THE KNOWLEDGE

PYRAMIDCONSTRUCTION PROJECT

First published in 2012 by Orpheus Books Ltd.,6 Church Green, Witney, Oxfordshire, OX28 4AW, England

www.orpheusbooks.com

Copyright ©2012 Orpheus Books Ltd.

Created and produced by Nicholas Harris, Sarah Hartley,Katie Sexton, Ruth Symons and Erica Williams, Orpheus Books Ltd.

Text Nicholas Harris

Illustrated by Peter Dennis (Ancient Egypt map by Gary Hincks)

Consultant Dr Neal Spencer, Assistant Curator, Department ofAncient Egypt and Sudan, The British Museum

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored ina retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means,electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise,without the prior written permission of the copyright owner.

ISBN 978 1 7418 3789 2

Printed and bound in Singapore

THE KNOWLEDGE

PYRAMIDCONSTRUCTION PROJECT

Contents Introduction1. Ancient Egypt 6

The people of Egypt 9Farming 10Fishing and hunting 11The pharaoh 12Gods and goddesses 14Scribes and writing 16The story of pyramids 18The great pyramids 20

2. Building plans 22Interiors 24

3. Workforce and materials 25Stones 26Tools 28

4. Construction 29Levelling the base 30Building the tomb 32Fitting the blocks 33Building up 34The capstone 35Smoothing the sides 36Finishing touches 37The pyramid complete 38The funeral of a pharaoh 40

5.The Afterlife 41Mummies 42Opening of the Mouth Ceremony 44Keeping the life force alive 45

Glossary 46

Index 48

IT IS 24 CENTURIES before the birth of Christ. The pharaoh, theKing of Egypt, has hired you to design and build a new pyramidwhich will serve as a burial place for him and his wives. You are to

use the latest techniques to erect a structure that is strong enough tostand for the rest of time. It must also be perfect in shape—accurate towithin a few centimetres—perfectly aligned to the points of thecompass, and generally an extremely impressive monument to a proudman regarded by his subjects as a god. How do you set about this task?

First, you should steep yourself in the history and culture of your nativeland, Egypt. An understanding of the Afterlife and religious beliefs is anessential part of this research. Next, you must study the history ofpyramids so you are familiar with up-to-date construction techniques.Thirdly, carry out a review of the tools, machines and the workforce youare going to need. You must also find out about where your basicbuilding material, stone, is going to be quarried, and what the variousdifferent types are to be used for. Finally, you are ready to tackle thebuilding works step by step, ensuring that all the features of the pyramidare completed to the necessary specification.

AncientEgypt

ME

DI

TE

RR

AN

EA

NS

EA

NI

LE

DE

LT

A

LO

WE

R

EG

YP

T

n WE

ST

ER

N

DE

SE

RT

SI

NA

I

RE

DS

EA

EA

ST

ER

N

DE

SE

RT

UP

PE

R

EG

YP

T

Buba

stis

Helio

polis

LA

KE

MO

ER

IS

FA

IY

UM

NILE

NILE

Abyd

os

Theb

es

AN

CIEN

TEG

YPT

isa

long

,nar

row

,Y-

shap

edla

ndbo

rder

ing

the

Rive

rNile

inno

rthe

aste

rnAf

rica.

Asth

eN

ilesn

akes

itsw

ayno

rthw

ards

from

the

high

land

sof

East

Afric

ato

the

Med

iterr

anea

nSe

a,it

cuts

ava

lley

thro

ugh

the

Saha

raDe

sert

,bef

ore

fann

ing

outi

nto

anu

mbe

rof

smal

lerc

hann

els

atits

mou

th,t

heDe

lta.F

orfo

urm

onth

sof

the

year

,the

river

swel

lsan

dflo

ods,

crea

ting

afe

rtile

plai

nfo

rag

ricul

ture

.Iti

sth

isna

tura

leve

ntth

atal

low

edth

egr

eatE

gypt

ian

civi

lizat

ion

toflo

urish

.

Karn

ak

Ni

le

Va

ll

ey

TURA

H

We

st

er

n

De

se

rt

THE

PYRA

MID

SO

FEG

YPT

MEI

DU

MSn

efer

u

LISH

TSc

ale

05

km

D A H S H U R

SA

QQ

A

RA

MEM

PHIS

R i ve r

N i l e

ABU

SIR

GIZ

A

Khaf

re

Khuf

u

n

Djos

er

Snef

eru

(Red

)

Snef

eru

(Ben

t)

!Ab

ove

the

Nile

valle

yto

the

wes

tlie

sthe

plat

eau

ofth

eW

este

rnDe

sert

,par

toft

heSa

hara

Dese

rt.T

hepy

ram

idso

fanc

ient

Egyp

tw

ere

built

onth

eed

geof

the

plat

eau,

just

atth

epo

intw

here

itslo

pesd

own

tom

eett

helu

shlo

wla

ndso

fthe

Nile

flood

plai

n.Th

epy

ram

idsw

ere

sited

with

ina

few

kilo

met

reso

fth

ero

yalc

apita

l,M

emph

is.

AREA

OF

INSE

T:TH

EPY

RAM

IDS

OF

EGYP

T

MEM

PHIS

Area

ofm

ain

map

show

nin

red

Nile

SA

HA

RA

DE

SE

RT

AF

RIC

A

6 7

Men

kaur

e

The people of Egypt Egyptian lawAll the ancient Egyptianpeople, whatever theirsocial ranking, wereviewed as equal underthe law. Even thelowliest peasant couldappeal to the Vizier ifhe felt he was thevictim of an injustice.Everyone had the rightto defend themselvesfrom accusations beforea court.

In ancient Egypt, social rank is extremely important.A person’s position in society is closely linked to thework he does. The pharaoh is, of course, at the pinnacle

of Egyptian society: he is supreme being, supreme priest andsupreme military commander (1). Beneath him is his Vizier.His job, which he carries out with the help of other ministers,is to supervise building projects, including irrigation works,collect taxes and administer justice. The other highest-ranking Egyptians are high priests and priestesses and armygenerals (2). Government officials, scribes (people who couldwrite — a tiny proportion of the population), architects,engineers, doctors, soldiers and othermembers of the priesthood form thenext rank down (3). Below them arecraftworkers, artists, dancers,musicians, and professionalmourners (4). The vastmajority of the populationform the lowest tier ofEgyptian society: thepeasants who workin the fields (5).

1

2

3

4

5

River Nile

Desert

Desert

Farmland

Village

9

" Ancient Egyptiansociety is arranged invarious levels — quitesimilar to the shape of apyramid. At the top area tiny group of nobles,while peasants formmuch the largest groupat the bottom. Theyworked the land but didnot own it. Instead ofpaying taxes, they gavetheir labour to work onconstruction projects,

such as diggingirrigation channels

— or buildingpyramids.

" Flanked by desert,the Nile valley is a lush,fertile, level land,excellent for cultivationand stock-rearing.Villages are sited justabove the plain, toavoid the annualflooding. The river itselfis vital for travellingfrom place to place andfor transporting goodsin bulk by boat. Thewaters also offerplentiful fishing and ahabitat for game.

Rising abruptly from the lushvalley floor on either side ofthe Nile are the edges of thedesert: a barren, landscape ofsand and rock stretching offinto the far distance.

1. Ancient Egypt

WERE IT NOT for the River Nile, Egypt, a landwhere it very rarely rains, would be a parched,empty desert. Each summer, rains further

upstream cause the Nile to burst its banks, laying down afresh layer of rich, fertile earth across the floodplain onboth sides. To the people who live near the banks of theriver, this miraculous event allows them to grow their cropsand raise their animals.

Since about 5000 BC, farming villages began to appear and,with such a bountiful food supply, the people prospered.Towns and cities were founded, some people became skilledcraftworkers and the great civilization of Egypt began. About3100 BC, the strip of land extending from the mouths of theNile southwards for several hundred kilometres came underthe rule of single king, whose title was pharaoh.

The waters of the Nile are rich with fish, so the river isconstantly crowded with small fishing boats. Theseboats are mostly roughly constructed from bundles

of reeds strapped tightly together. Fishermen trap largenumbers of fish at a time by slinging a net between theirboats (above). Fish can also be caught by casting hand-heldnets, or simply by spearing them in the shallows.

About 150 kilometres from the sea, the Niledivides into seven main channels andhundreds of smaller ones which fanout across the lowlands. Thistriangular area of land resemblesthe shape of the Greek letter“delta”, so the region is known asthe Nile Delta. The waters of theDelta are rich with wildlife andprovide good hunting and fishing.A common plant found in the Deltamarshlands is a tall reed calledpapyrus. Its stalks have many uses,including making mats, everydayutensils, boats and “paper” forwriting on (see page 16).

Fishing and hunting

Threshing floor

Harvesting

Winnowing

" Catching wild birds isa real skill. Hunters usecurved sticks to stun thebirds in mid-flight witha careful aim andpowerful throw.

" The waters of theNile Delta are hometo crocodiles andhippopotamuses. Thesedangerous animals arethe favoured target ofthe most daringsportsmen. Riskingtheir own lives, thehunters harpoon the

animals, then dragthem ashore

with ropesand nets.

11

The Nile floods between July and October,spreading tons of mud and silt across its floodplain.A network of irrigation channels that farmers have

dug in the ground spread the floodwaters of the Nile acrossthe fields of the valley. As soon as the floods retreat inOctober, farmers use their ploughs to turn the mud into thesoil before sowing their seeds. The Egyptians call thefloodplain the kemet, the black land, after the dark colour ofits fertile soil.

The main cereal crops are emmer, a kind of wheat, used formaking bread, and barley, for making beer. Farmers also growlentils, chickpeas, fruit and vegetables. Flax, used forclothing, sails, rope and oil, is also an important crop. Besidescrops, the people also keep cattle, sheep, goats and geese.

" Between March andJune, the cereal crop isready to harvest.Farmworkers cut off theears (which contain thegrain) using sickles,leaving the lower stalksto be pulled up later.The ears are carried inbaskets to circularthreshing floors wherecattle trample over thecrop to separate thegrain from the stalks.Now the workerswinnow the grain,tossing it into the air sothat the pieces of chaff,the husks, are blownaway. The grain is thentaken away for storageor grinding into flour.

Farming

To the Egyptians, their king is more than just a ruler:he is like a god, descended from Re, the sun god. Theybelieve that the spirit of the falcon god Horus entered

the king at his coronation. When the king dies, his spirit uniteswith the god Osiris and Horus’s spirit passes to the next king.

The king is too awesome a figure to bereferred to by name. Instead, Egyptiansspeak of him as “the Great House”, inEgyptian peraa, which is the origin ofthe word “pharaoh”. The king’s full titleis nsw-bjt (pronounced “Nesubit”),which means literally “he of the sedgeand the bee”, but more formally, Kingof Upper and Lower Egypt. The sedge isthe symbol for Upper Egypt, the bee forthe Lower. He wears the Double Crown,wich shows his authority to rule thetwo lands. The uraeus cobra on the rimof the crown represents the eye of Re,placed to protect him from his enemies.

13

The pharaoh has absolute power, but he must alsorely on his ministers to help him govern Egypt. Hismost important official is his Vizier, his “prime

minister”. As god-king, the pharaoh is the chief priest ofevery god in Egypt. All offerings to the gods are made in hisname. The pharaoh is entrusted by the gods with keepingorder in the land. Called ma’at, the principle of justice andmercy is one even the pharaoh himself is obliged to respect.He is also responsible for ensuring that offerings are madeto the gods so that they will continue to bless Egypt withfloods, and thus provide the harvest on which all his peopledepend for their livelihoods.

The Heb Sed (“The Festival of the Tail”) takes place after thepharaoh has reigned for 30 years. He must perform physicalactivities, such as this ceremonial run in the courtyard of thestepped pyramid at Saqqara, to prove he is still physically fitenough to rule Egypt.

! The White Crown(Hedjet) was worn inUpper Egypt, in the south.The Red Crown (Deshret)was worn in Lower Egypt,around the Nile Delta.

ThePharaoh

! The pharaoh wearsthe Double Crown(Pschent) combiningthe White Crown ofUpper Egypt and theRed Crown of LowerEgypt. The Pschent isa symbol of theunited Egypt.

FlailCrook

" The royal regalia aresymbols of the pharaoh’skingship. The mostimportant are the crookand flail. The crook wasused by shepherds and sosymbolized the pharaoh’sduty of protecting hispeople. The pharaoh’scrook was gold-platedand reinforced with bluecopper bands. The flail, awhip, symbolized thepharaoh’s power topunish his enemies.

the firstpharaoh

Historical records tell usthat a king namedMenes unified Egypt.But it is likely that healso went by the nameof Narmer. A decoratedstone slab, called theNarmer Palette, recordsthis king’s victory overLower Egypt in about3100 BC.

! It is two years sincethe new pharaoh tookthe throne. Now, withhis queen sitting besidehim, he instructs hisarchitect to start workon designing a tombfor him.

12

Gods and goddesses

! Ptah is the god ofartists, architects andcraftsmen. He was alsothe god of the Egyptiancapital city, Memphis.

! Osiris, god of the deadand symbol of eternal life.He rules the underworldwhere the souls of thedead are judged.

! Seth is god ofdeserts, storms, evil,darkness, war — andtrouble in general.

According to ancient Egyptian myths, the world beganwith dark waters of chaos, called Nun. One day, amound rose out of these waters. The mound was

called ben-ben. On it stood Atum, the first god. Atumcoughed and spat out Shu, the god of the air, and Tefnut, thegoddess of moisture. Shu and Tefnut had two children: Geb,

the god of the earth and Nut,the goddess of the sky. Nutstretched from one horizonto the other, touching theground with only herfingertips and toes. Nut andGeb had four children: Osiris,Isis, Seth and Nephthys.

Osiris took his father’s place as king of the earth and Isis washis queen. Osiris ruled fairly and justly over the earth formany years. However, Seth was jealous of Osiris because hewanted to be the ruler of the earth. One day he killed Osiris.

Osiris went down into the underworld andSeth became king of the earth. Osiris and Isishad one son called Horus. Isis protected herson by hiding him in the reeds of the Nileuntil he grew old enough to avenge hisfather’s death. Horus battled against Seth andregained the throne to become king of theearth. Every pharaoh, the Egyptians believed,had the spirit of Horus inside him. When hedied, he went to the underworld, the Afterlife,where he was joined with the spirit of Osiris.

The ancient Egyptians worship hundreds of gods andgoddesses. As religious beliefs changed over thecenturies, some old gods became less popular, became

merged with others, or disappeared altogether.In time, some new gods appeared. Many gods and goddessesare associated with different animals, and areshown in paintings or sculptures with animalheads. Most gods are gods of specific things(for example, Nut, is goddess of the sky) or anactivity (Khnum, god of making pots). Some,however, represent ideas or qualities (Ma’at,the goddess of truth and justice).

One of the most important godsis Re (sometimes called Ra), thegod of the sun. In Egyptianmyths, he is shown making ajourney across the sky each dayin his boat. He has a falcon’shead, and carries the sun’s disc, the wadjet, abovehis head (below).

Nut

Geb

14 15

! Amun was originallygod of air and wind.He later became theking of the gods andfather of the pharaohs.

! Isis is goddess ofwomen, mothers andchildren.

! Anubis is god of thedead, mummies andembalming. He guidesthe dead through theunderworld. He isoften shown with thehead of a jackal.

! Horus is thegod of the sky.His spirit entersthe livingpharaoh.

! Bastet isgoddess ofthe powerof sun toripen crops.

" Ma’at is the goddess oftruth and justice.

! Hathor is thegoddess of love,music, beautyand joy.

A (ah)vulture

A (ar)forearm

Bfoot

Fhorned viper

DJ (as in“church”)

tethering rope

CH (as inGerman “ich”)animal’s belly

Dhand

Gjar stand

Htwisted flax

Ireed

Jsnake

KH (as in“loch”)jar lid

Kbasket

Hreed shelter

Mowl

Nwater

Nred crown

Qhill slope

Pmat

Rmouth

SHpool

Tloaf of bread

W or OOquail chick

ANKHsandal strap

Ytwo reeds

S or Zdoor bolt

WAlassoo

NEBbasket

RAsun

KHASThill

KHPRdung beetle

MNgame board

SHApool withflowers

HTPaltar

Sfolded cloth

Scribes and writing

! Scribes write onpapyrus, or, when lessexpensive material can beused, on wooden tabletsor ostraca. They use blackor red ink, stored as dryblocks on palettes andmoistened for use. Pensare made of reeds.

The ancient Egyptian language is written in two ways.Hieroglyphic script is used for writing on monumentsand tomb walls. The Egyptians use a simplified

version, called hieratic, for everyday writing.

" Words are made upfrom a combination ofsounds. Sometimes asign is added to confirmwhat the word means.

NEFER“good”

DJESEM“dog”

Hieroglyphs are pictures of people, animals andobjects, but most of them also represent asound. There are more than 700 of them.

The chart shows the hieroglyphs that represent the simplersounds — like the letters of an alphabet. Included are afew of the many that stand for part of a word (e.g. wa orkhpr). The hieroglyphic script does not include true vowels,although some do sound quite close to “a”, “i” or “o”.

The characters used in hieratic script (below) resemblehieroglyphs. Written in ink with a reed brush on papyrus,the script allows scribes to write more quickly.

Hieroglyphs

Hieratic

16 17

Written records are vital to the way Egypt is governed, so fora person to take any important job it is necessary for them totrain as a scribe. All high-ranking government officials,priests, army generals, and the pharaoh himself, know how toread and write. Pupils start learning at the age offive. Nearly all are boys and girls from wealthyfamilies, the only ones that can affordeducation for their children. They learn the

hieratic script; only afew will go on to studythe more complicated hieroglyphicscript. They write using in ink with areed brush and practise on ostraca:flakes of stone or pieces of oldpottery (above).

PAPYRUSPapyrus reeds, whichgrow along the Nile, canbe used to make a kindof paper. The skin of itsstalks is stripped away,leaving the pith (1). Thisis cut into strips andsoaked (2). The strips arelaid on top of eachanother (3) and pressedtogether using weights.

1

2

3

!

MUT“mother”

! When PharaohSneferu came to thethrone in 2575 BC, hedecided to build apyramid. In fact, hebuilt three. His first atMeidum was originallya step pyramid like

Imhotep’s. He laterdecided to fill in

the steps to makeit smooth-

sided.

The story ofthe pyramids

! Imhotep, thearchitect of the StepPyramid, was Djoser’sChancellor and HighPriest. He laterbecame famous as anastronomer and doctorHe was even be seen asa god: the son of Ptah,god of Memphis. Original mastaba

An early burial pit

Six-step pyramid

18 19

Centuries before the first pharaohs, rulers were buriedin pits in the ground, covered by small mounds ofsand and gravel. Their bodies were accompanied by

figurines (miniature statues), pots and weapons. Over theyears, rulers’ graves became moreelaborate. They resembledundergroundapartments, dividedinto separate pits or“rooms” with mudbrick walls (right).

With the emergence of the first pharaohs, even granderburial places were needed. Called mastabas (below), theywere flat-roofed, rectangular structures with painted “niched”walls. Inside the mastaba, there were chambers forstoring burial goods and provisions, chapels and aburial chamber.

The first pyramid was built for Pharaoh Djoser,designed for him by an architect called Imhotep.The building was completed during the pharaoh’s19-year reign, 2630-2611 BC.

On a site in Saqqara, on the desert plateauoverlooking the royal capital at Memphis, Imhotepbuilt a huge enclosure surrounded by a stone wall,

10.4 m high and 1645 m long. Within the walls was a vastcomplex of pavilions, terraces and courtyards. Towering overthem, rising to height of 60 m, was the Step Pyramid.

The Step Pyramid was built in stages, beginning with a simplesquare mastaba. Workers built a central core made ofroughly-shaped stones with a fine limestone casing. Thenthey added sloping upright layers to the core, each layerleaning inwards. The stones they used were bigger and ofbetter quality than in the core. Underneath, the builders

carved out a network of shafts, tunnels, chambers,galleries and storerooms, totalling 5.7 km in

length.

A mastaba

! Early graves weremarked on the surfaceby stone slabs.

STEPPYRAMID

Pharaoh Djoser

This is a cross-section throughthe Step Pyramid. The differentshades indicate the six differentstages of its construction. Theoriginal mastaba was enlargedtwice before a four-steppyramid was built above it,and the final six-steppyramid added to that.

Burialchamber

sneferuPharaoh Sneferu wasthe greatest pyramidbuilder ever. He was thefirst to build smooth-sided pyramids. He alsointroduced the internaldesign in which a longdescendingpassage ranfrom thenorth faceentrancedown to theburialchamber.

MEIDUMPYRAMID

The central shaft of the steppyramid, 7 m square, was dug28 m down into the bedrock.Below it lay the granite-walledburial chamber.

Four-step pyramid

Descendingstairway

Central shaft!

!

Meanwhile, Sneferu commanded thebuilding of another pyramid at Dahshur.The method of construction in the early

stages was the same as before, but this time, the buildersran into structural problems. So, about halfway up,workers started laying the stones horizontally, and therest of the pyramid was built with a gentler slope. Theresult is the “Bent Pyramid”. Perhaps dissatisfiedwith its imperfection, Sneferu commandedyet another pyramid to beconstructed. With a gentler slopeplanned from the outset, the“Red Pyramid” wassuccessfully completedwithout mishap.

Causeway

Passagewaysand chamber

Satellitepyramid

Pyramidcourt

MENKAURE’SPYRAMID

BENT PYRAMID

GREATPYRAMIDOF KHUFU

Causeway

Causeway

Causeway

Mastabas ofroyal family

Sphinx

Valleytemple

Sphinx temple

Mortuarytemple

Burialchamber

Burialchamber

Mortuarytemple

Boat pit

Boatpit

King’sChamber

Grand Gallery

“Queen’sChamber”

SubterraneanChamber

Satellitepyramid

Queens’pyramids

Queens’pyramids

" Khafre, Khufu’ssecond reigning son

The great pyramids

20

khufuSneferu’s son, Khufu(below), chose the desertabove Giza as the site forhis pyramid. It was to bethe most ambitiousconstruction project yet.Containing about2,300,000 blocks andstanding 147 m tall, it

would remainthe talleststructure inthe worldfor nearly4500 years.

Mortuarytemple

Work commenced on the GreatPyramid, as it came to be called,soon after Khufu ascended to the

throne in 2551 BC. It consisted of casing and corestones laid horizontally. Inside the pyramid werethree chambers, together with several passageways. The King’sChamber was reached via the Grand Gallery and three graniteportcullis sliding slabs. Five more slabs bore the weight of thepyramid above the King’s Chamber.

Two other massive pyramids were built at Giza, almostperfectly aligned along a diagonal. The pyramid of Khafre(2520-2494 BC), Khufu’s second reigning son, is a littlesmaller than his father’s, but was built on higher ground.

The pyramid of Menkaure (2490-2472 BC),Khufu’s grandson, was much smaller

— just 66 m high.KHAFRE’SPYRAMID

! Funeral boats weredismantled and buriedin pits near thepyramids.

21

Valleytemple

Capstone orPyramidion

Queens’pyramids

Satellitepyramid

Opencourtyard

Causeway

Pyramid court

Entrancechapel

Pyramid

PLAN VIEW

Scale

100 20 30 metres

River Nile (inflood)

Valley templeQuay

N

SIDE ELEVATION

Pyramid

Enclosure wall

Enclosure wall

Mortuarytemple

Mortuarytemple

Boat pit

Boat pit

22 23

HERE ARE the scale drawings you will need forbuilding the pyramid. Be careful to follow theplans exactly: supreme accuracy is a requirement

the pharaoh has laid down.

The pyramid must be exactly square and aligned with eachface pointing directly towards north, south, east and west.The angle of slope must be exactly the same for each face,with the pyramid’s peak lying precisely above the exact mid-point of the square that forms its base. The pyramid is tostand for all time, so its stones must be fitted with great care.

Its interior will be made up of horizontalstone layers with outer casing blocks ofsuperior-quality Turah limestone.

All pyramids of this period, known as the5th Dynasty (2465-2323 BC), have the samebasic layout. Built against the eastern faceof the pyramid is the mortuary temple. Aminiature satellite pyramid, where thepharaoh’s ka (see page 41) is entombed, isbuilt next to the temple. Surrounding the

complex is an enclosure wall. A long causeway links the maincomplex on the high plateau down to the valley temple, whichlies on the banks of the Nile, or a channel connecting theriver. Outside the complex are the queens’ pyramids and pitsfor the burial of funerary boats.

2. Building Plans

! This is what thepyramid will look likeon completion inabout 20 years fromnow. The pyramid itselfmeasures 110 cubits(or 57.75 metres)square and 82 cubits(45 metres) high.It has a slope of 56˚.The mortuary temple,causeway and valleytemple are built fromlesser-grade limestone.

The pyramidof khufu

The Great Pyramid ofKhufu is the mostexactly aligned of allthe Egyptian pyramids.It deviates from truenorth on average by atiny fraction of onedegree: 3 minutes and6 seconds (less than onefifteenth of one degree).

These plans show the internallayout of the pyramidcomplex’s buildings. The

burial chamber (1) is carved out ofbedrock beneath the pyramid at theend of a long passageway (2). Thispoints north, towards the stars thatrevolve around the Pole Star as seenfrom Earth. The mortuary temple, thedead pharaoh’s “eternal palace”,consists of a front hall (3) leading toan open courtyard with columns (4).Beyond a corridor running crosswaysthrough the temple (5), there is aninner sanctuary, which includes astatue chamber (6) and an offeringhall (7). At the face of the pyramid,there is a false door. Leading offto the sides of these halls aremagazines (8), stores of provisionsfor the Afterlife.

From the mortuary temple, acauseway, a long enclosed corridor, leads down to the valleytemple. A ramp leads up from a narrow jetty on the Nile to awide esplanade at thefront of the temple.Behind that is anelaborate portico(entrance hall) withcolumns, inner chambersand magazines.

" This is a view of thevalley temple as it willlook when completed.The mortuary temple,causeway and valleytemple are all to builtfrom lesser-gradelimestone than thepyramid itself.

Interiors

Satellitepyramid

Mortuarytemple

Pyramid

1

2

4

3

8

5

7

6

Portico

Inner chambers

Valley templeCauseway

Causeway

Ramp

Esplanade

Enclosure wall

Pyramidcourt

Entrancechapel

3. Workforceand materials

VAST QUANTITIES of stone, a huge workforce ofthousands of men and effective tools will beneeded to build the pyramid. While it is hoped

that the pharaoh will live for many years, you should planfor completion well ahead of the fateful time when itbecomes a tomb. A large proportion of the workforce arepeasants, conscripted from villages the length of the land.Teams of 25,000 will be drafted in to serve three months’work on the site, before they are replaced by another team.

Around 4000 men work at quarrying, cutting, hauling andsetting the stones themselves. Many more will be needed as“support” workers. A large crew will be employed just to buildthe ramps. Also required are: carpenters to make tools, sledsand the tracks set in the ramps; metalworkers to make andrepair chisels; potters to make pots for carrying water; a teamof water-carriers. Scribes, surveyors, masons, sculptors andoverseers are among the higher-ranking employees that must

be hired. Cooks, bakers, butchers and brewerswill be needed to provide food and

drink, while a medical teammust be on hand to

deal with injuriesand illnesses.

GangsFrom graffiti found atMenkaure’s Pyramid atGiza, it is known thatone gang of workerscalled themselves the“Friends of Menkaure”while another, rivalgang, went by thename “Drunkards ofMenkaure”.

Cutting a channel usinga dolerite stone

Carpenter sawing

The conscript workers taken on tocut, haul and set the stones are madeup of crews numbering 2000 men,divided into two gangs of 1000 men.Each is then organized into teams of20-25 men. With one of their numberas foreman, they haul the stones andset them in place.

24 25

!

While one workerdrives wooden wedgesinto trenches in the rockwith a mallet, anotherworker soaks them withwater. In some instances— for example, whenworking with harder rocksuch as granite — it maybe necessary to cut widerchannels in the rock togive more room forlevers to detach thestones from the bedrock.

T he pyramidsare built fromblocks of

limestone. With noiron tools available,the blocks must becut from the bedrockusing woodenwedges and levers.First, a workman cutsa narrow trench inthe stone using an axe. Wedges are then driven in along thetrench with a heavy mallet. The wedges are soaked withwater. As the wood swells, the stone cracks. The quarryworkers then use ropes and heavy timber levers to free theblock. Each block weighs around three tonnes, so a number ofmen are needed to complete this task. Using a copper chisel,

the blocks are marked individuallyfor identification. They are

then dragged by ropes onto wooden sleds ready

to be taken to thepyramid buildingsite.

Most stones are quarried out of the rock near thesite. But a fine white limestone, used for thepolished casing, comes from Turah, a quarry

on the opposite bank of the Nile. Granite slabs, also usedin building the pyramids, are quarried at Aswan, some900 kilometres farther upriver. The best limestone at Turah

is obtained from tunnels duginto the face of the cliffs.

The blocks are draggedto the river’s edge.To prevent them fromsinking into the sand,tracks made fromparallel wooden boardsembedded in the ground

are laid and the blocksdragged along them. Each stone is

marked with the name of the work gang that hauled them;that name will be checked off at the site. Finally, the blocksare loaded aboard barges to take them across the Nile to thepyramid building site.

" The casing blocksare stored at Turahuntil the time of theannual Nile flood.At this time, most ofthe distance betweenquarry and site canbe travelled by river,making transportationof the heavy stonesmuch easier. The Nile inflood is, however, fast-flowing and dangerousand great skill isneeded to steer theheavily-laden bargesacross its waters.

Stones

Wooden wedgesbeing hammeredinto a trench

Levering a blockaway from the bedrock

Barge

Reed boat River Nilein flood

Quayside atTurah

Oarsmen

Marking stonefor identification

Soakingthewedges

26

limestoneJust to cover the outersurface of the GreatPyramid of Khufu,67,390 cubic metres ofTurah limestone wereneeded.

graniteGranite is used for walllinings and roofingblocks, pluggingpassages, columns,false doors, sarcophagiand pyramidions.It can only beworked using hand-held pounders made ofdolerite, a hard stone.

!

Measuring tools arevital if the incredibleaccuracy needed to buildthe pyramids is to beachieved. A set squaremeasures right angles.The plumb bob is used toachieve exact verticals.The square level, anA-shaped wooden framewith legs of equal length,is used for measuringhorizontal surfaces. Whenthe plum bob of a squarelevel aligns with a mark atthe centre of its cross-piece, the surface onwhich it is standing isexactly horizontal.

Tools

The tools available to the workforce are made fromcopper, wood, rope and a hard stone called dolerite.Handles for tools, mallets, measuring instruments,

levers, sleds and wedges are all made of wood. Limestone,the type of rock most used in the construction of thepyramid, is quite a soft rock and can beeasily shaped or cut open by copperchisels, saws, axes or wedges. Butcopper blades are too soft to cutthrough very hard rocks such asgranite or basalt. By making anabrasive paste from water, gypsum(an ingredient of plaster) and quartzparticles (the very hard particles foundin granite) and applying it to the bladegives the saw a much more powerfulcutting action (above, right).

! The shaping of stonesis done by copper chiselshammered by heavywooden mallets.

! In a bow drill, a cord iswrapped around thecentral spindle which hasa copper drill bit attachedto it. Rotating the bowwinds up the cord tightly.Releasing it causes thespindle to spin rapidly,powering the drill.

Set square

Square level

Plumbbob

THE PYRAMID must be built to the west ofthe Nile, in the place where the sun sets:the Land of the Dead. But there are other

factors to consider when choosing a site. It must,for example, lie above theNile’s valley floor (to avoidflooding), but not too far

from the river, since someheavy stone blocks will be

arriving by boat. Secondly, it should be visible from thepharaoh’s palace in Memphis, the Egyptian capital. Finally,the site must also be reasonably level and have a solidbedrock that has no underlying geological weakness. Aposition on the high desert plateau between Giza in thenorth and Meidum in the south, overlooking the Nile, isthe perfect spot.

Next, the pyramid has tobe aligned so that its sidesface exactly north, south,east and west. Observingthe stars can help withthis. Because all the starsappear to revolve aroundthe Pole Star, lyingdirectly in the north, byplotting the passage ofany particular star acrossthe sky, and using somesimple geometry, truenorth can be pinpointed.

4. ConstructionSiting the pyramid

29

! The enclosure wherethe priest stands tolocate true north is acircular wall located atthe centre of thechosen site. The wall isbuilt high enough toblock out the view ofany surrounding hills.By making the top ofthe wall absolutelylevel, a perfect horizonis created.

The priest stands inthe enclosure and notesthe position of a starjust as it rises abovethe wall. Later thatsame night he notesthe position where thesame star drops belowthe wall. The mid-pointbetween the twopositions points directlydue north.

!

!

" The first level ofstone slabs is being laid.Workers chip at thebedrock so that the nextlevel of slabs can be laidexactly horizontally ontop of the first.

Levelling the base

The pharaoh himself mayperform the foundationceremony. Together with apriestess dressed as thegoddess Seshet, they driveposts into the ground atthe four corners of wherethe pyramid will stand.

" How do you make theground perfectly flat?One way might be to usewater. Cut a series oftrenches and flood themwith water. Mark theheight of the water levelon the trench sides anddrain the water away. Fillin the trenches with stoneand carve out the groundin between, both to theheight of the marks.

It is important to ensure that the first layer of slabs hasan exactly horizontal upper surface. The accuracy ofthis can be checked by using boning rods. Rods of the

same length are driven into the ground around the edges —already levelled — and linked by taut cords. The verticaldistance between the cords and the surface of the slabsbeneath should be the same. The outer rows should use thefine-quality Turah limestone (see page 26).

Using a combination of set squares and careful geometry,each of the all-important corner slabs should be positionedto form precise right angles. The other slabs are thenlevered carefully into place alongside one another. Regularchecks must be made to ensure that the foundationplatform forms an exact square.

It would not be possible for each face of the pyramid tomeet exactly at a point at the top if its measurementswere not precisely accurate. So if the pyramid is not

constructed on a level base, its corners are not at exact rightangles, its sides are not precisely the same width at the baseand the angle of slope is not the same for all four faces, youwill run into trouble later on! Such precision requiresingenuity and careful use of tools.

Firstly, workers clear the site of sand and rubble. It may bepossible to leave an area of unlevelled bedrock to form thecore of the pyramid itself, provided the ground around it ismade perfectly flat.If it is too tricky to get

water up to the plateau,the workers can insteaduse a square level (seeTools). Resting a bar setat an exact horizontal ontwo stakes of equallength, they look along toa third stake andcalculate by how muchthe land needs to becarved out or raised up tomake it exactly level.

Boning rod

Boningrod

Using set square

Taut cord

Corner slab

Architect

Levellingbedrock

30 31

PrecisionBesides its almost exactalignment with thecompass points, theGreat Pyramid of Khufuis amazingly accurate inother ways. Its base islevel to within 2.1 cmand the greatestdifference in the lengthof its sides is just 4.4 cm(each side measures230.33 metres).

!

!

While the ground is beinglevelled, workers can make astart on the burial chamber and

the underground passage that will lead to it.Using their dolerite pounders, they smashtheir way through the bedrock to open up agradually descending shaft. Men with chiselsfollow behind them, evening out the wallsbefore finally smoothing their surfaces.

Meanwhile, a large hole is dug in the bedrockfrom above. This will form the burial chamber. A few metres below ground level,the passageway levels out and runs horizontally until it meets the chamber.The sarcophagus is too big to be hauled along the passageway, so it must be carefully

lowered into the chamber before the roof is put intoposition. Two rows of graniteslabs are now fitted togetherto form a peaked shape(below). As the next levels ofstone slabs are added to thepyramid base, the roof of theburial chamber will begradually covered over.

Building the tomb

Fitting the blocks

Stonemasons toil inthe shade, chippingaway at the individualstones. Each block iscarefully chiselled intoshape and marked witha number to indicateits position in thepyramid structure.

The area lying within the outer rim of casing stones isfilled with blocks of lesser-quality stone quarriedlocally. But these, too, must be carefully chiselled so

that their upper and lower surfaces are exactly horizontal.Now the blocks that will form the next layer are hauled to thesite. The teams of workers drag the sleds, each with a blockfirmly attached, along a “railway” made of wooden boardsembedded in the ground and coated with mud. Keeping thetrack constantly wet helps the sled to be dragged along muchmore easily. A ramp, built from close-packed rubble, allows theteams to haul blocks up to the higher level.

Using squarelevel

Sled

Making thetrack wet

Ramp with“railway”

! This is a cross-sectionthrough the pyramid as itwill look when complete.The entrance is at groundlevel. The positioning ofthe blocks that make upthe roof of the burialchamber form a peakedshape. This is designed tosupport the enormousweight of pyramid blocksabove it.

! The sarcophagus isthe outer stone coffininto which thewooden coffin is to belaid. This one is carvedfrom pink granite.

The roof of the burialchamber

" Once the casingstone has beenbrought up to itsallotted place, theside that willeventually form partof the sloping outerface of the pyramid iscarefully marked withlines. These show theexact slope of theface. The stone is thenlevered snugly intoposition next to itsneighbour.

32

!

!

The haulage team dragthe sleds carrying thestone blocks on to thenext level of the pyramid.The workers ease eachblock off its sled and on towooden logs. They thenroll the block intoposition, using heavywooden posts as levers.

! The capstone may becarved from limestone,like the other blocks, orgranite, a harder rock.Its base is given aconcave shape: bulgingoutwards. The uppersurface of the stoneplatform on which it isto be placed is carved toa matching concaveshape. This ensures asnug, secure fit.

Building up

As the pyramid is built up higher and higher, theramp used by the hauling teams must be built upwith it. The ramp spirals up on all four sides,

obscuring much of the outer faces of the pyramid.

Care must be taken to ensure that each level of stones isstill exactly level, and that the angle of slope is preciselymaintained. As with the stones on the lower courses, the

slope is marked into the individual casingstones before they are put into

position. As an extraprecaution, the

surveyors shoulduse plumblines toensure the facesare rising at thecorrect angle.

" This is an aerial view ofthe pyramid approachingits full height. The spiralramp, with two risingbranches meeting at onecorner, is built fromrubble piled against thepyramid and held in placeby an outer wall.

The capstone

The layers of stone blocks have nearly reached the top.The challenge of keeping the angle of slopeconsistently the same and the dimensions of the

faces exactly even becomes harder and harder — as does thephysical task of raising and manoeuvring the blocks intoposition. If, despite all your checks for accuracy, the faceshave obviously risen slightly out of line, it may necessary atthis stage to adjust the positions of the stones. Using higher-quality stone for all the blocks at this higher level will giveyour masons more control in shaping the stones to improvetheir fit.

Soon the flat area at the top will measure just a few metreson each side. It is time to place the very highest block, thecapstone — also known as the pyramidion, since it is itselfshaped like a miniature pyramid. After a ceremony, thecapstone is hauled up and levered into place by workersstanding on scaffolding.

" After the capstonehas been secured inplace. workers cover itwith a coating of gold.

Spiral ramp

bottomheavy

As the pyramid rises,each level can be addedmore quickly. This isbecause in a solidpyramid, about 70% ofits total mass forms thelower third of thestructure, and 25% itsmiddle third. So just 5%of the stones used in itsconstruction need beraised above the two-thirds mark.

!

Smoothing the sides

With the capstone in place, the rough structureof the pyramid is now complete. Each of itsfaces is made up of a number of steps and work

must now begin to shave away the edges of these steps toproduce the smooth-sided pyramid.

Workers start to dismantle the ramps from the topdownwards. After 10 metres or so of rubble has beenremoved, scaffolding is erected and the chiselmen get towork. They chip away at the casing stones down to the slopelines (see page 33). As they work their way down the sides,others take over above them, using finer chisels to achieve aperfectly smooth face. They are followed in turn by men

using stones and abrasive powder to grind and polish thesurface of the casing stones.This produces a shiny white,gleaming finish. The process isrepeated all the way down tothe bottom.

Finishing touches

A tight fitThe casing stones of theGreat Pyramid of Khufuwere fitted so perfectly itis impossible even to geta knife blade betweenthem. Over the years,most of the casing stoneshave been removed foruse in other buildings.Some of the casing stoneis left at the top ofKhafre’s Pyramid.

Polishingthe stones

Chisellingthe stones

Chippingthe stonesdown tothe slopeline

Ramp

37

The tops of thetemple columns arecarved by skilledmasons to representlotus buds, papyrusreeds or palm leaves.They will later bepainted. As the rubbleis removed, the masonswork their way downthe columns.

While the pyramid is being completed, workbegins on the temples and causeway.As the walls go up, a ramp of rubble is built

up inside them, allowing the various stone blocks to behauled up into position, in exactly the same way as thepyramid was built. When the walls and roof are complete,masons use the rubble as a platform for carving finedetails at the tops of the columns (above).

The pharaoh will need boats to carry him to the heavensin the Afterlife to be buried close by his pyramid. Theworkers dig two long, boat-shaped pits in the ground,place the parts of a funeral boat carefully inside each oneand lay a series of limestone beams to cover them over.

" Several statuescarved in the likenessof the pharaoh arecompleted by sculptorsand placed in both themortuary and valleytemples.

Boat kitA boat pit at the GreatPyramid of Khufucontained 1224 separateparts, each made ofcedarwood. They formeda kit from which a realboat could be made.The parts included holesso that the boat couldbe stitched togetherwith cords made ofvegetable fibres.

!

The pyramid complete

The pyramid complex is now complete. Thisillustration shows the interior of the mortuarytemple, the causeway and the pyramid itself.

The mortuary temple is built against the eastern face of thepyramid. Here, daily rituals are to be carried out by priests,who make offerings to the pharaoh’s spiritfor eternity. Connected to the causewayby a door, the entrance hall of themortuary temple leads to anopen courtyard with granitepillars and decoratedwalls. Beyond that lies theinner sanctuary, ending in afalse door to the pyramid. Thesmaller satellite pyramid outsidethe enclosure wall, has aburial chamber for thepharaoh’s ka.

Enclosure wall

Three alcoves Burial chamberwith sarcophagus

Antechamber

Graniteslabs

Corridor chamber

Innersanctuary

Pyramidcourt

Courtyard

Entrancehall

Causeway

False door

ShrinesMORTUARY TEMPLE

Entrance chapel

East face

North face

Capstone orPyramidion

Queens’pyramids

38 39

The tomb itself lies below ground level at thecentre of the pyramid. From the smallentrance chapel in the north face, a passage

slopes down to a corridor chamber. This connectsto a horizontal passage, sealed by three granite

slabs. Beyond the slabs, the passage opensinto the antechamber. This lies directly

beneath the peak of the pyramid,high above it. To the left (east) is

a room with three alcoves. Tothe right (west) is the

burial chamber itself.

" Lying outside theenclosure wall are boatpits, mastaba cemeteries,where the pharaoh’srelatives and officials areburied (not shown here)and the Queens’ pyramids.These are where thepharaoh’s mother andqueen are entombed.

The sarcophagus lies at the far end of theburial chamber. The walls are covered with carved

and painted heiroglyphs, known as the Pyramid Texts: theyare spells to protect the dead pharaoh against dangerousthreats in the Afterlife. The ceiling is painted to representthe night sky: deep blue with golden stars.

Satellitepyramid

On the death of the pharaoh, the plans for his funeral areput into action. His body arrives by boat and is takeninside the valley temple where it is prepared for burial.This process will take 70 days to complete. The coffin isthen mounted on a sledge, which is pulled by oxen up thecauseway. It is accompanied by a procession of priests,mourners and men bearing the goods and treasures thatwill be buried with him. After rituals have taken placeinside the mortuary temple (see page 44), priests carry thecoffin down the passageway beneath the pyramid to thetomb. After one final ceremony, the coffin is loweredcarefully into the sarcophagus. The priests then leave thetomb. Granite slabs are lowered behind them, sealing offthe tomb, the priests hope, forever.

The pharaoh’s life work,the building of thepyramid where his

own body will one day beentombed, is complete.Now, years later, that dayhas come. The pharaoh hasdied and the pyramid isabout to fulfill itsgrand purpose.

The funeral of a pharaoh 5. The Afterlife

The god Anubisbalances a person’s heartagainst the feather ofma’at, truth. If he lived agood life, the heartwould be light and hewould pass to theAfterlife. If the heart washeavy with sin, it wouldbe devoured by thecrocodile-headed Ammut.

40 41

! The pharaoh’s coffinis taken by a barge onits short journey fromthe royal palace inMemphis along the Nileto his pyramid. His kastatue, the ChiefEmbalmer, priests,mourners (known asKites), and othermembers of his familytravel with him. As theboats sail along theriver, the Lector Priestreads from a scroll of“magical utterances”.The barge bearing thepharaoh’s coffin docksat the pyramid harbour.

! The akh, the spirit, isshown as a crested ibis.The pharaoh, with his kaand ba reunited, wouldtake his position as astar in the night sky, as ashining spirit.

! The ba, someone’spersonality, is shown bya bird with a humanhead. The pharaoh’s bais his great power.

! The ka, the life force,is represented byupraised arms. Thepharaoh is thought ofas the ka of his people.

THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS believe in the Afterlife,a place where they would go to when they died.This is the kingdom of Osiris, god of the dead.

To be reborn in the Afterlife requires much preparation,in particular, finding a way to protect their dead bodies insome way. The wealthy can afford to have a tomb built andtheir body preserved. The less well-off are simply buried inpits in the sand. All Egyptians, however, agree on thenecessity to ensure that their king, the pharaoh, completesa successful journey to the Afterlife. To them, the verysurvival of their land depends on it.

To the ancient Egyptians, a person’s soul is made up of twoimportant parts, known as the ka and the ba. The ka is aperson’s essential “life force” which needs food and drink tosurvive. On death, it departs the body. The ba can bedescribed as a person’s “personality”. The ba must seek out theka, for if a person is to be reborn in the Afterlife, the twoparts of their soul must be reunited. If they do so, a thirdstate of being is achieved: the akh, a “spirit”. But for the ka toperform its crucial role, the body must not be allowed todecay: hence the vital importance of mummification.

The soul

!

Great care is takenby the embalmers topreserve the naturalappearance of the bodyas much as possible.

For the pharaoh to be reborn in the Afterlife, his bodymust be must not be allowed to rot away. The wayto avoid this is by embalming or mummifying it.

The process takes 70 days. First of all, the team of embalmersremove the brain, pulling it carefully out through thenostrils using an iron hook. Then the embalmers make a cutin the side of the body and take out the liver, lungs, stomachand intestines. The body is dried out in a salt called natron.This takes 35-40 days. After being washed, resin-soakedlinen and fragrant spices are packed inside the body.The embalmers then treat the outside of the body with resin.

T he body is nowwrapped inlayers of linen

bandages. Fingers, toes,arms and legs arewrapped separatelybefore being boundtogether. The bandagesare soaked in resin sothat the body holds itsshape. They are alsocovered with oils and perfumes. Charms — jewels andamulets — are placed between the layers of bandages. Theseare to help protect the pharaoh in the Afterlife. Finally, amask is placed over the mummy’s head, a ritual undertakenby the chief embalmer who wears the jackal mask of theembalming god Anubis. He says prayers over the completedmummy. Now it is ready to be placed in a wooden coffin.

After the organshave been removedfrom the pharaoh’sbody, they are coveredin natron to dry themout, then treated inresin and placed incanopic jars. Each has adifferent container inthe form of one of thefour sons of the godHorus. Hapy, a baboon(1) protects the lungs;Qebehsenuef, a falcon(2) the intestines;Duamutef, a jackal (3)the stomach; (4) Imsety,a human (4) the liver.

Mummies

Treatingskin withnatron

Removingorgans Body slit

open

Chief embalmerin jackalmask

Mummy wrappedin bandages

34

KING TUTTutankhamun, whoselikeness we know fromthis gold mask found onhis mummy, is called theBoy King.

Why“mummy”?

The word “mummy”comes from the arabicmumiya, meaning pitchor bitumen. Over time,the resins, oils andperfumes used to soakthe bandages becameblack and sticky,resembling pitch.

His mummy bandagescontained 150 jewelsand amulets (below).Each had its own specialplace on the body. Thevulture amulets placedon the neck wereexclusive to kings alone.

pharaoh’sheart

During embalming, thepharaoh’s heart was theone organ to be leftinside his body. This isbecause it would beneeded for the godAnubis to weigh itagainst the feather ofma’at as part of thejudgement process.

1 2

42 43

!!

Opening of themouth ceremony

ben-benThe pyramids themselvesmay have been designedto represent the ben-ben, the mound thatappeared out of chaosfrom which the firstgods created the world.In fact, the ben-ben mayitself have been a symbolfor rays of the sunbursting through theclouds. So building thepyramids may have beenthe Egyptians’ way ofensuring that thecreation would nevercome to an end — thattheir great civilizationwould live forever.

Keeping the life force alive

Mourners

Mummy

Priestdressedas Anubis

Adze

Priest

44 45

Ceremonies will continue at the pyramid for centuriesto come, to keep the pharaoh’s life force, his ka,forever “alive”. Every day, priests will lead a

procession to the mortuary temple of the pyramid. Here theywill make offerings of food and drink before the royalstatues and at the false door. Some priests will offer loavesof bread, bowls of wine, milk or water, and various fruits andvegetables on an altar in front of the stela (gravestone).Others offer meat and bowls of blood from slaughtered bulls.

The pharaoh’smummified body isplaced inside awooden coffin, one ofseveral, each placedinside the other andeach with ornate lids.After having beencarried to the burialchamber, the outercoffin is then loweredcarefully into thesarcophagus and a lidlaid on top of it.

! The ankh is a kind ofcross. It is the ancientEgyptian symbol forthe “key of eternal life”.The ankh appearsfrequently in tombpaintings and templereliefs, often being heldby gods and goddesses.They are shown makingthe gift of life topharaoh, meaning thathe will live on in theAfterlife.

The mortuarytemple of thepyramid

Ceremony and ritual are important features of apharaoh’s funeral. The Opening of the Mouthceremony takes place after the mummification

process has been completed. While one priest, dressed asthe jackal-headed god Anubis, holds the mummy upright,another priest holds out an adze, a kind of hand tool.He touches the hands, feet, eyes, ears, nose and mouth.By so doing, the priest enables the dead pharaoh to breathe,eat and speak in the Afterlife. Then the pharaoh’s mummifiedbody is taken to its final resting place in the burial chamberbelow his pyramid. Buried alongside him are food, drink andother necessities he will need in the Afterlife.

The giftof life

!

!

Adze A tool with a blade set at right anglesto the handle. A ceremonial adze was usedin the “opening of the mouth”

Afterlife Life after death.

Akh To the ancient Egyptians, the soul of adead person that has been reborn in theAfterlife. The word means “shining spirit”.

Amulet An object intended to bring goodluck and protection to its owner. Thesewere usually made from precious stonesand metals, such as gold or silver.

Architect Someone who designs buildings.

Ba An ancient Egyptian word for someone’spersonality. The ba had the ability to eat,drink and travel in the Afterlife. But itcould not function

Canopic jar A decorated container in whichthe organs removed from a dead body werestored before mummification took place.

Capstone The pyramid-shaped stone at thevery top of the pyramid.

Casing stones The outer layer of apyramid, usually made from fine limestone.The casing stones were smoothed, polishedand painted.

Causeway The covered way that led from apyramid’s valley temple to another templenext to the pyramid itself. The inside wallswere often highly decorated.

Civilization A people who have developedlaws, trade, arts, monuments and otheraspects of a settled way of life.

Conscripts People who are forced to workby the authorities.

Crook A shepherd’s curved staff, which wasa symbol of a pharaoh’s kingship.

Demotic The normal, everyday writing usedby the Egyptians in the later years of theircivilization.

Dolerite A hard, volcanic rock.

Dynasty A series of rulers in the samefamily who keep power for generations.

Embalm To preserve a dead body fromdecay.

Flail A farming tool, and a symbol of apharaoh’s kingship.

Glossary

46 47

Opening of the Mouth A ceremony takingplace just before a mummy was placed inits coffin. Its purpose was to give back tothe dead pharaoh the ability to breathe,speak and eat in the Afterlife.

Pharaoh Another name for the kings ofancient Egypt.

Plumb bob A heavy weight hung on astring to show an exactly vertical line.

Portico An entrance hall with columns.

Pyramid A massive stepped or pointedstructure containing a pharaoh’s tomb.

Pyramidion Another word for capstone.

Regalia Objects possessed by a ruler thatshow off his authority.

Resin A sticky substance that comes fromthe sap of trees and is used for embalming.

Sarcophagus The outer stone coffin inwhich a wooden coffin was laid.

Stela A slab or stone with inscriptionscarved on it.

Tomb A burial place

Vizier An advisor to the pharaoh.

Flax A plant withblue flowers, used tomake cloth. The fibresfrom its stem are spunto make linen, whichcan then be woven.

Hieratic The normal, everyday form ofwriting used by ancient Egyptians.

Hieroglyphs A form of writing, using signsresembling pictures, on walls andmonuments.

Incense A material that gives off fragrantfumes when burnt. It is used on ceremonialoccasions.

Irrigation The channelling of water to helpwith the growing of crops in dry areas.

Ka To the ancient Egyptians, a person’s lifeforce or “double”. When kept alive by foodofferings, it ensured a person would bereborn into the Afterlife.

Magazines Storage rooms.

Mummification The process ofembalming—and so preserving—a body, byremoving the organs, drying it out, thenwrapping it in linen bandages. The word“mummy” comes from the Arabic wordmumiya, meaning pitch. A mummifiedbody’s blackened appearance resembledthe colour of pitch.

Next World The place a person’s soul wentafter death.

IndexAAAfterlife 16, 18-19, 30akh 20, 30altar 21Anubis 18Arabs 25architect 8, 28, 30Aswan 10

BBba 20, 30“Battle of the Pyramids” 27Bent Pyramid 28Bonaparte, Napoleon 26-27burial chamber 19, 22

CCCairo 26capstone 14, 30casing stones 10, 14, 30causeway 10, 16, 30ceremonies 8, 14,

8, 20-21civilization 30

DDEEdemotic 24, 26, 30Egypt

Lower 7modern-day 28-29Upper 7

embalming 16, 18, 30

FFGGfarming 6funerary barge 16Giza, pyramids of 24, 26, 28gods 8, 18, 20Great Pyramid

of Khufu 14

HHIIharvests 23hieratic 24, 30hieroglyphs 24, 30Imhotep 28incense 18, 30irrigation 7

KKLLka 20, 30Khafre 24, 28Land of the Dead 8“life force” 20limestone 10

MMmallet 14Menkaure 28mummification 30mummy 16, 18-19, 23

NNOONile, River 6, 16, 28

fishing in 7flooding of 6

Old Kingdom 23collapse of 23

opening of the mouth ceremony 18, 30

PPpharaoh 7, 8, 16,

18-21, 23, 28, 30burial of 16-19, 22death of 16funeral of 16offerings to spirit of 21

picture signs 24plumb bob 9, 14, 30priests 8, 18-19, 20-21, 23pyramidion see capstone

pyramids 8-30builders of 9, 10,

12-13, 14-15building 8-15, 28colour of 14destruction of 25excavating 26first visits by

Europeans to27inside 14, 19looting of 22-23treasures of 16, 19, 22,

24, 25, 26, 28

RRramps 12reed boats, Egyptian 10resin 30Rosetta Stone 26

SSsarcophagus 19, 23, 30scaffolding 14set square 9ships, Egyptian 10sledges 10square level 9, 14stela 21, 30Step Pyramid of Saqqara 28step pyramids 28

TTUUVVtemple, valley 10temples 16, 21thieves 22-23threshing 6tombs 22tools 9, 14, 18tourists 28Tura quarry 10Tutankhamun 22Valley of the Kings 22

48