevance both for pro-grammed self-instruction by teaching machines andrelated devices and also for sequenced, reproducibleinstructional programs presented by films and othermedia. Some of the distinctions and relationships be-tween the specialized and more general forms ofprogrammed instruction are discussed in the introduc-tory chapter. The papers collected for this volume report

48

experimental studies of procedures for guiding theimplicit or overt responses of learners to increase theeffectiveness of instruction. The symposium reports thefindings of relevant studies that developed out ofmilitary research programs. All the studies involveconscious attention to the manipulation of appropriateimplicit or overt responses by the learner, and most ofthem involve techniques for eliciting and/or guidingovert responses during the course of instruction. Theydo not_ however, represent a fully integrated program-matic effort, but were conducted under a policyallowing considerable latitude to individual investigatorsin the formulation of problems and research design.These 31 studies by various authors are divided intothree main parts: (I) Learning Complex Sequential Tasksfor Demonstration and Practice; (H) Motor, Perceptual,and Academic Subject-Matter Learning; (III) Studies onLearning of Paired-Associates Material. A bibliographyand a name index are included. (186)

LUMSDAINE, ARTHUR A. and ROBERT GLASER(eds.). Teaching machines and programmed learn-ing: a source book. Washington, D.C.: NationalEducation Association, Department of Audio-Visual Instruction, 1960. 724 pp.

This book of 48 papers (with bibliography andauthor index) is organized into five parts: Purpose andScope, Pressey's Self-Instructional Test-Scoring Devices,Skinner's Teaching Machines and Programming Con-cepts, Contributions from Military and Other Sources,and Some Recent Werk. One appendix contains ab-stracts of all published papers (and some unpublishedmaterial) that deal directly with teaching machines andprogrammed learning. (187)

MARKLE, SUSAN M. and PHILIP W. TIEMANN.Programming, is a process: an introduction toinstructional technology (A Programmed Film).Technical manual: the content, objectives,measuring instruments, and validation studies.Chicago: University of Illinois at Chicago Circle,Office of Instructional Resources, 1967. 25' pp.

This manual accompanies a program presentedvia 16mm color film (running time 32 minutes). Eachviewer is provided with a copy of the "student notes," atwo-page handout that provides space for directednote-taking and question-answering and also serves as atake-home summary of the program. An instructor'sguide and an evaluation sheet are also included. "Theprogram introduces viewers to the basic process ofinstructional technology: programming an instructionalsequence for maximum student learning. The steps ofthe programming process, applicable to all media, aredescribed as a means to (1) prepare instruction resultingin specific student performance; (2) provide for student

interaction with the instructional process; and (3) pro-vide for evaluation of instruction in terms of studentperformance" (author's summary). (188)

MELCFIING, WILLIAM fl. Measures of ability andprogrammed instruction performance (HumRROtechnical report 65-12), Alexandria, Va.: TheGeorge Washington University, Human ResourcesResearch Office, December 1965. 11 pp.

"The results of several programmed instructionstudies recently accomplished by flumRRO Division No.5 (Air Defense) at Fort Bliss were compared with regardto the relationship between measures of ability andmeasures of programmed instruction performance. Al-though there were some exceptions, each ability measuretended to be substantially related to each measure ofprogram-test performance. The contention that program-med instruction eliminates achievement differences dueto intellectual ability was not substantiated." (ASTD)

(189)

RESNICK, L. B. Programmed instruction and the teach-ing of complex intellectual skills: problems andprospects. Harvard educational review 33:2,1963. pp. 439-471.

This article provides a discussion of the implica-tions of operant conditioning and cognitive theory forthe learning of complex intellectual skills by pro-grammed instruction. (HuniRRO) (190)

SCHRAMM, WILBUR. The research on programmedinstruction: an annotated bibliography (BulletinNo. 35, 0E-34034). Washington: U.S. Depart-ment of Health, Education, and Welfare, Officeof Education, 1964.

This is an annotated bibliography of 190 researchreports on programmed instruction published since1954. A 15-page introductory summary is provided.(litiniRRO) (191)

SIEGEL, ARTHUR I. and M. A. FISCHL. Studies inadjunct autoinstruction. Journal of industrialpsychology 4:2, 1966. pp. 37-47.

Adjunct autoinstruction is a form of pro-grammed instruction; it is "self-instruction as an adjunctto some primary teaching method." These studiesattempted to determine "the relative effectiveness ofadjunct autoinstruction in comparison with presentationof the same course materials by unaugmented methods."(USCS 1) (192)

49

SILBERMAN, HARRY F. Self-teaching devices andprogrammed materials. Review of educationalresources 32:2, April 1962. pp. 179-193.

Research on self-teaching devices and program-med materials is reviewed, Topics include (1) Summariesand Reviews; (2) Program Variables, including (a) Defini-tion of ponse Modes, (b) Eliciting Desired Responses,and (c) Adaptation of Programs to Individual Differ-ences; (3) Comparisons with Conventional Instruction;and (4) Trends and Problems.. (Hund2R0) (193)

STOLUROW, LAWRENCE M. Teaching by machine(Cooperative Research Monograph no. 6, OE-34010). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department ofHealth, Education, and Welfare, Office of Educa-tion, 1961.

An extensive treatment of teaching by machine ispresented in this report. Chapter headings are (1) Cur-rent Instructional Problems, (2) A Systems Approach toInstruction, (3) Teaching Machines, (4) The Learner,(5) Program and Programming Process, (6) Concepts andTechniques, and (7) Research Findings. (Hum12120)

(194)

TABER, JULIAN I., ROBERT GLASER and HAL-MUTH H. SCHAFER. Learning and programmedinstruction. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley,1965. 182 pp.

This book grew out of a manual developed forthe Air Force. The authors' purpose in publishing isindicated by the following statement from the preface:"At the present stage of development of programmedinstruction, there is little substitute for research, devel-opment, and demonstration. These efforts, however,must take place on the basis of underlying principles andnot outward appearances. Most published programmedinstructional materials have linear, small-step formats,but this format is based on some underlying knowledgeabout the learning process. The improperly initiatedpractitioner may learn only to imitate the format andignore the principles. It is primarily for this reason thatthis book discusses principles as well as procedures."Content and organization are further indicated bychapter headings and selected topics within chapters:(1) Introductory Overview (instruction objectives; trans-fer of stimulus control; prompting and guided discovery;gradual progression; reinforcement; generalization anddiscrimination; understanding; empirical development);(2) Some Definitions and Operations in Learning andInstruction (behavior; stimuli; responses; response reper-toires; reinforcement; extinction; recovery and warm-up); (3) Stimulus (Subject Matter) Control of Behavior(discriminative behavior; response chaining; motivationaluses of terminal behavior); (4) Analysis of Instructional

01*ctives and Subject Matter Units (a general proce-dure; specifying steps' and sequences; task taxonomies);(5) The Frame Unit and Prompting Techniques;(6) Frame Sequences and Program Characteristics (spe-cial frame; introductory frame; discrimination, general-ization, chaining, concept formation, practice, review,and terminal behavior sequences; linear and branchingprograms); (7) Program Development; (8) Data and Re-

50

search Issues (use in school and industry; parametricbaseline data; terminal behavior analysis; subject mattertask properties and the learning process; assessmentof entering behavior and aptitude; instructional sequenc-ing; size of step; richness of experience; form of studentresponse; learning rate; response feedback and reinforce-ment). References follow each chapter. There is a nameand subject index. (195)

iT.saaaaNca .

SYSTEMS THEORY AND APPLICATIONS

ADELSON, MARVIN. The systems approacha perspec-tive. SDC magazine 9:10, October 1966. pp. 1-3,

The systems approach is able to produce "dem-onstrably good" or defensible solutions which may takemany forms. In each case the use of available techniquesmay be different; the systems approach is a creativeprocess that includes arrangements for all appropriatesources to make relevant contributions. The systemsapproach is organized, creative, empirical, theoretical,and pragmatic. System analysis cannot or will not:provide a simplistic set of procedures to arrive atincontestable conclusions; do everything at once withinavailable funds and manpower; guarantee, at leastwithout considerable work, the transferability of tech-niques developed in other subject domains. (196)

COGSWELL, JOHN F. The system approach as aheuristic method in educational developmentanapplication to the counseling function (SP-720).Santa Monica, Calif.: System Development Cor-poration, March 1962.

A preliminary analysis of the counseling functionin a city school district is described. Hypotheses forsystems research WCie stimulated by viewing the counsel-ing function from the systems point of view, particularlystrengthening the interaction between the counselingand teaching functions. (HumRRO) (197)

CORRIGAN, ROBERT E. and ROGER A. KAUFMAN.Why system engineering. Palo Alto, Calif.: Fear-on Publishers, 1965. 71 pp.

This programmed book was written "to provide athorough overview of the need for applying systemengineering and system functional analysis methods asprerequisites to efficient total system designs." Drawingsand flow charts illustrate the text which includes specificdiscussion of steps in system design. A self-test and aglossary of terms are included. (198)

51

EGBERT, R. L. and COGSWELL, J. F. System design inthe Bassett High School (TM-1147). SantaMonica, Calif.: System Development Corpora-tion, April 1963.

This report describes the use of system analysisand design techniques in connection with the develop-ment of a high school designed for continuous pro-gress. (HumRRO) (199)

GAGNE, ROBERT M. Learning decisions in education.IN HIS The conditions of learning. New York:Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1965. pp. 237-266.

The concept of an educational system as anarrangement of people and conditions whose purpose isto bring about learning is introduced. The followingareas of decisions which affect the function of aneducational system are discussed: learning objectives, thestructure of knowledge to be learned, motivation,conditions for learning, the transferability of knowledgeand assessment. There are 12 references. (200)

GAGNE, ROBERT MILLS (ed.). Psychological prin-ciples in system development. New York: HoltRinehart & Winston, 1962. 560 pp.

The procedures for developing systems and thepsychological principles of these procedures are de-scribed and explained. Each chapter describes tech-niques employed at a stage of development, givesexamples, and discusses the relationships between thetechniques and their psychology. Each chapter has areference list; the entire book is indexed. Chapter titlesand authors are: (1) Psychology and System Develop-ment, by John L. Kennedy; (2) Human Functions inSystems, by Robert M. Gagne; (3) Men and Computers,by Ward Edwards; (4) Human Capabilities and Limita-tions, by Joseph W. Wulfeck; (5) Human Tasks andEquipment Design, by J. S. Kidd; (6) Task Descriptionand Analysis, by Robert B. Miller; (7) The Logic ofPersonnel Selection and Classification, by Paul Horst;(8) Aids to Job Performance, by J. Jepson Wulff;(9) Concepts of Training, by Meredith P. Crawford;(10) Training Programs and Devices, by William C. Biel;(11) Team Functions and Training, by Robert Boguslawand Elias H. Porter; (12) Proficiency Measurements:Assessing Human Performance, by Robert Glaser and

David J. Klaus; (13) Evaluating System Performance inSimulated Environments, by Robert H. Davis andRichard A. Behan; and (14) The System Concept as aPrinciple of Methodological Decision, by John L. Finan.

(201)

LIKERT, RENSIS. The need for a systems approach. INHIS The human organization: its managementand values. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967. pp.116-127.

The management system of an organization musthave compatible component parts if it is to functioneffectively. Experiments in organizations must involveinternally consistent changes. Because the organic integ-rity of each system must be maintained while experi-mental variations are being made, a systems approachmust be used. A planned change should start by alteringfirst the most influential causal variable; then thereshould be systematic plans to modify in coordinatedsteps all of the operating procedures which now anchorthe organization to its present management system. Thesystems principle must also be applied to managerialdevelopment activities in order to ensure (1) consistencybetween the system of management of a company andthe content of development programs for its managers,and (2) the internal consistency of content of manage-ment development courses. Successful business enter-prises are characterized by internally consistent prin-ciples and procedures. The need for consistency and thesystems approach must be considered in all (1) organiza-tional research; (2) attempts to improve organizations byapplying research findings; and (3) management develop-ment programs. (202)

MESAROVIC, MIHAJLO D. (ed.). Views on generalsystems theory: proceedings of the second sys-tems symposium at Case Institute of Technology.New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1964. 178 pp.

The contributions comprising this book representslightly revised versions of the talks delivered at the CAPSecond Systems Symposium. The objective of thesymposium was stated as the clarification of the follow-ing areas: (1) basic characteristics of general systemstheory; (2) review of major developments achieved todate; (3) statement of current problems of importance;(4) prospect for the future. The contents are: (1) Foun-dations for a General Systems Theory, by M. D. Mesaro-vic; (2) General Systems as a Point of View, by K. E.Boulding; (3) The Concept of State in System Theory,by L. A. Zadeh; (4) General System Theory and SystemsResearch: Contrasting Conceptions of Systems Science,by R. L. Ackoff; (5) Constrained Extremization Modelsand Their Use in Developing Systems Measures, by A.Charnes and W. W. Cooper; (6) The Compleat Conversa-tionalist: A "Systems Approach" to the Philosophy of

52

Language, by H. Putnam; (7) The Abstract Theory ofSelf-Reproduction, by J. Myhill; (8) Entitation, Ani-morgs, and Other Systems, by R. W. Gerard; (9) TowardApproximate Analysis of Linear Dynamic Systems, byW. K. Linville; (10) Invariant Imbedding and the Analy-sis of Processes, by R. Kalaba; (11) System Causality andSignal Predictability, By R. F. Drenick; (12) Introduc-tory Remarks at Panel Discussion, by W. R. Ashby;(13) Remarks on General Systems Theory, by A. Rapo-port; (14) An Approach to General Systems Theory, byC. W. Churchman. An index is included. (203)

ODIORNE, GEORGE S. A systems approach to training.Training directors journal 19:10, October 1965.pp. 11-19.

The author declares that training can be systema-tized into eight different types which are explained,together with notes on the one to choose for one's owndepartment. "Cybernetic systemsthe modern ap-proach" is described along with its advantages. Refer-ences are included. (USCSC 4, edited) (204)

O'DONNELL, CYRIL J. Managerial training; a systemapproach. Training and development journal22:1, January 1968. pp. 2-11.

The author explains the management process as asystem so that those who are involved in managementtraining can understand its real purpose. He discussesproblems in managerial appraisal and management byresults and declares that the end of management trainingmust be improvement in the manager's ability to achievehis goals. (USCSC 1, edited) (205)

O'TOOLE, JOHN F. Approach to decision making ineducation. SDC magazine 8:7, July 1965. pp.1-16.

The need is recognized for a systems analysisapproach in designing and developing more effectiveeducational enterprise. The central idea of the systemsapproach to educational system design is that functionalcomponents are interrelated and that a complex processcan be understood best if it is treated as a whole. Thisapproach views a system in the broadest possibleperspective, including the system's surrounding socialand economic environment, and it pays close attentionto the information network binding the interactingelements of the system together. No single educationalproblem or organizational level of the system can beproperly assessed or changed independently withoutconsideration of the impact such modifications mayhave on other functions and levels of the system. Asystems analysis should be focused in the nation's publiceducation system from elementary level through the

college level, and a research effort of unprecedentedscope and magnitude should be put forth to answercritical questions about the future direction of oureducational program. Four logical phases for the analysisto follow would be a socio-economic analysis, ananalysis of educational technology research, a search fornovel developments, and an evaluation of the overallresults. The systems analysis approach would achieveseveral urgent objectives: identify deficiencies in educa-tion and focus attention on the need to improve thequality of the educational system; develop public aware-ness of the importance of education to national securityand economic growth; impart knowledge of possibilitiesfor long-term improvements in the educational system;define priorities for improving education and establishpriority of educational improvements in relation toother national programs; and show the direction ofcontinuing research and development for constantlyupgrading the nation's educational enterprise. (206)

PORTER, ELIAS H. Manpower development: the sys-tem training concept. New York: Harper & Row,1964. 131 pp.

Attention is given to the roles of the U.S. AirForce and the Rand Corporation's Systems ResearchLaboratory in this illustrated and indexed account of theevolution of "system training," presented so the readercan apply its ideas to his own concerns. Chapter titlesare: Introduction: The Climate for Breakthrough; Sys-tems, Components, and Organizational Behavior; WhyStudy Organizations?; Real-Time Problems and Scientif-ic Method; Search and Serendipity; Field Test andExpansion; A Field Evaluation of Systems Training;Adaptations of System Training Concepts. (207)

PORTER, JOHN H. and PAUL SWADENER. Thesystems concept and quantitative analysis (Pro-grammed learning material to supplement thechapter of the same title in Business Administra-tion, An Introductory Management Approach,3rd edition, by Arthur M. Weimer). Homewood,Ill.: Richard D. Irwin, 1966. 145 pp.

The booklet is arranged in four sections asfollows: (1) the systems concept; (2) general modelsused in business decision making and the concept ofoptimization; (3) the technique of linear programmingand its applications as an aid to decision making; and(4) game theory and decision making under conditionsof uncertainty. A short summary of the materialscovered is included at the end of the book. (208)

53

RYANS, DAVID G. A model of instruction based oninformation system concepts. IN CurriculumResearch Institute. Theories of instruction. Wash-ington, D.C.: Association for Supervision andCurriculum Development, 1965. pp. 36-61.

The paper suggests viewing the teacher andpupil as information systems. Several flow charts areincluded representing the teacher as an informationprocessing system, the pupil as an information pro-cessing system, the inter-action of teacher-pupil-situation in the teaching-learning process, and thesystemic integration of resources and media in convey-ing information to the pupil. A quantitative model ispresented which may be characterized as an informa-tion processing or an information system conceptualization of instruction. Attention is directed, first tosome basic postulates and definitions to provide a basisfor discussion of an information system or informationprocessing theory of instruction. An outline of theinstructional model is then presented. The topic head-ings are as follows: A Definition of Teacher Behavior;Some Postulates (seven postulates relating to the con-ceptualiiation of teacher behavior); Some PropositionsExtending the Postulates; The Systems Concept (sys-tems defined, inputs and outputs of systems); Informa-tion Defined; Information Processing (decision-making,programming of behavior information control); TheInstructor as an Information Processing System; TheLearner or Pupil as an Information Processing System;Integration of Information-Providing Sources; andSome Hypotheses Relating to the Model. Referencesare included. (209)

SEILER, JOHN A. Systems analysis in organizationalbehavior. Homewood, Ill.: Richard D. Irwin, Inc.and The Dorsey Press, 1967. 219 pp.

Organizational behavior occurs in a system ofinterdependent forces. These forces can be analyzed andeach set in the perspective of the others. The concepts ofthis indexed book are basic to schemes for investigating,diagnosing, and dealing with human-social aspects ofproblems in organizational settings. Several case studiesare included. After an exploration of the character ofsystems and the categories of the scheme set forth thecharacters of four behavior-determining forces (inputshuman, social, technical, and organizational) and .thedynamic nature of behavior itself are examined. Theimportant elements of the framework are then reviewed_and the relationships between analysis and action are dis-cussed. (210)

STOLUROW, LAWRENCE M. Some educational prob-lems and prospects of a systems approach toinstruction (Technical report no. 2). Urbana,University of Illinois, Training Research Labora-tory, March 1964.

The implications of media for the concept ofinstructional systems are discused. Teaching by mediaimplies a model of the instructional process. Mediapermit the analysis of instruction by being objective andrepeatable. The computer is an especially promising tool.(HumRRO) (211)

The systems approach (entire issue). Audiovisual instruc-tion 10:5, May 1965. 71 pp.

This issue of Audiovisual Instruction is devotedto an examination of the "Systems Approach" toinstruction. The articles included are: (1) Systems: AnApproach to Improving Instruction, (2) On the Designof Educational Systems, (3) Reply to Questions AboutSystems, (4) Educational Escalation Through SystemsAnalysis, (5) Standard Operating Procedures for a Learn-ing Resources Center: A System for Producing Systems,(6) The Articulated Instructional Media Program at theUniversity of Wisconsin, (7) First Steps in the SystemsApproach, (8) Systems Analysis and Computer Simula-tion in the Implementation of Media, (9) An Experi-mental Program in Educational Adaptation (Case One),

54

(10) An Experimental Program in Educational Adapta-tion (Case Two), (11) Multimedia Systems of Instruc-tion, (12) Media Development: A Past of InstructionalChange, (13) Afterthoughts on a Systems Conference,and (14) Not the Last Word on Systems. (ASTD) (212)

WALRATH, DONALD C. A systems approach to thetraining program. Training in business andindustry 2:1, January-February 1965. pp. 22-24.

A systems approach to training is one that takesinto account the importance of "human factors" or"human engineering" within an organization. Applied toindustrial training, the systems approach implies that thetraining elements will be combined in a rational way tomake up a complete system, affected not only byinternal factors but by elements outside the trainingpackage, such as the attitude of the trainees toward thetraining or the "climate" in which the training takesplace. A diagram showing the ideal situation for perfectperformance of a man-machine system is presented andexplained. The human and economic limitations thatmake the existence of such a system impossible arediscussed, and the necessity for compromise is pointedout. Six common training "trade-offs" that can providefor acceptable compromises are discussed. Determina-tion of training needs and methods are also discussed inrelation to the systems approach. (213)

ROLE THEORY

BALES, ROBERT F. and PHILIP E. SLATER. Roledifferentiation in small decision-making groups.IN Parsons, Talcott and Robert F. Bales. Family,socialization and interaction process. Glencoe,Ill.: The Free Press, 1955. pp. 259-306.

Roles are usually differentiated from each otherin a group which endures over any considerable time.The general forms and reasons for the development ofsuch differentiation were studied in the research dis-cussed here. Fourteen groups of from 3 to 6 men wereobserved through four sessions as they discussed anadministrative problem case. Bales interaction categorieswere used in observation. Results are discussed in termsof the degree of consensus among members about rolesand types of leadership which emerged. The importanceof consensus in the structure and development of agroup and the roles of task specialist and social-emotional specialist are discussed. Some comparisonswith the typical nuclear family are made. (214)

BIDDLE, BRUCE J. and EDWIN J. THOMAS (eds.).Role theory: concepts and research. New York:John Wiley & Sons, 1966. 453 pp.

This book serves as a text explicating theconcepts of role theory and as a collection of readings. Itis intended to provide a comprehensive statement of theconcepts, theory, and knowledge of role. Emphasisthroughout is on theory, and no writings on techniquesor applications of the role theory are included. The bookis divided into 10 parts. The first two comprise the textportion and are titled: Part I, Background and PresentStatus(1) The Nature and History of the Role Theory;Part II, The Conceptual Structure(2) Basic Conceptsfor the Properties of Role Phenomena, (3) Basic Con-cepts for the Variables of Role Phenomena. The remain-ing eight parts, each with a brief introduction, comprisethe collection of readings (47) by various authors, andtopics covered are organized to progress from thesimpler to the more complex, and from the morefundamental to the more complex. These parts areentitled (III) Positions; (IV) Prescriptions; (V) Descrip-tions; (VI) Performance and Interdependence; (VII) Dif-ferentiation, Specialization, and Division of Labor;(VIII) Consensus and Conflict; (IX) Sanctioning andConformity; (X) Learning and Socialization. A compre-hensive bibliography of over 1500 entries of books and

55

articles on role theory published through 1964 isincluded, as well as an index of names and an index ofsubjects. (215)

COTTRELL, LEONARD S., JR. The adjustment of theindividual to his age and sex roles. IN Newcomb,Theodore M. and Eugene L. Hartley (eds.).Readings in social psychology. New York: HenryHolt & Company, 1947. pp.367-370.

The concept of role is defined, and it is pointedout that "a consideration of adjustment to any socialcategory role centers around two closely associatedproblems: (1) the adjustment to a role called for by thesocial category (in the present discussion, age-sex classes)to which the individual presently belongs; (2) the adjust-ment to the shifts in role made necessary by theprogression from one category to another." A series ofpropositions (applicable to any social role) about condi-tions that facilitate or interfere with the effectivelearning of roles is presented. Psychosociological findingsabout how individuals make the transition from onedevelopmental stage to the next are summarized. (216)

GOODE, WILLIAM. A theory of role strain. Americansociological review 25:4, August 1960. pp.483-496.

"When social structures are viewed as made up ofroles, social stability is not explicable as a function of(a) the normative consensual commitment of individualsor (b) normative integration. Instead, dissensus and rolestrainthe difficulty of fulfilling role demandsarenormal. In a sequence of role bargains, the individual'schoices are shaped by mechanisms, outlined here,through which he organizes his total role system andperforms well or ill in any rote relationship. Reductionof role strain is allocative or economic in form, but theeconomic model is different. 'Third parties' interact withan individual and his alter, to keep their bargain withininstitutionalized limits. The larger social structure is heldin place by role strains. The cumulative pattern of allsuch role bargains determines the flow of performancesto all institutions. The research Ltility of this conceptionis explained" (journal summary). (217)

GRUSKY, OSCAR. A case for the theory of familial roledifferentiation in small groups. Social forces35:3, March 1957. pp. 209-217.

The theory of role differentiation in small socialsystems presented by Parsons and Bales (Family, Sociali-zation and Interaction Process, 1955) is empiricallydemonstrated in this paper which analyzes the behaviorof a "natural" small groupthe staff of a psychologicalclinic. Data from a study of the staff are consistent withParson's generalization concerning the universality of theinstrumental-expressive (or mother-father-like) role dif-ferentiation in small groups. The importance of takingpower and power structures into consideration in atheory of familial role differentiation is elaborated.

(218)

HODGSON, RICHARD C., DANIEL J. LEVINSON andABRAHAM ZALEZNIK. The executive role con-stellation: an analysis of personality and rolerelations in management. Boston: Harvard Uni-versity, Graduate School of Business Administra-tion, Division of Research, 1965. 509 pp.

The primary aim of the study reported was todelineate the workings of the top executive echelon inone organization and to develop a comprehe"sive theo-retical perspective for the analysis of executive groupsgenerally. The role performances of psychiatrist-executives at the top echelon of a mental hospital areexamined, the personal role-demands are analyzed, andthe interpersonal dynamics that brought the executiverole constellation into being are interpreted. (219)

JANIS, IRVING L. and BERT I. KING. The influence ofrole playing on opinion change. Journal ofabnormal psychology 49:2, April 1954. pp.211-218.

This experiment investigated the effects of onetype of demand that is frequently made upon a personwhen he is induced to play a social role, namely, therequirement that he overtly verbalize to others variousopinions which may not correspond to his inner convic-tions. Specifically, it was designed to determine whetherovert verbalization induced by role playing facilitatesopinion change. Male college students were assigned atrandom to two main experimental groups: (1) activeparticipants who, with the aid of a prepared outline,-played the role of a sincere advocate of the given pointof view; and (2) passive controls who silently read andlistened to the same communication. In the experi-mental sessions three different communications wereused, each of which argued in favor of a specificconclusion about expected future events and was pre-sented by a different active participant. Opinionmeasures obtained at the end of the session were

56

compared with the "before" measures obtained aboutone month earlier. The main findings, together withvarious methodological checks, support the hypothesisthat overt verbalization induced by role playing tends toaugment the effectiveness of a persuasive communica-tion. Additional observations are analyzed to explorepossible mediating factors underlying the gain in opinionchange because of active participation. A list of refer-ences is included. (220)

KAHN, ROBERT L., DONALD M. WOLFE, ROBERTP. QUINN and J. DIEDRICK SNOEK, in collabo-ration with ROBERT A. ROSENTHAL. Organi-zational stress: studies in role conflict andambiguity. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1964.470 pp.

Using the framework of role theory, the bookexamines the pressures that occur in various echelons ofmodern, large-scale organilations and investigates theirsources, consequences, and personal and social costs.The authors' thesis is that primary sources of individualtension are two of the most difficult and persistentproblems of organization today, namely, conflictingdemands and ambiguous requirements for behavior.Employing data obtained from intensive case studies aswell as from a nationwide survey, the book shows howvarious positions in large-scale organizations of the typestudied are differentially vulnerable to these problems.The dynamics of three major factors are discussed: theindividual's position in the organization, the nature ofhis relations with his immediate associates, and hispersonality. It is shown that individual strategies forcoping with conflict and ambiguity are directly influ-enced by personality characteristics and that thesestrategies often aggravate rather than ameliorate thestressful situation. (221)

LEVINSON, DANIEL J. Role, personality,structure ir. the organizational setting.abnormal and social psychology, vol.pp. 170-180.

and socialJournal of58, 1959.

The paper has the following aims: (1) to examinethe traditional conception of organizational structureand role to assess its limitations from a socio-psychological point of view; (2) to examine the concep-tion of social role that derives from this approach tosocial structure and that tends, by definition, to includeconsideration of personality; (3) to provide a formula-tion of several analytically distinct role concepts to beused in place of the global term "role"; and (4) tosuggest a theoretical approach to the analysis of relation-ships among role, personality, and social structure.References are included. (222)

-17 7,7,,,,A,P 7^, ,77,

LINTON, RALPH. Concepts of role and status. INNewcomb, Theodore M. and Eugene L. Hartley(eds.). Readings in social psychology. New York:Henry Holt & Company, 1947. pp. 367-370.

The terms "status," "position," and "role" areexplained and illustrated with examples from simple andcomplex societies. The disappointments and frustrationsin our society due to the breakdown of an inheritedsystem of statuses and roles is pointed out. (223)

MOMENT, DAVID and ABRAHAM ZALEZNIK. Roledevelopment and interpersonal competence. Bos-ton: Harvard University, 1963. 346 pp.

This study traces the developmental issues in-volved in the variety of work styles that individualsestablish in their interaction with others. It presentsthe results of a series of experimental studies ofindividual performance in problem-solving groups, andof the relationship between performance and individualmotivation and development. "Change agents" arethose who have the responsibility for initiating andfacilitating change. Their job is to help the clientsystem change itself toward increased competence inproblem solving by helping individual clients changetheir behavior. Lasting behavioral changes involvechanges in character structure. It is the change agent'sjob to determine when and how to intervene in thenatural process to economize, facilitate, or acceleratethe function. Types of intervention include traditionalteaching (as through lectures), human relations traininggroups, and individual counseling or psychotherapy.Chapters following the introduction are: (2) RoleSp lization and Fusion, (3) Behavior Patterns,( redispositions for Role-Taking, (5) Social and De-velopmental Influences, (6) Satisfaction, (7) Develop-mental Trends, and (8) Implications for the Develop-ment of Administrators. Appendices describe the re-search operations and methods, exhibit questionnaireforms, and list background and motivation resources.An index and bibliography are included. (224)

NEIMAN, LIONEL J. and JAMES W. HUGHES. Theproblem of the concept of rolea re-survey ofthe literature. IN Stein, Herman D. and RichardA. Cloward (eds.). Social perspectives on behav-iora reader in social science for social work andrelated professions. Glencoe, Ill.: The Free Press,1958. pp. 177-185.

The purpose of the paper is to survey theliterature with specific reference to the use of theconcept, "role." The method used was to surveysystematically the literature in both books and journalarticles in all possible fields, attempting to cover a periodof approximately 50 years, from 1900 to 1950. The

57

paper deals with the various definitions of role that havebeen used in the literature. (225)

OHLIN, LLOYD E. The reduction of role conflict ininstitutional staff. Children 5:2, March-April1958. pp. 65-69.

A major reorganization and clarification ofpower, authority, and decision-making in the relation-ship between houseparents and social workers in aninstitution for delinquent girls resulted in increased staffharmony, an increase in treatment-relevant informationfor the social workers, and the provision to the girls of aunited front on the part of the staff. (226)

SARBIN, THEODORE R. and NORMAN L. FAR-BEROW. Contributions to role-taking theory: aclinical study of self and role. Journal of ab-normal and social psychology 47:1, January1952. pp. 117-125.

The purposes of the paper are (1) to investigatethe phenomenon of age regression and (2) to illustratethe heuristic value of the concepts of self and role.The pertinent features of age regression as a socialpsychological phenomenon are first reviewed, followedby brief examination hypnosis, the procedure thatapparently facilitates age regression. The findings ofthe experiment, together with those of other investiga-tions, are then discussed and interpreted with theconcepts of role and self. A final section brieflyformulates a general theoretical position that complexsocial and psychological phenomena can be more read-ily understood with the aid of self and role concepts.References are included. (227)

SLATER, PHILIP E. Role differentiation in smallgroups. American sociological review 20:3, June1955. pp. 300-310.

The failure to consider simultaneously bothpsychological (personal need) and sociological (groupneed) aspects of role performance constituted a stum-bling block in small-group research in the past. Thispaper illustrates the way in which consideration of bothpsychological and sociological factors may aid in theinterpretation of tendencies for members of smallexperimental groups to behave in systematically differ-entiated ways. Twenty groups, of from 3 to 7 memberseach, met four times for a total of 80 meetings. Thesemeetings were studied using Bales set of interactioncategories for classifying discussion remarks and aquestionnaire containing 4 questions concerning taskleadership and social-emotional leadership ratings.Groups were rated as High status-consensus or Lowstatus-consensus depending upon the amount of agree-

ment among members concerning leadership ratings.Discussion of results emphasizes that a specialist in agroup task-leadership function or social-emotional-leadership function in a Low status-consensus group maygo through the same motions as such a specialist in aHigh status-consensus group, but for different personalneeds and social purposes. Failure to consider suchcomplex phenomena obscures understanding of smallgroup relationships. (228)

SULLIVAN, HARRY STACK. The interpersonal theoryof psychiatry. Edited by Perry, Helen Swick, andMary Ladd Gawel. New York: W. W. Norton &Company, 1953. 391 pp.

This book embodies Sullivan's latest conceptionsand was prepared from his last series of unpublishedlectures. Basically, the interpersonal theory of psychia-try rests on the propositions that: (1) a large part ofmental disorder results from and is perpetuated byinadequate communication, the communicative pro-cesses being interfered with by anxiety; and (2) eachperson in any two-person relationship is involved as aportion of an interpersonal field, rather than as aseparate entity, in processes that affect and are affectedby the field. There are 22 chapters divided into fourmain parts: (I) Introductory Concepts; (II) The Develop-mental Epochs (infancy through late adolescence);(III) Patterns of Inadequate or Inappropriate Inter-personal Relations; and (IV) Towards a Psychiatry ofPeoples. An index is included. (229)

58

"44

THEODORSON, GEORGE A. The relationship betweenleadership and popularity roles in small groups.American sociological review 22:1, February1957. pp. 58-67.

The relationship between leadership and popu-larity roles in small groups, using cohesiveness as theintervcAing variable, is discussed. The hypothesis thatunder conditions of high cohesiveness members willmost like those whom they perceive as contri:Atting themost to the group, and that in low cohe:ive groupsleadership and popularity are segmentalized roles, wassupported in the case of the four groups studiedtwolaboratory groups and two "natural" groups. Thishypothesis may be used to explain some seeminglycontradictory findings of previous studies. If eventuallyverified, the hypothesis also offers a specific example ofthe changes in small group role structure usuallyassumed theoretically to accompany changes in cohesive-ness. (230)

THOMAS, EDWIN J. Problems of disability from theperspective of role theory. Journal of health andhuman behavior 7:1, Spring 1966. pp. 2-13.

Two general topics are discussed, the first beingthe "roles" of the disabled. Five disability roles aredescribed: the disabled patient, the handicapped per-former, the helped person, the disability co-manager,and the public relations man. The second topic concernsthe problems of role that may attend disablement: therole of discontinuity, role conflict, conflict of roledefinition, nonfacilitative interdependence, role strain,and the special difficulties of role synchrony. (231)

GROUPS-DYNAMICS, PROCESS, STRUCTURE

ADULT EDUCATION ASSOCIATION. Understandinghow groups work (Leadership pamphlet no. 4).Chicago: Adult Education Association, 1956.48PP.

The articles in this pamphlet analyze differentaspects of group interaction in an effort to understandhow groups work. Some of the forces that can be seenwhen looking at groups as groups rather than simply ascollections of individuals are described in "Pressures inGroups." "Diagnosing Group Problems" presents thebasic steps and sensitivities needed to diagnose the realcause of disruptive group behavior. Three conflicts thatall gatherings of individuals face in the process ofbecoming groups and that need to be resolved one wayor another before the members can work together withtrust and ease are described in "Some Basic Issues.""When They Fight," "It's Apathy If," "Indecision," and"The Hidden Agenda" describe four types of behaviorthat commonly trouble groups and suggest the kinds ofunderlying problems these behaviors often indicate."Improving Group Efficiency" su -,gests a number ofways in which groups may learn to increase theirsensitivity to their own process. (232)

BALES, ROBERT F. Interaction process analysis; amethod for the study of small groups. Cam-bridge, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1951. 203 pp.

Interaction process analysis is a term whichdesignates a body of methods for firsthand observationof social interaction in small face-to-face groups. Thisvolume is a working manual of the method. Chaptersare: (1) Descriptions of the Method; (2) TheoreticalFramework; (3) Training Observers; (4) Appraising Ob-server Reliability; and (5) Analysis and Interpretation.The appendix contains definitions of the categories usedin describing interaction. Various phases of the methodare illustrated by 35 charts. There is a 31-item bibliog-raphy and an index. (233)

59

BALES, ROBERT F. and HENRY GERBRANDS. The"interaction recorder": an apparatus and checklist for sequential content analysis of socialinteraction. Human relations 1:4, August 1948.pp. 456-463.

A detailed description with illustrative plates isgiven. A checklist enumerating interaction categories isalso provided. This list categorizes the various actionsand reactions of the subject when interacting with othersaccording to whether solidarity, release of tension,reaching solutions, proposing actions, analyzing, report-ing facts, opening problems, finding difficulties, personalopposition, or negative reactions are apparent. (234)

BALES, ROBERT F. and FRED L. STRODTBECK.Phases in group problem-solving. Journal ofabnormal and social psychology 46:4, October1951. pp. 485-495.

"This paper presents a method of testing for theempirical existence of differentiated phases in groupprocess and some evidence that under certain particularconditions a certain type of phase movement does tendto appear. . . . The present phase-hypothesis is re-stricted to instances in which groups work toward thegoal of a group decision on a full-fledged problem.Briefly stated, the phase-hypothesis is the propositionthat under these conditions groups tend to move in theirinteraction from a relative emphasis upon problems oforientation, to problems of evaluation, and subse-quently, to problems of control, and that concurrentwith these transitions, the relative frequencies of bothnegative reactions and positive reactions tend to in-crease." (The terms used in the hypothesis are explainedin the text and in a table of 12 interaction categories.)Observation of 22 problem-solving groups supported thehypothesis and suggested that "the interaction processshould be considered as a system, with internal tenden-cies which make each part of the process a condition toother parts. These 'internal' conditions are assumed tobe similar to some degree from case to case and to exerta constant 'biasing' effect. This effect becomes apparentwithin individual cases under full-fledged external condi-tions or in aggregates of cases in which differences inexternal conditions average out." Thirteen references arecited. (235)

r

BEAL, GEORGE M., JOE M. BOHLEN and NELL J.RAUDBAUGH. Leadership and dynamic groupaction. Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University Press,1962. 365 pp.

The book is directed to lay readers in search ofways to enhance the results of their group activities andis designed to be a practical guide to effective groupleadership and membership. The logic of individualbehavior in a group setting is developed. The generalframework of group behavior, which is the theme of thebook, provides the specific points which are elaboratedupon. Part and chapter titles describe the contents: PartI, Group Interaction(1) Introduction; (2) Democracyand the Democratic Group; (3) Leadership in the Demo-cratic Group; (4) A Framework for the Study of GroupAction; (5) The Individual and the Group Setting;(6) The Internal Dynamics of Groups; (7) The ExternalDynamics of Groups; (8) Group Goals and Objectives;(9) Group Techniques; (10) Group Productivity, Matur-ity, and Worth; (11) Group Evaluation; Part II, Tech-niquesSmall Group DiscussionThe "Huddle" Method;The "Buzz Group" Method; The Symposium; The PanelDiscussion; The Interrogator Panel; The CommitteeHearing; The Dialogue; The Interview; The Lecture;Brainstorming; Role-Playing; Recreational Activities;Working with Large Groups; Workshops; Conferences;Institutes; Part III, Evaluation(1) End-of-MeetingComments and Suggestions; (2) More Basic Group Evalu-ation; (3) Evaluation of Content and Objectives;(4) Evaluation and Individual Contributions; (5) GroupObserver Devices; (6) Group Observer Evaluation ofIndividual Participation; (7) Sociometry; and (8) UsingEvaluation. A suggested reading list and an index areincluded. (236)

BENNE, KENNETH D. and WARREN G. BENNIS.Studying the classroom as a group. Phi DeltaKappan 39:6, March 1958. pp. 274-279.

An attempt by the teachers and students of acourse in group behavior to apply current knowledge ofsmall group behavior to the control and management ofclassroom behavior is described and assessed. The coursewas designed to promote conscious diagnosis of theinterpersonal and group problems in classroom behavior,and by doing so to extend the student's knowledge ofsmall group behavior in relation to teaching and learning.The primary questions investigated were the role ofteachers in learning, the role of the students, studentself-concepts, types of learning achieved, increase ofusable knowledge, and the predicted transfer of learningfrom the course. (237)

60

BLAU, PETER M. Structural effects. American socio-logical review 25:2, April 1960. pp. 178-193.

"In empirical research, social structures areusually characterized, explicitly or implicitly, by fre-quency distributions of behavior of individuals orrelationships among them. Thus, the common culturerefers to prevailing values, and group cohesiveness, topervasive interpersonal bonds. To isolate the externalconstraints of social values from the influences of theindividual's internalized values, that the prevalence of avalue in a group is associated with social conduct whenthis value is held constant for individuals must bedemonstrated. Data from a public assistance agencyshow that the prevailing values in a work group had suchstructural effects. In some cases, the group value and theindividual's orientation had similar, but independent,effects on his conduct; in other cases they had oppositeeffects; in still others, the effects of the individual'sorientation were contingent on the prevalence of thisorientation in the group, a pattern which identifiescharacteristics associated with deviancy. The same pro-cedure was used to isolate the structural effects ofcohesiveness and the communication network" (journalsummary). (238)

BRADFORD, LELAND P. (ed.). Group development(Selected reading series no. 1). Washington, D.C.:National Training Laboratories and NationalEducation Association, 1961. 106 pp.

The need for understanding group behavior isfound wherever individual goals must be merged withthe goals of others. The forces engendered withingroups are potent determiners not only of morale butof productivity. The necessity of studying group behav-ior is apparent. The articles in this pamphlet deal withvarious aspects of group behavior. Articles in thiscollection include: What Is Group Dynamics?; GroupDynamics and the Individual; The IndividualCounts . . . in Effective Group Relations; How to GetResults from a Group; How to Diagnose Group Prob-lems; Functional Roles of Group Members; The Caseof the Hidden Agenda; Decisions . . . Decisions .. . De-cisions; Stereotypes and the Growth of Groups: Feed-back and Group Self-Evaluation; Improving Decision-Making with Groups; and Developments in GroupBehavior in Adult Education. (239)

BURTON, WILLIAM H. Group roles with special re-sponsibility to the group. IN HIS The guidanceof lemming activities. 3rd edition. New York:Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1962. pp. 206-210.

The major specialized roles in a group are thoseof leader, recorder, observer, and resource person. Thereare two types of leaders, status and shared. Status

leaders occupy their positions through appointment,election, ownership, or force. Democratic status leader-ship substitutes leadership for authority; it is shared byanyone who offers a suggestion or argument. The jobs ofthe status leader and the appointed leader are to startdiscussion, keep it going, and indicate the need forresponsibility. The recorder records major issues andpertinent comments. The observer concentrates onmethod or process of discussion to the exclusion ofcontent, and provides feedback for the group. Theresource person provides special information. DavidJenkins' Group Discussion Observation Guide is repro-duced; an observer's chart indicates the group inter-action. (240)

CARTWRIGHT, DORWIN and ALVIN ZANDER (eds.).Group dynamics: research and theory. 2nd edi-tion. New York: Harper & Row, 1960. 826 pp.[3rd edition, 1968, is now available]

The book is divided into six sections andcontains 42 papers by various authorities in the field.Sections are: (I) Introduction to Group Dynamics (ori-gins, issues, and basic assumptions); (II) Group Cohesive-ness; (III) Group Pressures and Group Standards ;(IV) Individual Motives and Group Goals; (V) Leader-ship and Group Performance; (VI) The Structural Prop-erties of Groups. References follow each paper. There isa name and subject index. (241)

CATH, STANLEY, H. The student-teacher alliance andthe formation of the professional ego: an experi-ment in small-group seminars in the second yearof medical schoo International journal of grouppsychotherapy 15:7, July 1965. pp. 303-315.

A small group seminar designed to combatcynicism and the inability to establish doctor-patientresponses in medical students disclosed the formation ofthe professional ego in these groups. The psychiatricinstructor acts as a model for the students, providingexpression of their doubts, insecurity, and condemna-tion of the handling of patients. This focus , on thedoctor-patient relationship increases understanding of itand creates healthier reactions in students. The groupsetting provides a catalytic agent for learning concepts.values, and ego ideals. Student anxiety in the face ofillness and death is assumed to be implicit but unfelt andis approached through group discussion of the anxiety ofthe patient until the student becomes aware that heresponds in the same way. (242)

61

COLLINS, BARRY E. and HAROLD GUETZKOW. Asocial psychology of group process for decision-making. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1964.254 pp.

A systemizing of the findings in social psychol-ogy relevant to the group processes involved in decisionmaking is attempted here. A blend of theorizing andempirical review (of selected studies) called an inductivesummary and theory of face-to-face group processes isthe goal. Studies in both field and laboratory settings, aswell as data obtained from many different kinds ofexperimental subjects, were used in support of thevarious conceptions presented. Chapter titles are:(1) Building a Social Psychology of Group Processes forDecision-Making; (2) Group and Individual Performance;(3) Group Productivity: Interpersonal Relations and theTask; (4) A Simple Working Model of Factors MoldingInterpersonal Behavior and Task Performance; (5) Obsta-cles to Effective Interpersonal Relations in a Group;(6) Direct Sources of Power and Interpersonal Influence;(7) Indirect Sources of Power in Decision-MakingGroups; (8) Consequences of Small and Large Amountsof Power for the Behavior of Group Members; (9) Com-munication and Interaction; (10) Participant Satisfactionwith the Conference; and (11) Leadership: LeadershipTraits and the Differentiation of Leadership Roles. Eachchapter contains a summary and an optional sectiondefining special terms and formulating working proposi-tions. A bibliography and author and subject indexes areincluded. (243)

GHISELLI, EDWIN E. Psychological properties ofgroups and group learning. Psychological reports19:1, August 1966. pp. 17-18.

Twenty groups of students were given the task oflearning to operate a model railroad which required thecoordinated action of the members. The results indi-cated that if the group consists of self-confident decisionmakers, possesses one person outstanding in this quality,or consists of individuals strongly oriented to others, theinitial performance is poor. The more intelligent themembers of the group are, the better is their initialperformance; and if the group contains a person who isuncontested as a self-confident decision maker, itsperformance at later stages in learning is better. (ASTD,edited) (244)

GIBB, JACK R., and others. Dynamics of participativegroups. Washington, D.C.: National EducationAssociation, National Training Laboratories,1966. 89 pp.

Through university laboratory experiments, fieldobservations in industrial, community, and educationalsettings, and experiences in classes in group dynamics,

the participative action method of group training formore effective problem solving and decision making wasdeveloped. It is based on eight principlesphysicalregrouping, reduction of interpersonal tensions, infor-mality of procedure, freedom of choice, distributiveleadership, explicit goal formation, skill training, andcontinual evaluation. This handbook, a series of studyguides and training procedures, can be used as a manualfor college classes in group dynamics and humanrelations training, as a reference book for staffs andcommittees, and as a source book and discussion guidefor seminars and study groups. Methods of group action,the role of the group member and trainer, suggestionsfor workshops and conferences, applications to educa-tional, industrial, religious, military, and adult educationprograms, and a selected, classified list of 102 referencesare included. (ERIC) (245)

GLASER, WILLIAM A. and DAVID L. STILLS. Thegovernment of associations: selections from thebehavioral sciences. Totowa, N.J.: The Bedmin-ster Press, 1966. 264 pp.

The focus of this collection of readings is on theorganization, activities, and accomplishment of volun-tary associations. The book consists of 47 selectionsfrom books, journals, and research reports in thebehavioral sciences. Twenty-seven of the 50 contributorsare sociologists; six are political scientists; and four arefrom the fields of anthropology, business administration,and social work. Selections are grouped in four majorsections and 14 subsections: Part One, Voluntary Associ-ations: An Overview(1) The Social Origins of Volun-tary Associations, (2) Types of Voluntary Associations;Part Two, Voluntary Associations and Their Environ-ment(3) Social Influences upon the Membership,(4) The Association's Influence upon Society, (5) Volun-tary Associations in Other Societies; Part Three, TheNature of Leadership(6) Three Theories of Leadership,(7) The Effects of Leadership; Part Four, Problems ofGovernment(8) Organizational Structure, (9) Organiza-tional Processes, (10) Communications and Decisions,(11) Organizational Goals, (12) Organizational Means,(13) Internal Divisions, (14) Organizational Change. Anindex of names of organizations is included. (246)

GOLEMBIEWSKI, ROBERT T. The small group: ananalysis of research concepts and operations.Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962. 303PP.

This study deals with the literature of the smallgroup, judging to what extent it has reached validconclusions that can serve as bases for research in adeveloping science. The aim in comparing these conceptsis to determine how much the analysis of small groups

62

must unify its concepts and operations before integra-tion and synthesis can occur. Chapter titles are: TheSmall Group: Introduction and Sketch of an Applica-tion; Designational Divergence and Analytical Pitfalls;Small-Group Dimensions I: Two Comprehensive Ap-proaches; Small-Group Dimensions II: The StructuralPanel of Variables; Small-Group Dimensions III: TheStyle Panel of Variables; and The Population Panel ofVariables: Effects upon Small-Group Properties. Eachchapter includes a summary of findings. The study is in-dexed. (247)

HARE, A. PAUL. Handbook of small group research.New York: The Free Press, 1962. 512 pp.

As indicated in the introductory abstract of thehandbook, essentially the same material on small groupresearch is organized in three main parts: (1) the firstconsiders the central tendencies of the interactionprocess and group structure; (2) the second emphasizesthe deviations from typical patterns that may resultfrom variations in such factors as members' personalities,group size, and leadership; and (3) the third reviewsdifferences in productivity related to variations in groupprocess and structure. Part and chapter titles are: PartOne, Group Process and Structure(1) Elements ofSocial Interaction, (2) Norms of Social Control, (3) In-teraction and Decision Process, (4) Roles, (5) Inter-personal Choice; Part II, Six Variables That Affect theInteraction Process(6) Personality, (7) Social Charac-teristics, (8) Group Size, (9) Task, (10) CommunicationNetwork, (11) Leadership; and Part III, PerformanceC h a racteristics(12) Productivity: Individual VersusGroup, (13) Productivity: Group Versus Group. Thereare two appendixes entitled (1) Research Methods and(2) Factor Analysis. References and indexes are included.

(248)

HARE, A. PAUL, EDGAR F. BORGATTA andROBERT F. BALES (eds.). Small groups: studiesin social interaction. New York: Alfred A.Knopf, 1961. 666 pp.

Fifty-five essays by various experts in the field ofsmall group theory and research are presented. The bookis divided into four parts: the first part is concerned withthe historical and theoretical background of the field;the second contains a collection of studies that view thesocial process from the perspective of the single individ-ual in a social situation; the third contains studies inwhich the perspective is more that of an externalobserver viewing the group as a system of socialinteraction and describing its characteristics; and thefinal part is a guide to the research literature in thefield in the form of an annotated bibliography of about580 titles. (249)

HARRISON, ROGER. Cognitive models for inter-personal and group behavior: a theoretical frame-work for research. Explorations in human rela-tions training and research, no. 2, 1965. 112 pp.

"The purpose of this paper is to present acognitive and perceptual approach to understanding theprocess of learning and change in face-to-face groups,and to outline a program of research based on thisapproach." It is considered relevant to practice inhigher education, group psychotherapy, human rela-tions training, and the management of organizationalchange. A cognitive model of T-group training isproposed in which the process of learning is seen asconsisting of the development, differentiation, andelaboration of a system of concepts or constructswhich fit and structure the personal, interpersonal, andgroup phenomena of the T-group experience. Basedupon the conceptual analysis of the learning process, aprogram of research is proposed involving (1) develop-ment of instruments for measuring change in cognitionof persons and groups; (2) prediction and assessment ofconceptual changes induced by the T-group experience;and (3) investigation of the relationships betweeninitial structures for cognizing interpersonal and groupphenomena and the extent and nature of change.Thirty-one references are cited. (250)

HEINICKE, C. and R. F. BALES. Developmental trendsin the structure of small groups. Sociometry, vol.16,1953. pp. 7-38.

"Various aspects of the development of statusstructure were studied in a number of newly formedinitially leaderless groups during a series of meetingsunder reasonably constant laboratory conditions. Thesubjects were asked to discuss and solve a humanrelations problem within a period of about 40 minutes.The successive meetings of ten small groups of under-graduate students were observed using Bales interactioncategory system. Observer ratings and subjects' ratingsof each other were also available as sources of data. Toanalyze the developmental trends of the groups, theywere divided into a High and Low status-consensusclassification. The analysis of trends was organized interms of five main hypotheses, all of which receivesubstantial support from the data." The hypothesesrelate to (1) developmental trends in status consensusin High and Low groups; (2) overt social-emotionalconflict; (3) a decrease in initiation by high statusindividuals in High groups of overt interaction incategories highly associated with status; (4) more satis-faction by High groups with their group and itssolutions than by Low groups; and (5) more efficiencyin High groups than in Low. Findings in support of thehypotheses are discussed in more general terms. Eightreferences are cited. (251)

63

HOFFMAN, J. M. and J. ARSENIAN. An examinationof some models applied to group structure andprocess. International journal of group psycho.therapy 15:2, April 1965. pp. 131-153.

An adequate model for understanding the forma-tion and process of small groups should specify: (1) thecomposition of the group, the level, and the permeabil-ity of boundary; (2) the degree of differentiation andfreedom of movement of the components of the group;(3) the nature of leadership functions and the distribu-tion of deference; (4) how the interaction process hasbeen initiated; (5) the bases for ongoing interaction;(6) the nature of communication, cooperation, andcompetition; (7) the group's orientation to time; and(8) the tangible or intangible product or goal resultingfrom the process. Metaphor models in current usageinclude those of cell body, personality, machine,mythology, economic group, animal group, family, andtribe. None of these demonstrate point-to-point conver-gence with the phenomenon to which it is applied. Theydo not offer maximum descriptive power and utility.Beyond the points of convergence their application acts,in part, to obscure. (ASW, edited) (252)

HOPKINS, TERENCE K. Exercise of influence in smallgroups. Totowa, N.J.: The Bedminster Press,1964. 205 pp.

This book attempts to answer two central ques-tions about the difference in influence among groupmembers: what factors govern the distribution of influ-ence among members of a group, and under whatconditions does this distribution remain relativelystable? The analysis proceeds in two steps correspondingto these two questions. The first part of the bookpresents a set of propositions describing the ietionshipamong four properties of the status of membersrank,centrality, conformity, and observabilityand betweeneach of these and the influence a member exercises. Thepropositions are considered in some detail each beingweighed against current theory and against available datafor its plausibility. In the second part the propositionsare related to a basic group process, the principaltendency of which is to bring into balance, over agroup's set of members, the distribution of rank andinfluence. The analysis in this part focuses on variousinstitutional and structural features of groups that helpstabilize the distribution of influence. (253)

KELLY, HAROLD H. and JOHN W. THIBAUT. Experi-mental studies of group problem solving andprocess. IN Lindzey, Gardner (ed.). Handbook ofsocial psychology, vol. II. Cambridge, Mass.:Addison-Wesley, 1954. pp. 735-785.

The chapter is intended to summarize the litera-ture on the experimental investigation of problemsolving by small groups. The focus of the study is on thecommunication process and the interaction involved inproducing group solutions to various types of problems.The study considers a broad range of factors that areknown to affect group process and examines them asthey relate to group problem solving. The main discus-sions within the chapter are: Experimental Comparisonsof Individual and Group Problem Solving; TheoreticalAnalysis of the Factors Uniquely Affecting GroupSolutions; Some Specific Factors Affecting Group So-lutions; Trends in Research on Group Problem Solv-ing. (254)

KNOWLES, MALCOLM and HULDA KNOWLES. Intro-duction to group dynamics. New York: Associa-tion Press, 1959. 95 pp.

An introduction to the basic principles of groupdynamics is presented. The book is intended for thegeneral reader and requires no particular background.Chapter titles and topic headings describe the contents:(1) What Is Group Dynamics? (Four Uses of the Term,Historical Perspective, The Modern Era, Different Ap-proaches to the Study of Groups); (2) UnderstandingIndividual Behavior (Life History Forces, Forces Basedon Psychological Needs, Associational Forces, Forcesfrom Goals and Ideologies); (3) Understanding GroupBehavior (What Is a Group, Some Properties of Groups,Psyche and Socio Dimensions, Membership and Leader-ship Functions, The Role of Leadership, Groups inMotion, Some General Principles); (4) Practical Applica-tions (Leadership and Membership Training, Inventionof New Techniques, The General Spirit of Group andLarge Meetings, Community Relations and SocialChange); (5) What Does It Add up To?; (6) Readings forFurther Understanding. An index is included. (255)

LIBO, LESTER M. Measuring group cohesiveness. AnnArbor: Research Center for Group Dynamics,Institute for Social Research, 1953. 111 pp.

The projective technique and a behavioralmeasure involving locomotion of attraction-to-group areemphasized in this treatment of the central concepts ofgroup dynamics theory. Other methods of measurementand experimental manipulation of group-related vari-ables in the laboratory are also explored. Chapters are:The Concepts of Cohesiveness and Attraction-to-Groups;An Experimental Study of Attraction-to-Groups; The

64

Group-Picture-Impression Technique: A Projective Ap-proach to the Measurement of Attraction-to-Group; andThe Group-Picture-Impression Manual. A bibliographyand miscellaneous exploratory studies are appended.

(256)

LIFTON, WALTER M. Working with groups: groupprocess and individual growth. New York: JohnWiley & Sons, 1961. 238 pp.

Designed for use by teachers, social workers,counselors, psychologists, and laymen who are seekingto acquire the skills and knowledge that are prerequisiteto working with groups, the book develops a majorpremise that there is no necessary contradiction betweenindividual growth and societal, or group, process. Howgroup action can be a source and a means of freeing theindividual rather than enslaving him is a principal thesisof the book. Both background theory concerning theissue as a whole and guides to practical applications ofconclusions resulting from various studies are presented.Initial chapters summarize issues involved in groupprocess and define terms employed in the text. Themiddle sections offer descriptions, analyses, and inter-pretations of several group situations, followed byresumes of writings with counter-interpretations of theconcepts explored. Final chapters are designed to helpthe reader to evaluate himself and the groups with whichhe works. Chapters are: (1) Group Process and Individ-ual Growth; (2) Theories, Professional Jargon, and Defi-nitions (Education and Therapy, A Group versus a Mass,The Group Dynamic Approval, The Common Denomina-tions, Restatement of the Philosophy Expressed in thisText); (3) The Tools and Techniques Involved in theHelping Process (Clarifying Operations, The Show-HowOperations, Security-Giving Operations); (4) A Group inAction; (5) Typical Problems in the Group Process (TheInitial Leader, Voluntary and Involuntary Groups,Group Composition, Out-of-Group Sessions, Group Size,Length of Group LifeFixed and Continuous Groups,Admitting New Members, The Silent Member, Silence inthe Group, The Missing Member, The Missing Leader,The Monopolist, Resistance, Catharsis, The Role ofStrategies, Decision MakingTo Vote or Not to Vote,Responsibility in a Group, Other Tools and Techniques);(6) Group Techniques Applied (Orientation, GroupGuidance Programs, Group Techniques in the SubjectMatter Classroom, Identifying Group Goals, UsingRecords for Self-Evaluative Purposes, Effect of theCourse upon the Author, As Applied to a Workshop,Studies on Work with Failing and UnderachievingStudents, Student Councils, Moral and Spiritual Values,Group Techniques in Developing a Program); (7) Evalua-tion and Research (EvaluationGroup Growth, Individ-ual Growth, A Comparison of Self with Others, Re-searchSummary, Bibliograrhy, and Bibliography ofDoctoral Dissertations); (8) Conclusion. The appendix

contains A Diary Report of the Complete Life of aGroup. Each chapter is followed by a discussion and abibliography. There is an index. (257)

LIPPITT, GORDON L. (ed.). Leadership in action(Selected Reading Series no. 2). Washington,D.C.: National Training Laboratory and NationalEducation Association, 1961.96 pp.

Leadership is difficult to define because it hascomplex dimensions, exists in highly diverse situations,and manifests differing effects of power. Theoreticalapproaches used in various research studies are coveredin "Scientific Spotlight on Leadership," "What Do WeKnow About Leadership," and "Research Trends inExecutive Behavior." Studies and theories about thegroup leadership role and functions are discussed in"Leaders Are Made, Not Born," "New Questions forOld," "Leadership and Group Behavior," and "Leader-ship in Small Groups." Leadership in organizations isdiscussed in "Leadership Within a Hierarchical Organiza-tion" and "A Fundamental of Democracy." Ethics arecovered in "Building a Democratic Work Group" and"Ethics of Leadership." Leadership, as it varies withorganizational goals, situational dynamics, individualleadership, and the group being led, is discussed in"Leadership: A Conception and Some Implications,"and "How to Choose a Leadership Pattern." Someessential elements in the growth of any action leader areexamined in "Elements of Leadership Growth." (258)

LIPPITT, GORDON L. and EDITH W. SEASHORE. Theleader looks at group effectiveness (Looking IntoLeadership Series). Washington, D.C.: LeadershipResources, Inc., 1961. 13 pp.

Seven questions often asked about groups arecited as introduction to the discussion. Results of groupresearch are summarized and guidelines for assessinggroup effectiveness are provided. The behavior of agroup may be analyzed in terms of the following factors(which are discussed): background, pattern of participa-tion and communication, atmosphere and cohesion,sub-groupings, standards, procedures, goals, leader andmember behavior. Group task and maintenance func-tions are elaborated. Characteristics which indicatematurity in a group are cited and questions for leaderself-appraisal are offered. A scale for measuring groupgrowth on eight dimensions and a briefly annotated7-item reading list are included. (259)

65

MAIER, NORMAN R. F. and L. RICHARD HOFFMAN.Acceptance and quality of solutions as related toleaders' attitudes toward disagreement in groupproblem solving. Journal of applied behavioralscience 1:4, October-November-December 1965.pp. 373-386.

An experiment was designed to test the hypoth-esis that (1) disagreement in a discussion can lead eitherto hard feelings or to innovation depending upon theattitude of the discussion leader; and (2) acceptance willdepend upon the leader's perception of disagreement aswell as upon the decision reached. The test situationutilized a role-playing format in which a foremanattempted to induce three subordinates to accept achange in work methods. Measures of the negative vs.positive effects of disagreement were obtained by thefrequency with which the discussion leader reportedhaving problem employees vs. idea men in his group."The results showed that when the foreman most oftenreported having problem employees, solutions were leastlikely to be innovative and acceptance was relativelylow. When the foreman perceived his subordinates asidea men, innovative solutions increased and satisfactionwith the solution was greatest for all concerned, despitethe fact that all persons involved had to change theirinitial positions. Although previous research has indi-cated that satisfaction is a function of influence over thedecision, regardless of its quality, this experimentsupplies evidence that the quality of the solution canintroduce a further source of satisfaction. This occurswhen a solution is one that resolves differences andintegrates differing viewpoints to form a new and betterproduct. (ASTD) (260)

MANN, RICHARD D. Dimensions of individual perfor-mance in small groups under task and social-emotional conditions. Journal of abnormal andsocial psychology 62:3, 1961. pp. 674-682.

Considerable attention has been directed to thesearch for a minimum number of dimensions in terms ofwhich to describe a person's overt behavior and informalstatus in small groups. Factor analytic techniques havebeen used to isolate these basic dimensions. Carter(1954) proposed three basic factors: Individual Promi-nence and Achievement, Aiding Attainment by theGroup, and Sociability, which Bales (1956) labeledActivity, Task Ability, and Likeability. Questioning ofthe disparity in results of subsequent testing for thesefactors led to the author's doctoral dissertation uponwhich this article is based. The purpose of the researchwas to determine what effect varying the group problem(in terms of task or social-emotional conditions) wouldhave upon the dimensions of individual performance. Inthe Task condition the group was oriented to an externalproblem, an intellectual task, and in the Social-Emotional condition a topic of high personal relevance

created problems of integration and tension reduction.Twenty five-men groups were run under each conditon.Two major results were: (1) A Task Prominence factorwas isolated which suggested a combination of theCarter-Bales Activity and Task Ability dimensions; and(2) the need for a more complex interpretation ofLikeability was suggested. Premature closure on any setof performance factors should be avoided until more isknown about the effect that variation in the situation,the size and nature of the group, or other experimentalprocedures has upon the resultant factor structure. Someof the outlines of the more complex view of perfor-mance factors that may emerge from such neededresearch are suggested by the present study. Tenreferences are cited. (261)

MANN, RICHARD D. Interpersonal styles and groupdevelopment: an analysis of the member-leaderrelationship. New York: John Wiley & Sons,1967. 308 pp.

The primary focus of the study is on thechanging relationship between the members of fourclassroom discussion groups and their formal leader.Chapter 1 presents an overview of the conceptual andmethodological strategy adopted for the study. Chap-ters 2 and 3 outline the kind of self-analytic groupbeing studied and the observation system used as thecore of the research method. Chapter 4 sets up aconceptual framework for the analysis of an individ-ual's performance, the emphasis being on the connec-tions between the feelings expressed and the antece-dent relationships that seem to be serving as modelsfor the individual's experience. In Chapter 5 an analy-sis of the leader's role and the influence he exertsupon the process being observed is presented. Chapter6 treats the development of the group as a whole interms of the shifting arrays of subgroups that seek todetermine the course of the group. Chapter 7 returnsto the individual level to explore the career of thegroup member and to see how the commonly observedmember-leader relationships contribute to and areshaped by the development of the group. In theconcluding chapter a conceptual scheme for analyzingan individual's feelings and actions in groups is devel-oped. An index and references are included. (262)

McGRATH, JOSEPH E. and IRWIN ALTMAN. Smallgroup research: a synthesis and critique of thefield. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston,1966. 601 pp.

The aim of the book is threefold: (1) to makeavailable a compilation of research information frommore than 250 small group studies; (2) to presentperspectives about substantive, methodological, andinstitutional characteristics of the field; and (3) to

66

present the research program out of which the bookgrew as a case history in the classification and synthesisof scientific knowledge. Accordingly, the book is dividedinto three parts entitled: Classification of Small GroupResearch Information: a Case Study; Perspectives on theSmall Group Field; and Catalogue of Relationships,Annotations, and Bibliography with Addenda. Chaptersare entitled: Introduction; The Problem and Its Back-ground; The Classification System; A Validation of theClassification System; Evaluation, Modification, andImplications of the Classification System; DescriptiveCharacteristics of the Small Group Field; Generalizationsfrom Small Group Research. Data; Methodology of SmallGroup Research: Problems and Prospects; The Cultureof the Small Group Research Field; References; Cata-logue of Relationships between Variables; Study Anno-tations; Bibliography of Small Group Research. (263)

MILLS, THEODORE M. Group transformation: ananalysis of a learning group. Englewood Cliffs,N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1964. 120 pp.

The transformations of a single group as itgathers, forms, operates, and dissolves, and as thesechanges are detected by a systematic analysis of thecontent of each event that occurs are described. Empiri-cal trends lead to a conception of the life cycle of groupswhich, it is hoped, will serve as a useful guide to leaders,members, and those interested in human groups. Theessential group theory that emerges from the study isthreefold: (1) groups are open, not closed systems;(2) all small groups die; (3) group mechanisms arecontingent upon boundaries. The contents are: Introduc-tion; The Group; The Method of Sign Process Analysis;The Chronology of Negative and Positive Scenes; GroupIssues and Data Trends; Toward a Conception of theLife Cycle of Groups; Two Dynamic Issues; and Sum-mary and Conclusions. An index is included. (264)

MILLS, THEODORE M. The sociology of small groups.Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1967. 136pp.

Four specific aims of the book are (1) tointroduce the sociological way of thinking about groups;(2) to acquaint the reader with the social context inwhich the investigator gathers his basic informationabout groups; (3) to introduce the five levels on whichgroup processes occur: behavior, feelings, norms, goals,and values, and to relate those levels to the subjectiveexperience of group members; and (4) to introduce theview that the group as a whole is a dynamic system withpotential for change and growth. Selected references andan index are included. (265)

MILTON, G. A. Group vs. individual problem-solvingand decision-making. Canadian public administra-tion 8:3, September 1965. pp. 301-306.

The purpose of this series of experiments dealingwith management processes was to test the followingpredictions: "(1) On intellectual, problem-solving, anddecision-making tasks, individual processes are superiorto group processes; (2) Group members feel that groupprocedures are superior because each member feels thathe is participating in all group solutions and decisionsand therefore he feels that he is being more creative thanwhen working independently." From the 48 subjects, allof varying executive experience, it was found that groupprocesses are inferior to individual processes whenapplies to intellectual tasks; and it was suggested that thegeneralization will hold for any group procedure. It wasalso found that group processes engender greater enthu-siasm for a task, regardless of lowered efficiency. Thelatter finding points up a potential value in using groupprocedures. (ASTD) (266)

MURSELL, JAMES L. The principle of socializa-tion .. . IN HIS Successful teaching: its psycho-logical principles. 2nd edition. New York:McGraw-Hill, 1954. pp. 141-171.

Meaningful and effective learning is related to thesocial setting created in the classroom. A good socialsetting capitalizes upon "social facilitation," the factthat an individual will do many tasks better when hedoes them in a group of similarly occupied workers. Thisgain due to the presence of a group is known as "socialincrement." Social facilitation is found when the groupworks without restriction or disturbance and withpositive incentives. The democratic group, with itspromotion of team spirit and mutual responsibility, hasa desirable effect upon the learning and achievement ofgroup members. Skillful and imaginative variation of thepatterns of social behavior in the group of learnersuncovers talents and capacities for leadership that mightremain hidden in an undifferentiated adherence to freetalk. Finally, relations among all students and coopera-tion rather than competition create a favorable socialatmosphere. There are three degrees of excellence in theutilization of social dynamics and social-psychologicalfactors: (1) conventional recitation with submissivegroup of learners requiring imposed discipline; (2) con-tributing atmosphere with only sympathetic discipline;and (3) cooperative group carrying their common under-taking with self-generated discipline. A democratic grouppattern organizes learning at the highest level of mean-ingfulness and gives added drive to learning by bringingpotential social forces to bear on it. This organizationfavors cooperative thinking, problem-solving, planning,and action, and brings forth original and creativesuggestions and contributions. (267)

67

PHILLIPS, GERALD M. Communication and the smallgroup. New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1966. 139 pp.

This book is an attempt to bridge the gapbetween what experts know about small groups andwhat may be taught in a beginning course in college.The author outlines how PERT (Program Evaluationand Review Technique) may be used by groups inevaluating the potential effectiveness of their solutionsand discusses group interactions in terms of gametheory. Chapter and selected section headings furtherindicate contents: (1) The Small Group in Our Society;(2) Understanding the Small Group; (3) The SmallGroup in Education and Therapy (basic approaches togroup therapy, formats for educational and therapeuticdiscussion, techniques of communication in the smallgroup, sources of trouble in communication in smallgroups); (4) Problem-Solving Discussion (the standardAgenda, case study of a problem-solving discussionemploying PERT); (5) Human Relations in the SmallGroup (the interaction game, the special case of thehidden agenda, common reasons for failure of groups).There is a 5-page bibliographic essay. An index isincluded. (268)

PHILP, HUGH and DEXTER DUNPHY. Developmentaltrends in small groups. Sociometry, vol. 22,1959. pp. 162-174.

Research on group problem-solving by R. F.Bales and associates at Harvard has produced a set ofobservational categories which implies a sequence offunctions necessary for progression from a problemsituation to consensus or agreement. This sequenceinvolved phases of communication, evaluation, control,decision, and tension reduction. In their experimentsBales and associates used carefully contrived groupsdiscussing specially constructed artificial problems. Theresearch reported here took place in Australia and wasan effort to discover (a) whether contrived groupsemployed on complex problems directly related to theircourse of work (ego relevant) would in fact pass througha similar series of distinguishable phases, and (b) whetherthe sex of the participants would influence such a phasepattern in any way. The general theoretical position ofBales was supported. The sex-composition of the groupsdid not affect the phase movement. (269)

SCHMIDT, WARREN H. The leader looks at theleadership dilemma (Looking Into LeadershipSeries). Washington, D.C.: Leadership Resources,Inc., 1961. 12 pp.

Five questions often asked by leaders about theirrole introduce the discussion in this pamphlet. Historicalshifts in the research-emphasis and definitions of leader-ship are discussed (leader personality and functions,

autocratic, democratic, and laissez-faire styles). Thedilemma of the leader is that he is expected to bedemocratic (by allowing group participation) and at thesame time efficient (which often requires deciding aloneto save time). Certain dependable approaches andsuggestions derived from research and experience areoffered. Five typical patterns of leadershiptelling,selling, testing, consulting, and joininginvolve varyingdegrees of group-centeredness. Forces in the leader, inthe group members, and in the situation are discussed,and the leader is urged to assess these forces indetermining the pattern of behavior most appropriatefor him at a given time. A briefly annotated 5-itembibliography is included. (270)

SHEPHERD, CLOVIS R. Small groups: some socio-logical perspectives. San Francisco: ChandlerPublishing Company, 1964. 130 pp.

The book introduces the reader to several socio-logical and social-psychological theories and researchmethods dealing with small groups and organizes thismaterial from the standpoint of pure and applied socialscience and the philosophical positions of symbolicinteractionism and positivism. Personal understanding,the accurate perception of events, and relating theoriesand research findings to experience is stressed. A smallgroup (as a social phenomenon) is more organized andenduring than a social relation; small groups of two orthree, because of their size, have characteristics that areeither absent or different from those of groups of fouror more. A small group possesses general characteristics:common objectives, differentiation of roles, sharedvalues and norms, criteria for membership, and patternsof communication. As a group grows, its membersestablish formal rules and regulations; it comes toresemble a formal organization more than a group. Theattitudes of daily life are contrasted with the scientificattitude. Three general theories and several limitedtheories show concepts useful in understanding groupbehavior. The application of knowledge about smallgroups is also discussed. (271)

STAGER, PAUL. Conceptual level as a compositionvariable in small-group decision making. Journalof personality and social psychology 5:2, Febru-ary 1967. pp. 152-161.

"Decision making was investigated from thestandpoint of the emergent distribution of functionalroles, conflict generation, utilization of conflict indecision synthesis, and information acquisition."(USCSC /) (272)

68

THELEN, HERBERT A. Dynamics of groups at work.Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1954.379 pp.

This book uses two approaches to group dynam-ics, the first practical, the second theoretical. It assumesthat basic principles and understandings can be foundfrom the analysis of successful practice in such areas ascitizen participation classroom teaching, inservice pro-fessional training, administration and management, hu-man relations training, and public meetings. The secondapproach offers concepts useful in thinking about groupactivity regardless of its social purposes or particularclientele. Chapters in Part I, Six Technologies, include:(1) Rebuilding thy Community through Citizen Action;(2) Educating Children Through Need-Meeting Activity;(3) Developing the School Through Faculty Self-Train-ing; (4) Administration and Management: Group Re-sponsibility and Individual Autonomy; (5) Training forGroup Participation: The Laboratory Method; and(6) Effective Meetings: Principles and Procedures. Chap-ters in Part II, Explanations, include: (7) Membership:The Groups-Within; (8) Integration: Evaluating and Act-ing; (9) Reality: Factors in the Problem-Situation;(10) Control: Developing the Group Culture; (11) Lead-ership: Co-Ordinating Effort Toward Group Goals; and(12) Community: The Context of Group Operations. Anannotated list of selected readings is included. The textis indexed. (273)

TROW, WILLIAM CLARK, A. E. ZANDER, W. C.MORSE and D. H. JENKINS. Psychology ofgroup behavior: the class as a group. The journalof educational psychology, vol. 41, 1950. pp.322-338.

The study is concerned with whether the schoolclass is a group and, if it is, what this should mean toeducational psychologists whose task it is to introduceteachers to the principles that should aid them indeveloping the best possible environment for learning intheir classrooms. Research in group dynamics is firstreviewed, from which it is concluded that group phe-nomena definitely affect the progress of learning as wellas the kind of learning that takes place. The educationalsignificance of this view derives from the fact thatstudents' attitudes as well as their behavior patterns aremodifiable. How the teachers can effectively shape theseattitudes and behavior patterns is discussed in theremainder of the article under the heading of The Rolesof the Teacher (the instructional role, the role of thedemocratic strategist, and the role of the therapist.)References are included. (274)

ZALEZNIK, ABRAHAM and DAVID MOMENT. Thedynamics of interpersonal behavior. New York:John Wiley & Sons, 1964. 520 pp.

The study is divided into four major parts. Thefirst part deals with the processes of group development,using the group itself as the unit of analysis. Twoconcerns are primary: (1) exploration of the require-ments for the development of skills in social analysisnecessary for working with data on human behaviorknowledge of theory, appropriate analytical methods,and ample material for practice; and (2) the use ofresearch findings and theories that hold promise forboth theoretical and practical understanding of groupbehavior. The second part focuses on the individualand relationships between individuals, treating thegroup as an influence on individual and interpersonalbehavior. The third part concerns itself with the pro-

69

cesses occurring between the work group and itsenvironmentthe formal organization within whichsmall groups operate and the broader culture in whichtheir members live. The fourth part analyzes naturaland planned processes of leadership. Parts and sectionsare: Part One, Groups and Interpersonal ProcessesGroup and Interpersonal Behavior in Organizations:Perspectives, Processes in Group Development: GroupIdentity, Process in Group Development: Structure,Group Process: The Control of Behavior, Affect andWork in Groups; Part Two, Interpersonal DynamicsRole Performances in Groups, Individual Developmentand Modes of Interpersonal Behavior, InterpersonalDynamics; Part Three, Organizational Aspects ofGroup BehaviorEnvironmental Constraints, Produc-tivity, Satisfaction; Part Four, Leadership and Change.Included are a bibliography and author, subject andresearch indexes. (275)

ORGANIZATIONS AND ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE

ARGYRIS, CHRIS. Organization and innovation. Home-wood, Ill.: Richard D. Irwin, 1965. 274 pp.

Research was conducted by the author in threeorganizations for the purpose of examining some basicissues: (1) the nature of interpersonal competence,(2) the nature of organizational innovativeness, and (3) atheory of individual and organizational change. InChapter 1 a new set of categories is presented that canbe used to observe individual and group behavior and toquantify variables related to interpersonal competenceand problem-solving effectiveness. In addition to explor-ing several methodological issues, the author defineshypotheses and predictions that are explored in theremainder of the book. Chapters 2, 3 and 4 contain areport of a study in an organizational setting. Chapter 5describes an attempt to change certain values andbehavior of the board of directors of an organization aswell as to measure the impact of these changes. InChapter 6 the author extrapolates from the data and therelevant literature a model of the probable relationshipamong interpersonal competence, internal organization,environment, and innovation. Appendix A contains amore detailed description of the categories used in thetheoretical scheme. Appendix B provides further inter-observer reliability studies. (276)

ARGYRIS, CHRIS. Personality and organization: theconflict between system and individual. NewYork: Harper & Brothers, 1957. 291 pp.

This book represents the author's first step atintegrating the existing research literature relevant tounderstanding human behavior in on-going organiza-tions. Most of the book focuses on the question ofwhy people behave the way they do in organizations.Wherever possible, concrete practical applications areincluded to make the book more useful to peopleconcerned with the problems dealt with. Other basicquestions discussed are: What are the basic componentsof organization?, How does the organization tend toevolve?, and How does it tend to maintain itself in-ternally? (277)

70

BASS, BERNARD M. Organizational psychology. Bos-ton: Allyn & Bacon, 1965. 459 pp.

This introduction to organizational psychologyconsiders the role of industry in American society andchanging attitudes about its goals and purposes; moti-vational factors related to work; the roles of thesupervisor and the work group in developing andmaintaining such motivation; the nature of the struc-ture, communications, and conflicts in large formalorganizations; and the executive decision-making pro-cess. There are 767 references and author and subjectindexes. Chapters are (1) Introduction to Organiza-tional Psychology (background, aims of psychology inindustry, importance of values); (2) Attitudes TowardWork (satisfaction and productivity); (3) Rewards ofWork (material rewards, working conditions, co-workers, job status); (4) The Individual and His Motiva-tion to Work; (5) Supervisory Behavior; (6) WorkingGroups; (7) Industrial Organization; (8) Communica-tions in Industrial Organizations; (9) Conflict in Indus-trial Organizations (status differences, goals and con-straints, intergroup conflict, union-management con-flict); (10) Psychological Aspects of Executive De-cision-Making (rational approaches to making unpro-grammed organizational decisions, decisions with lim-ited rationality, perceiving the problem in organiza-tions, searching for solutions, evaluating and choosing).

(278)

BENNIS, WARREN G. Theory and method in applyingbehavioral science to planned organizationalchange. Journal of applied behavioral science1:4, October-November-December, 1965. pp.337-360.

Man's behavior is fallible in regulating the adapta-tion of human organizations. The proportion of planned,contemporary change is much higher than in form:times. As a consequence, behavioral scientists are caValon to influence organizational functioning and effective-ness more often than heretofore. A theory of changemust include certain characteristics: communicability;compatibility with client systems must be determinable;variables must be manipulable and consonant with theclient system's values; cost must not be prohibitive; theconditions of the "patient" must be susceptible todiagnosis; and phases of instruction must be discrete sothe change agent can forecast the termination of the

relationship. Some types of change programs are: exposi-tion and propagation, elite corps, human relationstraining programs, consultation, staff programs, circula-tion of ideas, developmental research, and action re-search. (279)

BENNIS, WARREN G. Changing organizations: essayson the development and evolution of humanorganization. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1966.223 pp.

The problem of change is considered from manydifferent angles with focus on the causes and conse-quences of change in organizational behavior. Theconclusions are derived from attention to (1) problemsof change, (2) how these problems affect human organi-zations, and (3) what the behavioral sciences can doabout directing the rate, shape, and consequences ofchange. The first section of essays identifies the evolu-tionary or inevitable trend in organizational develop-ment: (1) The Decline of Bureaucracy and Organizationsof the Future; (2) Democracy Is Inevitable; (3) Towarda "Truly" Scientific Management: The Concept ofOrganization Health; (4) Changing Patterns of Leader-ship. The second section focuses on the contributionsbehavioral science can make to planned change; (5) Ap-plying Behavioral Sciences to Planned OrganizationalChange; (6) Planned Organizational Change in Perspec-tive; (7) Change-Agents, Change Programs, and Strate-gies; (8) Principles and Strategies of Directing Organiza-tional Change Via Laboratory Training; (9) Some Ques-tions and Generalizations about Planned OrganizationalChange. Five axioms basic to the study of organizationsare offered in conclusion: (1) organizations are micro-cosms; (2) behavioral scientists have become more com-mitted to applying their knowledge; (3) implementationof knowledge is a key problem facing the behavioralsciences; (4) the key to the problem of knowledgeutilization is collaboration between the producers andusers of knowledge; (5) the value systems of the scien-tific community and the practitioner must be enrichedto include the idea of "revitalization." Our educationalsystem should help us (1) accept the adaptive processwithout the fear of losing our identity; (2) increase ourtolerance of ambiguity without the fear of losingintellectual mastery; (3) increase our ability to collabo-rate without fear of losing individuality; and (4) developa willingness to participate in social evolution whilerecognizing implacable forces. (280)

BLAKE, ROBERT R. and JANE S. MOUTON. Groupdynamicskey to decision making. Houston:Gulf Publishing Company, 1961. 120 pp.

Management training is intended to effect, forthe attainment of corporate objectives, the willingrelease of energies controlled by others. The approach to

71

laboratory training described here has been effective inintegrating organizational requirements of profit andhuman requirements of growth. Chapters of the bookare titled; (1) Group Dynamics in Decision-Making,(2) The Management Development Lab, (3) How PowerAffects Human Behavior, (4) How Power Affects Em-pk.yee Appraisal, (5) How to Get Better Decisions fromGroups, (6) The Story Behind Inter-Group Conflict,(7) Why Problem-Solving Between Groups SometimesFails, and (8) Power Styles Within An Organization. Aglossary of terms and a subject index are appended.

(281)

BROWN, DAVID S. The leader looks at authority andhierarchy (Looking into Leadership series). Wash-ington, D.C.: Leadership Resources, Inc., 1961.12 pp.

Seven questions which leaders often ask aboutauthority and hierarchy are cited as evidence of theimportance of these facets of organizations. Problemswith commonly held assumptions about organizationalauthority and hierarchy are examined: (1) organizationsare systems which function in much the same way asmechanical systems; (2) authority exists at the top and isdistributed downward through the organization by asystem known as delegation; (3) there is a distinction inkind between what is done at the top of the organizationand what is done at the bottom (policy and operations).Ways in which power is expressed Skill requirements ofan administrative leader are suggested, and some guide-lines for administrative leadership are offered. The roleof the administrator as a group leader who moves peopleto achieve goals which they have a part in determining isemphasized. (282)

CANGELOSI, VINCENT E. and WILLIAM R. DILL.Organizational learning: observations toward atheory. Administrative science quarterly 10:2,September 1965. pp. 175-203.

This paper analyzes learning processes of aseven-man team during a semester's involvement in acomplex management decision exercise. Four phases oforganizational development are identified and discussed:an initial phase, a searching phase, a comprehendingphase, and a consolidating phase. Observations of howthe team learned are then compared with three recentdiscussions of organizational learning processes in labora-tory, industrial, and governmental settings. The paperproposes a synthesis which views organizational learningas a product of interactions among three kinds of stress.It presumes that learning is sporadic and stepwise ratherthan continuous and gradual and that learning thepreferences and goals goes hand in hand with learninghow to achieve them. Separate mechanisms are postu-lated to control adaptation at the individual and

subgroup level within the organization and to controladaptation of the organization as a total system. Linksbetween the two levels of adaptations are also described.(ASTD) (283)

CARZO, ROCCO, JR. and JOHN N. YANOUZAS.Formal organization: a systems approach. Home-wood, Richard D. Irwin, Inc. and TheDorsey Press, 1967. 591 pp.

In the systems approach formal organization istreated as a set of interdependent elements which act toachieve certain goals and to maintain an orderly state ofaffairs in exchanges with the environment. This intro-duction to the systems approach is designed for a

beginning course. Parts and chapters include: Part I,Fundamental Concepts(1) Introduction; (2) Tradi-tional Organizational Theory; (3) Administration in Tra-ditional Theory; (4) Problems of Traditional Theory;Part II, Behavioral Patterns(5) Nonformal Behavior;(6) Social Organization and Behavior; (7) Power andPower Structure; (8) Emergent System; Part III, Organi-zational Design(9) Markov Chain Analysis; (10) Learn-ing; (11) Basic Framework for Organizational Design;(12) Control; (13) Waiting Line Theory and Organiza,tional Design; (14) System Reliability in OrganizationalDesign; Part IV, Elements of Change (15) Motivation inOrganization; and (16) Organizational Change. There arename and subject indexes. (284)

COOPER, W. W., H. J. LEAVITT and M. W. SHELLY, II(eds.). New perspectives in organization research.New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1964. 606 pp.

The papers comprising the chapters in thisvolume were drawn from two sources: from an Office ofNaval Research Conference on Research in Organizationsheld at Carnegie Institute of Technology, June 22-24,1962; and from a Ford Foundation Seminar on theSocial Sciences of Organization held at the University ofPittsburgh, June 10-23, 1962. The conference partici-pants were persons active in either the managementsciences (including operations research) or the behavioralsciences (including economics). The seminar participantswere from business schools and social science depart-ments of a number of universities. There are 29 chaptersby as many authors, arranged in four parts: GeneralPerspectives, Behavioral Science Perspectives, Interdisci-plinary Perspectives, Management Science Perspectives,and Perspectives for Further Research. A bibliography isincluded. (285)

72

GINZBERG, ELI and EWING W. REILLEY. Effectingchange in large organizations. New York: Colum-bia University Press, 1957. 155 pp.

"This is an exploratory study. It has fourobjectives: to identify an important aspect of corporatelife; to assess the strategic factors involved in the processof directed change; to consider how current efforts tobring about major organizational changes can be im-proved; and to suggest the lines of future investigationlikely to yield new knowledge and improvements inpractice. The subject is so large that we are inevitablyforced to deal with it suggestively rather than exhaus-tively. Our aim is to frame the problem and to identifythe key elements and processes so that others in businessand academic life may be stimulated to concern them-selves with it" (from author's foreword). Chapter titlesand selected topics further indicate content and organ-ization of the book: (I) The Challenge of Change(change in the work of the president, the key executivesand the general manager, parallels in military organiza-tions); (II) The Balance Sheet for Change (cultural andeconomic environments, corporation forces, inertia,competitive pressures, personnel resources, prior expe-rience with change, reputation of the management);(III) Psychological Factors in Change (facilitating andretarding factors, psychological mechanisms, effectivecommunications, control of anxiety, learning new skills);(IV) Preparing the Plan; (V) The Initial Stage of Imple-mentation (announcement, timing, objectives, approach,specification of functions, group involvement); (VI) NewBehavior Patterns (personnel patterns, control measures,formal mechanisms for learning, feedback and audit);(VII) The Process of Change (major findings, directionsfor research). There is a 5-page bibliography. (286)

GUEST, ROBERT H. Organizational change: the effectof successful leadership (Irwin-Dorsey Series inBehavioral Science in Business). Homewood, Ill.:The Dorsey Press and Richard D. Irwin, Inc.,1962. 180 pp.

A Yale Technology Project production, "This is astudy . . of a patient who was acutely ill and whobecame extremely healthy. The 'patient' was not a Manbut a Management, the management of a large complexindustrial organization." The book is one of the fewsystematic studies of a large complex organization inprocess of change. It contains reliable and meaningfulperformance data, exhibits full recognition of thetechnological environment within which the changephenomenon occurred, and puts an empirical casehistory into broad theoretical perspective. The first 5chapters describe the organization and its problems overa period of 3 years. Chapter 7, The Process of Change,treats the change phenomenon specifically from prelim-inary conditions to aftermath. Chapter 8, The Nature ofAuthority in Perspective, examines the authority func-tion and its effects on group interaction. Chapter 9 is

entitled Production Organizations as Socio-TechnicalSystems. The appendix contains a review of research ontension and stress in organizations, how they can bemodified, and the role of the leader in the process ofchange. An 11-page bibliography and author and subjectindexes are included. (287)

HILL, WALTER A. and DOUGLAS M. EGAN. Readingsin organization theory: a behavioral approach.Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1966. 748 pp.

A collection of 41 readings by various authoritiesin the field is presented for use either as a basic text oras supplemental readings. The readings are arranged inseven groups as follows: (1) The Complex Nature ofOrganization Goals; (2) The Process of Goal Formation;(3) The Social System in Organizations; (4) The Struc-ture of Organizations; (5) Decision Making and Adapta-tion; (6) Control and Evaluation; (7) Some RemainingQuestions. References are included. (288)

HUTCHINSON, JOHN G. Organizations; theory andclassical concepts. New York: Holt, Rinehart &Winston, 1967. 178 pp.

There are chapters on human factors in organiza-tions, planning, authority and leadership, the controlprocess, and sources of managerial talent. (USCSC 1,edited) (289)

LAWRENCE, PAUL R. and others. Organizational be-havior and administration. Homewood, Ill.: TheDorsey Press and Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1961.910 pp.

The behavior of people as members of groupsand organizations rather than as unique individuals isfocused upon. Case descriptions of the behavior ofpeople in organizations are presented; these cases are notto demonstrate how people should act but how they doact. The cases have been grouped into clusters to helpstudents accumulate and build the simulated experiencethat the discussion of cases can provide. There areseveral types of cases: cases that are descriptive, casesdesigned for drill, cases which report research, cases thatpresent the fragmentary symptoms of a problem whichmight come to the administrator for action. The aim ofthe book is to illustrate how future administrators canmake use of systematic research as guides to their ownbehavior and not simply to acquaint students with whatis known. The material in the book was selected to showthat there is order in the human universe. Chapter titlesare: (1) The Human Problems of Administration;(2) Work Group Behavior; (3) Supervisory Behavior;(4) Diagnosing and Proposing Remedial Action; (5) In-tergroup Behavior; (6) Organizational Behavior and the

syn. v.v471,...rrsvITI7717,

73

Wide Culture; and (7) The Administrator as an Agent ofOrganizational Change. (290)

LIKERT, RENSIS. Measuring organizational perfor-mance. Harvard business review 36:2, March-April 1958. pp. 41-50.An argument is made for management's need of

measurements that deal directly with the human assetsof the organizationfor example, measurements ofloyalty, motivation, confidence, and trust. Traditionaltheories of measurement which concentrate on aspectsof profit and loss do not adequately and accuratelyreflect the quality and capacity of the human organiza-tion of a company. The need for measuring thesevariables is supported by a detailed review of a studydesigned to test these two concepts of a modified Ihei .cyof measurement: (1) that the pattern of interactionbetween the manager and those with whom he dealsshould always be such that the individuals involved willfeel that the manager is dealing with them in asupportive rather than a threatening manner; and(2) that management will make full use of the potentialcapacities of its human resources only when each personin an organization is a member of a well-knit andeffectively functioning work group with high inter-actions, skills, and performance goals. The concepts weretested by using attitudinal and motivational data col-lected in 1955 in a study by the Institute for SocialResearch, University of Michigan. The study is de-scribed, analyzed, and applied. The article concludeswith a list of the variables of human assets nowmeasurable with the techniques of the social sciences.

(291)

MARCH, JAMES G. (ed.). Handbook of organizations.Chicago: Rand McNally, 1965. 127 pp.

The present state of organizational research andtheory is described in 28 essays on the subject by anumber of authorities in the field. The essays aregrouped in five major areas: I, Foundations(1) Influence, Leadership, Control, by Dorwin Cart-wright; (2) Decision Making and Problem Solving, byD. W. Taylor; (3) Small Groups and Large Organizations,by R. T. Golembiewski; (4) Social Structure and Organi-zations, by A. L. Stinchcombe; II, Methodologies(5) Laboratory Experimentation with Organizations, byK. E. Weick; (6) Field Methods in the Study of Organiza-tions, by W. R. Scott; (7) Simulation of OrganizationalBehavior, by K. J. Cohen and R. M. Cyert; (8) Math-ematics and Organizational Theory, by W. H. Starbuck;III , Theoretical-Substantive Areas(9) ManagementTheory, by J. L. Massie; (10) Economic Theories ofOrganization, by T. A. Marschak; (11) OrganizationalGrowth and Development by W. H. Starbuck;(12) Communication in Organizations, by H. Guetzkow;(13) Interpersonal Relations in Organizations, by A.

Zaleznik; (14) Organizational Decision Making, by J.Feldman and H. E. Kanter; (15) Organizational ControlStructure, by A. Etzioni; (16) The Comparative Analysisof Organizations, by S. H. Udy; IV, Specific Institu-tions(17) Unions, by A. S. Tannenbaum; (18) PoliticalParty Organization, by J. A. Schlesinger; (19) PublicBureaucracies, by R. L. Peabody and F. E. Rourke;(20) Military Organizations, by K. Lang; (21) The Organ-ization of Traditional Authority: English County Gov-ernment, 1558 to 1640, by V. K. Dibble; (22) Hospitals:Technology, Structure, and Goals, by C. Perrow;(23) The School as a Formal Organization, by C. E.Bidwell; (24) Prison Organizations, by D. R. Cressey;(25) Business Organizations, by W. R. Dill; V, Applica-tions(26) Changing Interpersonal and Intergroup Rela-tionships in Organizations, by H. A. Shepard; (27) Ap-plied Organizational Change in Industry; Structural,Technological, and Humanistic Approaches, by H. J.Leavitt; (28) Organizational Design and Systems Analy-sis, by C. J. Haberstroh. Author and subject indexes areincluded. (292)

MARCH, JAMES G. and HERMAN A. SIMON, with thecollaboration of Harold Guetzkow. Organiza-tions. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1958. 262pp.

This book is about the theory of formal organiza-tions. It is organized around propositions about organi-zational behavior which can be grouped in three broadclasses, on the basis of their assumptions: (1) employeesare passive instruments of the organization; (2) membersbring attitudes, values, and goals to the organizationwhich affect the entire organization; and (3) membersare decision makers and problem solvers, so perceptionand thought processes are central to the exploration ofbehavior in organizations. Chapter 1, OrganizationalBehavior, discusses the importance of the subject, thescattered and diverse nature of the literature as well asthe disparity between hypothesis and evidence, and theorganization of the book. Chapter 2, "Classical" Organi-zation Theory, deals with the employee as passiveinstrument, as he appears in scientific managementliterature. Chapter 3, Motivational Constraints: Intra-organizational Decisions; Chapter 4, Motivational Con-straints: The Decision to Participate; and Chapter 5,Conflict in Organizations, deal with propositions relatingto the second basic assumption about employees. Chap-ter 6, Cognitive Limits on Rationality, and Chapter 7,Planning and Innovation in Organizations, are concernedprimarily with the decision-making and problem-solvingaspects of organizational behavior. There is a 35-pagebibliography, a numerical index to variables (key con-cepts in the text) and a general subject index. (293)

74

McGREGOR, DOUGLAS. The human side of enterprise.New York: McGraw-Hill, 1960. 246 pp.

The purpose of this volume is "to encourage therealization that theory is important, to urge managementto examine its assumptions and make them explicit."The author attempts to substantiate the thesis that "thetheoretical assumptions management holds about con-trolling its human resources determine the whole charac-ter of the enterprise." He repudiates the traditional viewof direction and control (called Theory X) and proposesa theory involving the integration of individual andorganizational goals (Theory Y). As he states in conclu-sion, "if we can learn how to realize the potential forcollaboration inherent in the human resources of indus-try, we will provide a model for governments andnations which mankind sorely needs." Parts and chaptersfurther indicate content and organization: Part One, TheTheoretical Assumptions of Manage-ment (1) Management and Scientific Knowledge;(2) Methods of Influence and Control; (3) Theory X:The Traditional View of Direction and Control;(4) Theory Y: The Integration of Individual and Organi-zational Goals; Part Two, Theory Y in Practice(5) Management by Integration and Self-Control; (6) ACritique of Performance Appraisal; (7) AdministeringSalaries and Promotions; (8) The Scanlon Plan; (9) Parti-cipation in Perspective; (10) The Managerial Climate;(11) Staff-Line Relationships; (12) Improving Staff-LineCollaboration; Part Three, The Development of Manager-ial Talent(13) An Analysis of Leadership; (14) Manage-ment Development Programs; (15) Acquiring ManagerialSkills in the Classroom; (16) The Managerial Team.References are cited after each chapter. (294)

PERROW, CHARLES. The analysis of goals in complexorganizations. American sociological review 26:6,December 1961. pp. 854-866.

"An understanding of organizational behaviorrequires close examination of the goals of the organiza-tion reflected in operating policies. To reach a firstapproximation of operative goals, a scheme is proposedwhich links technology and growth stages to major taskareascapital, legitimization, skills, and coordinationwhich predict to power structure and thence to limitsand range of operative goals. The major illustration ofthe utility of the scheme is provided by voluntarygeneral hospitals; other voluntary and non-voluntaryservice organizations are discussed, in these terms, aswell as profit-making organizations" (journal summary).

(295)

71: .3 7.

SCHEIN, EDGAR. Organizational psychology (Founda-tions of Modern Psychology series). EnglewoodCliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1965. 114 pp.

Drawing from the parent fields of industrialpsychology, industrial sociology, and social psychology,the author presents points of view and focal conceptsaround which to organize thinking about the new fieldof organizational psychology. Chapters and selectedtopics are: (1) The Field of Organizational Psychology;(2) Psychological Problems in Organizations; (3) Re-cruitment, Selection, Training, and Allocation (includ-ing job design and human engineering); (4) Organiza-tional Man and the Process of Management (organiza-tional relationships, management's assumptions aboutpeople, authoritythe psychological contractand theprocess of management in perspective); (5) Group andIntergroup Relationships (definition, types, functionsof groups, integration of organizational goals and indi-vidual needs); (6) The Organization as a ComplexSystem; (7) Organizational Effectiveness (adaptive-coping cycle, organizational conditions for effectivecoping). A selected reading list of 423 titles and anindex are included. (296)

SMITH, ROBERT J. (ed.). Major issues in modernsociety; twentieth anniversary meetings of theSociety for Applied Anthropology (special issue).Human organization 21:2, Summer 1962. pp.61-170.

Papers included are: Professional Responsibilityfor Social Change, by F. L. W. Richardson, Jr.; TheChange Process in Organizations, by Leonard Sayles;Quantitative Analysis of Complex Organizational Sys-tems, by Eliot D. Chapple; Changing Behavior ThroughCognitive Change, by Herbert R. Shepard and Robert R.Blake; The Organization of the Large Mental Hospital,by Elaine and Sohn Cumming; Community and RegionalDevelopment: The Joint Cornell-Peru ExperimentTheProcess of Acclerating Community Change, by Allan R.Holmberg and Henry F. Dobyns; Summary of Progressand Reactions, by Henry F. Dobyns, Carlos Monge M.,and Mario V. Vazquez; Integrating Communities IntoMore Inclusive Systems, by Harold D. Laswell; Imple-menting Change Through Government, by the TaskForce on Indian Affairs; Planning Future Joint Pro-grams, by John Ohly; Disorganization and Reorganiza-tion, by Everett C. Hughes; Where Are We Going IfAnywhere?, by Kenneth E. Boulding. (297)

75

,M5MF- 7,777 ,

TANNENBA'UM, ROBERT, IRVING R. WESCHLERand FRED MASSARIK. Leadership and organi-zation: a behavioral science approach. NewYork: McGraw-Hill, 1961. 456 pp.

This book represents a selected collection of thewritings, from 1950 to 1960, of members of the HumanRelations Research Group (HRRG), Institute of Indus-trial Relations and Graduate School of Business Admini-stration, UCLA. It is designed as an overview of HRRGwork from its inception to 1961. As such it is a

collection of articles, research papers, excerpts frommonographs, and the like. These writings are presentedin the first three of the four major parts of the book:(1) Leadership and the Influence Process; (2) SensitivityTraining: A Personal Approach to the Development ofLeaders; and (3) Studies in Organization. The initial partpresents some general reflections on the human relationsarea and a number of theoretical and practical state-ments concerning concepts and processes of basicleadership. The second part focuses on the purposes andfunctions of sensitivity training and the concepts oftrainer role and group development. The third partdevelops some theoretical notions pertaining to formalorganization, examines the operation of a particularorganization, and presents the results of some empiricalexplorations in the organization area. Part IV presentscommentaries on HRRG theory, concepts, and methodsprepared by leading experts in related fields. A bibliog-raphy and indexes are included. (298)

VINTER, ROBERT D. Analysis of treatment organiza-tions. Social work 8:3, July 1963. pp. 3-15.

Analysis of "people-changing" organizations andthe two major types that compose this categorysocial-ization and treatment agenciesare presented. Distinc-tive features of treatment organizations are examinedand certain problems that confront complex treatmentorganizations are discussed: use of human relationstechnologies, reliance on professionals, consequences forclients, and evaluation of performance. References arecited in footnotes. (299)

WHYTE, WILLIAM H., JR. The organization man.Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday Anchor Books(paperbound edition), 1956. 471 pp.

"As more and more lives have been encompassedby the organization way of life, the pressures for anaccompanying ideological shift have been mounting. Thepressures of the group, the frustrations of individualcreativity, the anonymity of achievement . . . [havecaused the organization man to seek] a redefinition ofhis place on eartha faith that will satisfy him that whathe must endure has a deeper meaning than appears on

the surface." Thus, a body of thought called the SocialEthic is replacing the Protestant Ethic. The roots of thiscurrent phenomenon are discussed and its impact onindividuals is suggested by description of the organiza-tion man in college, his initial indoctrination in organiza-tion life, analogies in research labs and academic life,expressions in popular fiction, and examples of far-reaching effects as seen in the new suburbia. Theproblem has swung too far in the direction discussed sothat a re-emphasis on individualismwithin organization

76

lifeis now needed. The 29 chapters of the book arearranged under 7 major headings: (I) The Ideology ofOrganization Man (Decline of Protestant Ethic, Scien-tism, Belongingness, Togetherness); (II) The Training ofOrganization Man; (III) The Neuroses of OrganizationMan; (IV) The Testing of Organization Man; (V) TheOrganization Scientist; (VI) The Organization Man inFiction; (VII) The New Suburbia: Organization Man. Anappendix is entitled "How to Cheat on PersonalityTests." There is an index of names and subjects. (300)

P.F.,S7,,,,,,,,T,,,prar.74.,,,,,,,

EDUCATIONAL AND TRAINING PHILOSOPHIES

ARCHAMBAULT, REGINALD D. (ed.). John Deweyon education; selected writings. New York: TheModern Library, 1964. 439 pp.

"This book represents an attempt to collect, insystematic form, Dewey's major writings on education,together with certain basic statements of his philosophicposition that are relevant to understanding his educa-tional views. . . . The aim of the book is to prompt afresh look at Dewey's educational theory. It is acommonplace that everyone talks about Dewey and noone reads him. It is my hope that a comprehensivecollection of this kind will facilitate a careful, criticalreading of Dewey's views, on the part of scholars andstudents of education" (editor's preface). Major partsand selected chapter headings indicate the book's organi-zation: (I) Philosophy and Education; (II) Ethics andEducation; (III) Aesthetics and Education; (IV) Scienceand Education; (V) Psychology and Education; (VI) So-ciety and Education; (VII) Principles of Pedagogy (TheRelation of Theory to Practice in Education; The Childand the Curriculum; The Nature of Subject Matter;Progressive Organization of Subject Matter; The Natureof Method; The Educational Situation: As ConcernsSecondary Education; The Way Out of EducationalConfusion; My Pedagogic Creed). (301)

ASSOCIATION OF AMERICAN MEDICAL COL-LEGES. Planning for medical progress througheducation (report submitted to the ExecutiveCouncil of the AAMC by Lowell T. Coggeshall).Evanston, Ill.: The Association, April 1965. 107pp.

"The great and growing national concern overthe health of our people requires that those responsiblefor medical education today and in the future turn theirattentions to a question of the greatest importance andmost far-reaching consequences: Will the methods andpractices currently followed in providing health person-nel of all categories, together with the programs andfacilities in being or planned, be adequate to meet ournational needs? This basic question about the futuredevelopment of medical education, and parallel concernsabout the role that the Association of American MedicalColleges should play in the decades ahead and how theorganization should develop its effectiveness, led to thisstudy of the association's future work. . . . During thestudy, surprising unanimity of concern was found among

77

medical educators, university officials, public officals,and others about problems in the field of medicaleducation. . .. Most point to the need to take majorsteps to improve medical educationto enable thenation to produce more and better prepared physiciansand other health personnel. . . . Most impressive is therepeated assertion that there is need for some organiza-tionpreferably the Association of American MedicalCollegesto assume a more aggressive and correlativerole if future needs in the field of education for allhealth personnel are to be met. The report endeavors tohighlight the needs for change identified and to suggestcourses of action that might be taken to meet theanticipated needs of America for medical education"(from Letter of Transmittal, by Lowell T. Coggeshall,M.D.). Major sections of the report are entitled: (1) Med-ical Education in Perspective; (2) Major Trends Relatedto Health Care and Their Implications; (3) The Past andPresent Roles of the Association of American MedicalColleges; (4) The Future Development of the Associa-tion of American Medical Colleges; (5) Summary ofTrends, Implications, and Recommendations. An appen-dix of terminology defines terminology of primaryimportance to the association: education for health andmedical sciences; physician education (pre- and post-doctoral education); basic medical sciences education;continuing education; and allied health professions andoccupations. There is a selected bibliography. (302)

De LONG, EARL H. A philosophy of training andeducation for the federal service. IN PresidentialTask Force on Career Advancement. Self andservice enrichment through federal training; se-lections from studies, reports and papers sub-mitted to the Presidential Task Force . . . (Dis-tributed by U.S. Civil Service Commission).Washington: U.S. Govt. Print. Office, 1967. pp.56-90.

The need for, current status of, and suggestedchanges in training of federal professional, managerial,and technical employees are discussed. The needs forincreased planning, specific goals, and attention toindividual requirements are emphasized. Topics includedin the discussion are: the philosophy and assumptions ofthe Government Employees Training Act of 1958;military training; university training and education(undergraduate and graduate); pre-entry training; post-entry training and education; up-dating requirements;

and executive development. Ten-specific suggestions forimproving federal employee training and education aremade in summary, and a table charting the suggestedroles of the Federal Government itself and the academicand related research and professional organizations is

(303)provided.

Educational technology, innovation in education; featur-ing a special report on an Aerospace EducationFoundation seminar. Washington, D.C.: Aero-space Education Foundation, Spring 1967. 66pp.

The edited proceedings of the Seminar on Educa-tional Technology held in Washington, D.C., in 1966, arepresented. Questions explored are indicated by topics ofpapers: The New World of Educational Technology, byWilliam Leavitt; A SymposiumPart I: The SystemsApproach to Education; A SymposiumPart II: Howthe Military Can Aid Civilian Education; A SymposiumPart III: Questions from the Audience, Answers fromthe Panelists; What Satellite Technology Can Do forEducation, by Maj. Gen. James McCormack, Jr., USAF(Ret.); The Realities of the Learning Market, by HaroldHowe, II; How to Help Johnny Getand Keep--a Job,by Robert M. Morgan and David S. Bushnell; Toward theNew Pedagogy, by Robert Glaser; Education and theUnderdeveloped World, by George D. Woods. There is aselected, annotated bibliography by Gabriel D. Ofiesh.[Located too late for indexing.]

NATIONAL SECURITY INDUSTRIAL ASSOCIA-TION. Proceedings of Project ARISTOTLESymposium, Washington, D.C., December 6-7,1967. Washington, D.C.: The Association, 1968.642 pp.

Proceedings of general sessions and task groupsare entitled: Industry's Proposed Creed; What EducationWants From Government and Industry; The Challenge toARISTOTLE and Future Needs; Project 100,000; MediaWorkshop; Information Storage, Retrieval, and Dissemi-nation; Frontiers of Educational Research; Panorama ofEducational Research; Computers in Education; Com-munications for Education; New Developments inTeaching Marine Technology; New Audio-Visual Devel-opments; New Developments in Trainers and Simulators;New Developments in Educational Facilities; BiomedicalEducation; Systems Approach to Education; Issues andEvaluation of Education; Current Activities in Education

78

Evaluation; Courses, Tasks and Skills; Government/Education/Industry Interface; The World Crisis in Edu-cation; How Can We Meet the Challenges? [Located toolate for indexing.]

THELEN, HERBERT A. Education and the humanquest. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1960. 224pp.

"We know a great deal about the nature of man,knowledge, and society; about the dynamics of learningby individuals; about the factors affecting group perfor-

Ince; about intergroup relations and social action;about community improvement. . . . As judged by whatcould be done if we were to understand and applymodern knowledge to educational problems, all ourschools are obsolescent." Communities need to makeeducation intervene in the processes of interdependencewhich tend to fractionate and dehumanize and toformulate broad policy which is responsive to demandsof human natures, social interdependence, and societalgoals. Instead of allowing education to develop throughincreased bureaucracy, tinkering (distinguished fromexperimentation by absence of any thought-out theory);and experimentation (which occasionally yields goodresults), a fourth approach is needed (discussed inChapter 1) whereby everyone concerned with theenterprise of education is educated. "It would involveteachers studying and formulating the basic discipline ofthe field of knowledge they teach; administrators andcounselors studying the bases for deciding which particu-lar child should be assigned to which teachers; commun-ity agencies studying the over-all range of education-relevant experiences of students in the community andthen trying to decide which kinds of experiences couldbest be supervised in schools, in families, in clubs, and inwork situations." These ideas are further developed insubsequent chapters: (2) Man: What Makes JohnnyTick? (the complexity of human behavior and the taskof education to supervise the natural inquiry into waysof resolving the conflict between our animal and socialnatures in each of its confrontations); (3) Knowledge:The Instinct for the Jugular (information and knowledgeare compared, and the educative part of knowledge as adisciplined approach to life is suggested); (4) Society:The House That Jack Lives In (social context of schoolneed for community awareness of and concern forwelfare and education of youth); (5) Suppositions: FourModels for Education (Model 1Personal Inquiry; Model2Group Investigation; Model 3Reflective Action;Model 4Skill Development); (6) Model 1: PersonalInquiry; (7) Social Order: The Subterranean World ofthe Group; (8) Model 2: Group Investigation; (9) Model3: Reflective Action; (10) Model 4: Skill Development;(11) Do-It-Yourself: The Greatest Project (necessity forjoint action by school and community if improvement isto come). References are listed after each chapter. Thereis an index of names and subjects. (304)

/,11,

TYLER, RALPH W. Distinctive attributes of educationfor the professions. IN Council on Social WorkEducation. A source book of readings on teach-ing in social work; reprints of selected articles(65-58-3). New York: The Council, 1966. 14 pp.

In education for all professions there are com-mon problems, common principles, and common criteriafor guiding emerging programs. The essential character-istics of a profession(1) a professional code of ethics,and (2) techniques of operation based upon principlesrather than rule-of-thumb procedures or routine skillsare discussed, and the major tasks involved in planningand conducting a professional educational program areset forth with specific reference to professional contentin sections entitled: Objectives of Professional Educa-tion; Planning Learning Experiences; Organizing Learn-ing Experiences; and Evaluating Effectiveness of Educa-tional Program. Emphasis throughout is on planning andevaluating in terms of objectives. (Reprinted from SocialWork Journal 33:2, April 1952, pp. 55-62, 94.) (305)

TYLER, RALPH W. Scholarship and education for theprofessions. IN Council on Social Work Educa-tion. A source book of readings on teaching insocial work; reprints of selected articles(65-58-3). New York: The Council, 1966. 11 pp.

This discussion is aimed at throwing light onquestions of intellectual attainment and academic stan-dards in professional education. Topic headings indicatecontent and organization: The Meaning of Education forthe Professions; The Tasks of Professional Education;Professional Schools and Academic DepartmentsSimilarities and Differences; The Concern with Certifica-tion; The Distinction between Graduate and Under-graduate Education; The Aims of Graduate Education:Theory and Practice; The Research Function of Profes-sional Schools. (Reprinted from Education for SocialWork, 1957 Proceedings of the Fifth Annual ProgramMeeting. New York: Council on Social Work Education,1957.) (306)

The unfinished journey; issues in American education.New York: The John Day Company, 1968. 202pp.

This book commemorates 100 years of historyfor the U.S. Office of Education. It contains a Prefaceby President Lyndon B. Johnson, an Introduction byHarold Howe II, U.S. Commissioner of Education, and12 essays: What Price Quality in Education?, by RalphW. Tyler; The National Politics of Education, ACongressman's View, by John Brademas; Education andPoverty, by Walter P. Reuther; The Educability of theChildren of the Poor, by Allison Davis; The Urban

79

School in an Urban Society, Twixt the Upper and theNether, by Sidney P. Marland, Jr.; Can the Schools PutInnovations to Use?, by Robert E. Slaughter; The Thingsof Education, by Harold B. Gores; A Larger Role for theSmall College, by Esther Raushenbush; Does AmericaNeed the Negro Colleges?, by Earl J. McGrath and L.Richard Meeth; From Autonomy to Systems, by JamesA. Perkins; Technology and Education, by Thomas J.Watson, Jr.; Education's Role in International Relations,by Charles Frankel. (307)

U.S. AIR UNIVERSITY. ACADEMIC INSTRUCTORAND ALLIED OFFICER SCHOOL. Readings ineducational theory. Maxwell Air Force Base,Alabama: The University, 1965. 126 pp.

"This book presents four theories of educationwhich have major significance in America today: peren-nialism, essentialism, progressivism, and reconstruction-ism. Each theory presents a program for education. Eachseeks to shape American education through its conceptof the nature of learning and through its view of themain tasks and aims of the educational process. Eachtheory is based on a philosophy of education that is notnecessarily a fully systematized body of thought, butrather a set of deeply-rooted convictions about thenature and aims of education and its place in Americansociety. An attempt has been made to present writingsby outstanding representatives of the major educationaltheories currently being discussed in America. . .. Theirworks, although abridged in some instances, are pre-sented at considerable length to do justice to theirviews" (from the introduction). Selections in each partare: Part I, Philosophy and Educational TheoryWhatCan Philosophy Contribute to Educational Theory?, byCurt J. Ducasse; Part II, PerennialismIntroduction toPerennialism; The Conflict in Education in a DemocraticSociety, by Robert M. Hutchins; Education vs. WesternCivilization, by Walter Lippman; The St. John's Pro-gram: a ReportAnnapolis, Maryland; A Conversationon Education, by Robert M. Hutchins; Part III, Essen-tialismIntroduction to Essentialism; An Essentialist'sPlatform for the Advancement of American Education,by William C. Bagley; A National Standard for Educa-tion, by Vice-Admiral H. G. Rickover, USN; The Casefor Essentialism in Education, by William C. Bagley; PartIV, ProgressivismIntroduction to Progressivism, MyPedagogic Creed, by John Dewey; Experience andEducation, by John Dewey; The Case for Progressivismin Education, by William Heard Kilpatrick; Part V,ReconstructionismIntroduction to Reconstructionism;Philosophies of Education in an Age of Crisis, byTheodore Brameld; Imperatives for a ReconstructedPhilosophy of Education, by Theodore Brameld; PartVI, Education in the Aerospace AgeHigher Educationas an Instrument of National Policy, by Merriam H.Trytten; Education for the Third Revolution, by Glenn

T. Seaborg; A Twenty-First Century Look at HigherEducation, by Alvin C. Eurich. There is a selected,classified, 68-item bibliography. (308)

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, ANDWELFARE. "What's going on in HEW?" TheHEW Forum Papers 1967-1968. Washington:U.S. Govt. Print. Office, 1968.152 pp.

"The HEW Forum lecture series was an attemptto give HEW employees a wider perspective on the workof the Department as a whole by exposing them to theideas and personalities of its leadership. They arepublished here 'to convey to people outside HEW adegree of insight into the range and magnitude of thisHEW effort as well as a measure of the earnestness andvitality that goes into it.' The Forum began and endedwith a Secretary setting forth an overall plan of aims andstrategies. Secretary John W. Gardner . . . launched theseries with a comprehensive view of President Johnson'sdomestic program. He placed it in its historical frame ofreference, identifying key issuescivil rights, poverty,crime control, environmental qualityand discussing thegreat questions of how to adopt existing means toevolving ends. Incoming Secretary Wilbur J. Cohenconcluded the series with an analysis of some of themost challenging domestic problems of the Nation'sunfinished agenda and a description of the way in whichour democratic process produces social progress." Be-tween the Secretaries' lectures there were 3 presenta-tions on health, 2 on education, 3 on social welfare, and3 on ways and means. Lecture topics and speakers were:Health Services: Who's in Charge, by Dr. William H.Stewart, Surgeon General (organization and non-organi-zation of medical facilities in the U.S., and mood ofhealth professions); Has the World Grown Too Small?,by Dr. Phillip R. Lee, Assistant Secretary for Health andScientific Affairs (population explosion and birth con-trol); From Witchcraft and Sorcery to Head-Shrinking-Society's Concern About Mental Health, byDr. Stanley F. Yolles, Director, National Institute ofMental Health (history of care for mentally ill, currentstresses threatening mental health, and evolving pro-grams); Who's Minding the Store?, by Dr. Harold Howe,Commissioner of Education (discussion of formal andinformal groups comprising power structure in teachingand learning in the U.S.); Informal Education: The Rural

80

Precedent and the Urban Challenge, by Paul A. Miller,Assistant Secretary for Education (possibilities foradapting rural extension service type of informal educa-tion to needs of urban poor); RehabilitationAn Act ofFaith, by Mary E. Switzer, Administrator, Social andRehabilitation Service (history of that branch of HEW,triumphs of faith behind the system); National Purposeand the Need for Community, by Lisle C. Carter,Assistant Secretary for Individual and Family Services(growing conflict between traditional national mindsetand current reality, with implications for civil rights);Public Services Under a Government of Laws, byAlanson W. Willcox, General Counsel (new role of theNation's courts in making social services available to allwho are eligible); Federal Funding: Categorical Vs. BlocGrants, by James F. Kelly, Assistant Secretary, Comp-troller (current and projected ways of distributingFederal funds for HEW programs); Sharpening the KnifeThat Cuts the Public Pie: Toward Better Choice-MakingVia PPBS, by William Gorham, Assistant Secretary forPlanning and Evaluation (new techniques of planning,choice-making and evaluation); The Worth of Our Work,by Donald F. Simpson, Assistant Secretary for Adminis-tration (management's contributions to quantity andquality of work done in a big organization). (309)

WHITEHEAD, A. N. The aims of education and otheressays. New York: Macmillan, 1929.247 pp.

"One main idea runs through the various chap-ters and is illustrated in them from many points of view.It can be stated briefly thus: The students are alive, andthe purpose of education is to stimulate and guide theirself-development. It follows as a corollary from thispremise, that the teachers also should be alive with livingthoughts. The whole book is a protest against deadknowledge, that is to say, against inert ideas" (fromauthor's preface). Titles of essays are: (I) The Aims ofEducation; (II) The Rhythm of Education; (III) TheRhythmic Claims of Freedom and Discipline; (IV) Tech-nical Education and Its Relation to Science and Litera-ture; (V) The Place of Classics in Education; (VI) TheMathematical Curriculum; (VII) Universities and TheirFunction; (VIII) The Organization of Thought; (IX) TheAnatomy of Some Scientific Ideas; (X) Space, Time, andRelativity. (310)

V77 1,,,,,,,%ItWri7Pvds251.7.7a7,TVF.,FA"."-.M.77.4777,71Fg

INDEX (by reference numbers)

ABILITY, APTITUDE61, 63, 73, 152, 160, 164, 165, 171, 189, 195

ACHIEVEMENT50-52, 63, 64, 68, 70,73, 74, 78, 79, 81, 88,90,164, 189

ADMINISTRATION53, 70, 73, 82-84, 98, 109, 157, 219, 221, 224,258, 266, 273, 282, 284, 290, 296, 304

ADULT EDUCATION123-133, 239, 245

ADULT LEARNING123-133

AGE123, 128, 130, 133

ANALYSIS10, 16, 22, 32, 36, 40, 50, 53, 182, 195, 198,199, 201, 210, 211, 233, 234, 262, 264

ANXIETY36, 66, 98, 229, 242, 286

ANTHROPOLOGY9, 13, 18, 24, 78, 159

APPRECIATION (LEARNING)150

ARCHITECTURE6

ATTENTION20, 43, 93, 103, 118, 143, 161, 163, 172

81

ATTITUDES8, 12, 26, 27, 29, 30, 34, 68, 70, 128, 152, 174,278, 293

AUDIO RECORDING121

AUDIOVISUAL AIDS101, 110, 111, 117, 119, 121, 152, 186, 188,209, 211, 212, 307

AUDITORY PERCEPTION1, 3, 4, 7, 9, 14, 43

AUTOMATION110, 112, 152, 163, 181

BEHAVIOR CHANGE (INDIVIDUAL)19, 22, 30, 36, 38-40,53, 117, 156,184, 224

BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES17, 18, 24-27, 33, 36

BIBLIOGRAPHIES1, 3, 4, 12.14, 16-19, 24, 28-31, 35, 37-41, 43,44, 46-50, 52, 55, 56, 58, 59, 66, 68-70, 73, 76,77, 79, 86, 95, 96, 100-102, 107, 110, 117, 118,120, 123, 126, 127, 131, 132, 134, 137,141-144, 148, 149, 151, 152, 154, 156, 158,161, 168, 173, 174, 183, 184, 186, 187, 191,195, 200, 201, 209, 215, 220, 222, 224, 225,227, 233, 236, 241, 243, 245, 248, 250, 251,255-257, 259, 261-263, 265, 268, 270, 273-2751278, 285-288, 293, 294, 296, 298, 299, 302,304, 308

BRAINSTORMING TECHNIQUE236

11 6'3

BUSINESS AND INDUSTRIAL TRAINING COMPUTERS2, 8, 25, 53, 64, 81-83, 92, 106, 131, 171, 183, 32, 112, 119, 167, 183, 201, 211, 212195, 202, 204, 205, 213, 224, 245, 281, 294,300

CONCEPT FORMATION46, 134, 137, 139, 141, 142, 148, 149, 152, 167,

BUZZ GROUP TECHNIQUE 180, 182, 195, 242236

CONDITIONED RESPONSECASE RECORDS 19, 22, 26, 30, 36, 102, 134, 136, 137, 139,

221, 268, 290 141-145, 148, 149, 151,153, 173, 174, 184

CASE STUDY (INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNIQUE) CONFERENCE METHOD157, 214, 290 236, 243, 245

CHAINING (SEQUENTIAL LEARNING) CONFLICT139, 148, 168, 186, 195 16, 17, 20, 29, 42, 45, 50, 56, 66, 68, 73, 115,

157, 215, 217, 221, 226, 231, 232, 251, 252,257, 272, 277, 278, 281, 293, 304, 308

CHANGE PROCESS-INDIVIDUALS, GROUPS, OR-GANIZATIONS CONSULTATION16, 17, 19, 22, 30, 34, 36, 38-42, 53, 63, 70, 82, 17, 279117, 130, 156, 184, 202, 224, 246, 250,275-280, 284, 286, 287, 290, 292, 297

CONTIGUOUS CONDITIONING141, 143, 144, 158

CLASS (INSTRUCTIONAL METHOD)157, 237, 257, 267,274 CONTINGENCY MANAGEMENT

71

CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM, TAXONOMY140, 149, 263

COGNITIVE ORGANIZER TECHNIQUE154, 155

COGNITIVE STRUCTURE146, 154, 155, 158

CONVENTIONS101

CORRESPONDENCE STUDY (INSTRUCTIONALMETHOD)132

COUNSELINGCOMMITTEE HEARING TECHNIQUE 197, 224, 304

236

COMMUNICATION (THOUGHT TRANSFER) COURSE DESIGN1, 7-9, 18, 20-24, 26, 32, 43, 83, 93-122, 138, 99174, 220, 229, 238, 243, 246, 248, 254, 259,268, 269, 271, 278, 279, 286, 291, 292

COMMUNITY CREATIVITY23,41, 255, 273,297, 304 21, 30, 267

82

CULTURAL ENVIRONMENT18, 21, 23, 26, 29,34-36,41,92, 110, 111,115,119,159,238, 275, 286, 290

CURRICULUM119, 301

CYBERNETICS22, 24, 32, 112, 114, 120, 204

DECISION MAKING24, 58, 152, 201, 208, 209, 226, 232, 239,243-246, 248, 257, 266, 269, 270, 272, 278,281, 288, 292, 293, 309

DESIGN1, 3, 5, 7, 11, 12, 14, 15, 36, 201, 284, 292

DETERMINING TRAINING NEEDS213

DIALOGUE104, 107, 236

DISCOVERY LEARNING154, 180, 195

DISCRIMINATION LEARNING44,137, 139, 142, 143, 145, 152, 153, 165, 168173, 195

DISPLAY1, 3, 7, 9

ECONOMICS12, 24, 27, 29, 36, 63, 70, 78, 213, 307

EDUCATION24, 36, 59, 98, 119, 134, 138, 157, 159, 183,195, 197, 199, 200, 206, 209, 212, 224, 245,250, 257, 268, 273, 280, 301-310

EMOTION, FEELINGS20, 21, 28, 36, 42, 44, 56, 69, 77, 86, 97, 115,116, 118, 126, 137, 157, 214, 218, 228, 261,262, 265, 275

83

ENVIRONMENT (GENERAL)3-6, 8, 9, 20, 26.28, 33, 36, 54, 55, 58, 63, 70,81, 84, 110, 111, 152, 157, 224, 246, 248, 267

EQUIPMENT1, 3, 7, 9, 11-14, 152, 201

EVALUATION6, 10, 11, 14, 29, 99, 151, 183, 184, 200, 201,236, 239, 245, 257, 259, 268, 269, 273, 288,291, 299, 305, 309

EVALUATION DEVICES187, 233, 236, 240, 259, 262, 264, 276

EXHIBITS101, 121

EXTENSION EDUCATION132, 308

FACILITIES6, 70, 121, 199

FEEDBACK (KNOWLEDGE OF RESULTS)11,60, 89, 147, 158, 195, 239, 240

FILMS-MOTION PICTURE19, 64, 86, 99, 119, 121, 186, 188

FILMSTRIPS, FILM SLIDES121

FLIPSHEETS121

GAME THEORY24, 208, 268

GESTALT THEORY143, 151

GLOSSARIES, TERMINOLOGY14, 20, 24, 30, 39, 45, 1 : 144, 148, 195, 198,243, 257, 281

GOALS, GOAL-SETTING17, 60, 68, 73, 81-84, 138, 182, 183, 185, 195,200, 205, 236, 239, 245, 246, 255, 257-259,265, 271, 273, 281.284, 288, 291-296, 303-305,308, 310

GROUP COHESIVENESS174, 230, 234, 238, 241, 256, 259

HIERARCHICAL LEARNING MODEL139, 141, 154, 155, 164, 166

HIERARCHICAL MOTIVATION MODEL55,77,85,88,90

HISTORY24, 27

GROUP CONSENSUS214, 215, 217, 228, 241, 251, 269 HUDDLE GROUP TECHNIQUE

236

GROUP DISCUSSION97, 236, 240, 242, 260

GROUP DYNAMICS AND PROCESS17, 18, 23, 29, 98, 150, 174, 224, 228, 232, 236,239, 241, 243, 245, 248, 252-258, 262-264, 267,273-275, 281

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT18, 30, 37, 123, 152, 156, 159, 174, 216, 224,229

HUMAN FACTORS ENGINEERING1-15, 201, 213, 289

GROUP INSTRUCTION HUMAN MEASUREMENTS157, 181, 186, 236, 242, 257, 304 3, 13, 14

GROUP SIZE241, 248, 257, 271

HUMAN RELATIONS18, 20, 21, 23, 26, 29, 30, 35, 56,58, 63,70, 74,81, 85, 86, 98, 152, 157, 214-300

GROUP STRUCTURE29, 157, 174, 214, 217, 218, 221-224, 226, 228, ILLUMINATION230, 238, 241, 246-248, 251-253, 275, 292 1,3,4,6,9

GROUPING FOR INSTRUCTION245, 257

GROUPS (GENERAL)17, 18, 23, 29, 30, 36, 38, 41, 58, 97, 98, 150,157, 174, 181, 186, 214, 217, 218, 221-224,226, 228, 230, 232-275, 278, 281, 290, 292,300, 304

HEALTH AND MEDICAL FIELDS19, 26, 30, 36, 40, 41, 59, 70, 77, 86, .87, 99,101, 115, 157, 218, 219, 224, 226, 229, 231,242, 268, 280, 292, 295, 297, 299, 302

IMITATION39, 156

INCIDENTAL LEARNING149, 176

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES20, 26, 33, 43, 128, 138, 160, 161, 193

INDIVIDUAL INSTRUCTION181, 186, 303, 304

HIDDEN AGENDA (GROUPS) INFORMATION PROCESSING232, 239, 268 9, 58,112, 143, 167, 209

84

INFORMATION THEORY24, 97, 114

INQUIRY TRAINING146

INTERVIEW TECHNIQUE70, 236

JOB PERFORMANCE AIDS201

INSIGHT150

INSTITUTE METHOD236

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN53, 99, 128, 147, 152, 164, 177-195, 200, 202,

KNOWLEDGE20, 135, 304

LABORATORY METHOD OF SENSITIVITY TRAIN-ING250, 273, 280, 281, 298

LANGUAGE204, 206, 211-213, 305 20, 38, 47, 94, 95, 97, 114-116, 118, 120, 134,

135, 138, 159, 174, 183, 203

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS CENTERS (LEARN-ING RESOURCE CENTERS) LAW99, 119, 212 24, 36, 120

INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS AND TECHNIQUES LAW OF EFFECT (LEARNING)(GENERAL) 151131, 138, 152, 154, 213, 236,301

LEADERSHIPINSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY 8, 16, 63, 118, 214, 215, 218, 228, 230, 236,

119,143, 161,163, 177, 188,307 239, 240, 241, 243, 245, 246, 248, 251-253,255, 257-260, 262, 267, 270, 273, 275, 280,282, 287, 289, 292, 294, 298

INSTRUCTOR (TEACHER, TRAINER)-ROLE ANDFUNCTIONS104, 119, 126, 131, 135, 138, 150, 181, 184,209, 237, 242, 245, 274, 298

INSTRUCTOR (TEACHER, TRAINER)-TRAINING99, 119, 273

INTELLIGENCE18, 20, 21, 35, 77, 128, 161, 164, 189, 244

INTERACTION PROCESS ANALYSIS214, 218, 228, 233, 234, 240, 248, 251, 252,254, 262, 264, 269, 276

INTERFERENCE (LEARNING)89, 153

85

LEARNING6, 11, 14, 18-21, 26, 28, 30, 37, 43-47, 49, 55,56, 77, 102, 119, 120, 125, 126, 128-131,133-195, 200, 215, 237, 244, 250, 274, 283,284, 286, 304, 308

LEARNING CURVES142

LEARNING MOTIVATION56, 62, 134, 136, 148, 152, 153, 163, 195

LEARNING READINESS44, 47, 163, 164, 166

LECTURE TECHNIQUE236

LINGUISTICS OBJECTIVES20, 24, 38, 47, 94, 95, 97, 112, 159 82, 138, 182, 183, 185, 195, 200, 236, 271, 305

LISTENING OBSERVATION43, 96, 105,113 138, 233, 236, 240, 251, 262, 264, 276

MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT, MANAGEMENT OPERANT CONDITIONINGEDUCATION 19, 22, 36, 141-143, 148, 149, 153, 168, 169,8, 25, 202, 205, 224, 281, 294, 300, 303 173, 184, 190

MANUALS119

MASS MEDIA26, 30, 40, 97, 110, 116, 119, 150

MEANINGFULNESS21, 59, 70, 82, 105, 154, 155, 158, 159, 175,267

MEETINGS-METHODS AND TECHNIQUES273

MENTAL HEALTH19, 23, 68, 70, 77, 97, 115, 157, 218, 229,309

MILITARY TRAINING2, 11, 13, 14, 89, 172, 186, 187, 189, 245, 303

MODELS (THEORETICAL)17, 23, 30, 73, 100, 119, 143, 167, 203, 208,209, 211, 217, 243, 250, 252, 276, 304

MOTIVATION8, 18, 20, 26, 29, 36, 37, 41, 44, 50-92, 100,117, 123, 126, 128, 131, 134-137, 141, 148,152, 153, 157, 163, 172, 174, 184, 195, 200,224, 241, 255, 278, 284, 293

MULTIMEDIA INSTRUCTION99, 212

NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION115, 118

86

ORAL COMMUNICATION1, 7, 9, 32, 97, 106, 110, 118, 122, 220

ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE63, 73, 82, 85, 275, 294

ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY8, 70, 100, 221, 222, 224, 278, 286, 296

ORGANIZATIONS23, 26, 41, 63, 64, 70, 73, 75,95, 100,117, 118,122, 201, 202, 207, 210, 221, 222, 224, 226,246, 258, 271, 275-300

OVERHEAD AND OPAQUE PROJECTION121

PANEL TECHNIQUE236

PARTICIPATION, INVOLVEMENT29, 70, 85, 103, 132, 147, 185, 220, 236, 243,245, 259, 270, 273, 293, 294

PERCEPTION1, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9, 14, 18, 20, 22, 26, 28, 29, 33, 37,41, 43-49, 52, 55, 77, 98, 100, 103, 105, 115,119, 126, 128, 133, 134, 150, 152, 161, 293

PERCEPTUAL -MOTOR LEARNING119, 137, 148, 149, 160, 161, 171, 186, 187

PERCEPTUAL SET44, 47

PERFORMANCE2, 8, 10, 20, 37, 56, 61, 68, 70, 73, 84, 133, 153,160, 171, 180, 201, 224, 243, 244, 248, 281,291, 294

PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL8, 84, 281, 294

PERSONALITY18, 20, 23, 28, 29, 32, 35, 77, 88, 97, 116, 118,141, 156, 174, 219, 221, 222, 248, 277

PERT (PROGRAM EVALUATION AND REVIEWTECHNIQUE)268

PHILOSOPHY30, 59, 63, 69, 82, 300-310

PHOTOGRAPHY121

PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT3-6, 9, 26, 28, 33, 55, 63, 70, 81, 84, 110

PLANNING16, 17, 32, 42, 73, 289, 293, 303, 309

POLITICAL SCIENCE24, 27, 104, 307

POST-GRADUATE EDUCATION101

POWER AND POWER STRUCTURE52, 74, 174, 218, 226, 243, 258, 281, 282, 284,287, 289, 295

PPBS (PLANNING PROGRAMMING BUDGETINGSYSTEMS)309

PRACTICE45, 147, 151, 154, 158, 172, 180, 195

87

PRINCIPLE LEARNING (HIERARCHY THEORY)139, 141

PROBABILITY LEARNING149

PROBLEM SOLVING21, 32, 133, 139, 142, 149, 152, 158, 159, 161,162, 165, 169, 174, 180, 190, 224, 234, 245,251, 253, 254, 260, 266-269, 276, 281, 292, 293

PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION25, 39, 101, 242, 302, 303, 305, 306

PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION (THEORY, PRO-CESS, PRODUCTS, USE)20, 33, 89, 116, 119, 121, 134, 150, 154, 164,173, 177-195, 198, 208

PSYCHIATRISTS218, 219, 242

PSYCHOLOGISTS218

PSYCHOLOGY (GENERAL)18, 20, 21, 23, 24, 32, 35, 37, 62, 114, 181, 201

PUBLIC SERVICE, GOVERNMENT TRAINING80, 183, 303

PUNISHMENT36, 39, 45, 47, 66, 89

QUESTIONNAIRES224, 228

RATIONALIZATION (DEFENSE MECHANISM)35

READING101, 108, 110, 159, 183

RECITATION (INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNIQUE)138

RECREATIONAL ACTIVITIES236

REINFORCEMENT19, 39, 53, 56, 71, 89, 134, 137, 141, 144, 152,156, 158, 163, 168, 173, 195

RELIGION30, 36, 59, 104, 245

RESEARCH4, 5, 8, 9, 14, 17, 22, 26, 27, 30, 37, 41, 51, 52,54, 56, 61, 63, 65, 66, 72, 79, 87, 91, 99, 102,106, 108, 112, 116, 117, 120, 126, 131, 133,134, 140, 142, 143, 148, 152, 154, 156, 166,172, 174, 175, 177-179, 183-186, 191, 192-194,202, 206, 214, 215, 217-221, 224, 227, 228,230, 241, 243, 247-250, 254, 257-259, 261, 263,266, 270, 274, 276, 277, 279, 285, 286, 292,298, 306

RETENTION AND FORGETTING20, 32, 33, 43, 103, 112, 131, 133, 134, 137,140, 142, 143, 148, 149, 152, 154, 155, 158,167, 170, 172

REVIEW195

REWARD45,63, 66, 67, 80, 82, 84, 89, 148, 158, 278

ROLE-PLAYING TECHNIQUE220, 236, 260

ROLE THEORY26, 29, 31, 36, 41, 55, 63, 81, 118, 214-231,239, 240, 243, 245, 248, 253, 255, 257, 258,259, 261, 271, 272, 275, 278, 282, 287

ROTE LEARNING142, 149, 154, 155, 158, 182

SELECTIVE PERCEPTION43,44, 47, 118

88

SELF-EVALUATION16, 38, 118, 257, 259

SEMANTICS95, 105, 108, 114, 116

SEMINAR METHOD245

SENSORY DEPRIVATION28, 52, 56, 66

SEQUENCING (INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN)164, 185, 186, 195, 301

SIGNAL LEARNING19, 36, 137, 139, 141-143, 149, 151, 173

SIMULATION9, 11, 13, 32, 131, 161, 201, 212, 292

SKILLS11, 43, 105, 113, 133, 134, 137, 142, 148, 149,160, 291, 304

SOCIAL CHANGE41, 111, 224, 255, 280, 297, 309

SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT4, 6, 20, 26, 27, 33, 36, 54, 55, 58, 63, 70, 81,84, 110, 152, 157, 224, 246, 248, 267

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY18, 20, 29, 31, 32, 36, 38, 77, 88, 125, 156,157, 214-231, 243, 271, 296

SOCIAL SYSTEMS17, 23, 27, 29, 214-218, 221, 223, 226, 249,264, 265, 288

SOCIAL WORKERS39, 218, 225, 226

SOCIALIZATION21, 26, 29, 35, 39, 40, 142, 150, 156,159, 215,216, 229, 299

SOCIOLOGY18, 20, 23, 24, 26, 159, 265, 271, 296

SOCIOMETRY236

SONIC ENVIRONMENT3,4,6,9,43

STIMULUS-RESPONSE ASSOCIATIONS7, 19, 22, 36, 137, 139, 141-143, 148, 149, 153,163, 169, 173,184, 185, 190, 195

STRESS VARIABLES2, 13, 56, 66, 115, 221, 234, 245, 261, 269, 283,287

STRUCTURE (SUBJECT FIELD)35, 146, 200

STUDENT ROLE237

STUDENT-TEACHER RELATIONSHIP86, 157, 184, 209, 237, 242

STUDY GROUP METHOD245

SUPERVISION, SUPERVISORS8, 61,70,81, 278, 290

SY] 1POSIUM TECHNIQUE236

SYSTEMS APPROACH1, 9, 10, 13, 15, 17, 23, 24, 27, 29, 30, 36, 53,73, 99, 105, 112, 117, 122, 183, 194, 196-218,221, 223, 226, 249, 264, 265, 279, 282-284,287, 288, 292, 296, 297, 307

SYSTEMS THEORY23, 203

TACTUAL PERCEPTION7, 14

89

TASK ANALYSIS195, 201

TASK EXERCISE244

TEACHING MACHINES33, 89, 116, 121, 163, 177, 179, 181,183, 184,186, 187, 194

TEAM TRAINING201

TELEVISED INSTRUCTION99, 121

THERAPY19, 30, 36, 77, 86, 98, 173, 224, 250, 257, 268,274

THERMAL ENVIRONMENT3, 4, 6, 9

THOUGHT PROCESSES20, 28, 33, 36, 46, 77, 97, 113, 137, 138, 150,151, 159, 162, 164, 293

TOLERANCE (SOCIAL LEARNING)150

TRAINER (INSTRUCTIONAL DEVICE)11

TRAINING8, 11, 14, 17, 37,53, 60, 62, 65,74, 89, 92, 106,113, 119, 121, 131, 157, 160, 181, 201, 204,205, 207, 213, 224, 245, 273, 279, 296, 300,303, 304

TRANSFER OF TRAINING11, 131, 137, 140, 147, 148, 152-154, 163, 165,173, 180, 185, 200, 237

TUTORING (INSTRUCTIONAL METHOD)181

UNIVERSITY EDUCATION AND TRAINING67, 132, 157, 303, 305-308, 310

VOLUNTARY ASSOCIATIONS (GROUPS, ORGANI-ZATIONS

VALUES, VALUE INQUIRY

246, 257

17, 23, 24, 26, 27, 32, 34, 68, 77, 78, 238, 242,257, 265, 271, 278-280, 293

WORK ENVIRONMENTVERBAL LEARNING 8, 9, 63, 70

26,102, 137, 139, 149, 152, 154, 155,158, 159,161, 174,175,181, 183,185, 186

VISUAL PERCEPTION1, 3, 4, 7, 9, 14, 43-45, 49

WORKSHOP METHOD236, 245, 257

Clearinghouse

9gon Admit Edukation

90

ERIC Clearinghouse

SEP2 0 1969

on Adnit Education

* U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1969 0-334-245