THE KNOWLEDGE

Voyage of aGALLEON

First published in 2012 by Orpheus Books Ltd.,6 Church Green, Witney, Oxfordshire, OX28 4AW, England

www.orpheusbooks.com

Copyright © 2012 Orpheus Books Ltd.

Created and produced by Nicholas Harris, Sarah Hartley,Katie Sexton, Ruth Symons and Erica Williams, Orpheus Books Ltd.

Text Nicholas Harris

Illustrated by Peter Dennis

Consultant Angus Konstam, writer, maritime historian;Chief Curator of Mel Fisher Maritime Museum, Key West, Florida

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored ina retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means,electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise,without the prior written permission of the copyright owner.

ISBN 978 1 7418 3791 8

Printed and bound in Singapore

THE KNOWLEDGE

Voyage of a

GALLEON

Contents1. The Americas 6

The Spanish in America 8The Conquistadores 9Defeating the Incas 10Treasure from the Americas 11

2. The story of ships 12The rise of the galleon 14

3. Prepare a voyage 16Assemble a crew 17Inside the galleon 18Planning a route 20Loading the ship 22Preparing to sail 24

4. Sailing the ship 26Navigation 28Surviving storms 30Life on board 32

5. Pirates 33Encounter at sea 34Preparing to board 36Pirate ship 38Pillage and plunder 40

6. Defending the ship 41Ship’s guns 42Escorting the fleet 44

Glossary 46

Index 48

Introductionhe year is 1680 and you have been summoned by the Kingof Spain. Every year, he sends out a fleet of galleons toSpain’s new colonies in the Americas. Here the ships load up

with gold, silver and other treasures to bring back to Europe, wherethey are sold for huge profit. Your task is to command a galleon, andensure its safe passage across the Atlantic Ocean and back. How doyou accomplish this?

First, you should familiarize yourself with the history of the Spanishexplorers in the Americas. Next, you must read up about the history ofships so you are familiar with up-to-date construction techniques. Thenit is time to prepare for your voyage. You will need to commission a newship, prepare a reliable crew and load the ship ready for departure.Finally, you are ready to set sail. Be sure you are aware of the latestnavigation techniques, establish rules for how the ship is to bemaintained at sea, and prepare yourself for how you will deal with apossible attack by pirates.

T

HO LIVED IN THE AMERICAS before the Spanish“discovered” the continent? And how did theSpanish go about conquering these people?

The dominant power in Mexico was the Aztec Empire,founded by the Mexica people. The Mexica arrived in centralMexico in 1248 and made alliances with their neighbours.By the 1420s, they had conquered an empire. Their capital,Tenochtitlán, was founded on an island in Lake Texcoco in1325. The Aztecs could be ruthless warriors and followed acruel religion, sacrificing humans to appease the gods.But they were also a civilized people who insisted on highstandards in education, medicine and sanitation.

! The island city ofTenochtitlán was onceone of the largest citiesin the world with apopulation of about200,000 people. It wasconnected to the main-land by causeways to thenorth, south and west.The city itself had anetwork of canals.Its temples were built inthe shape of steppedpyramids, some as highas 45 m. Around the citywere the chinampas, so-called “floating gardens”.Made from plant bedsfixed to the shallow lakebottom, these islandswere used to grow crops.

Here, a high-rankingofficial is being carriedin a litter. The roadsystem through themountainous empirewas constructed withgreat skill. The buildersoften had to cut intothe rockface, or buildsteps in steep sections.To cross gorges, theyhung rope bridges.

W

he greatest empire in South America before theSpanish arrived was that of the Incas. The Incaswere orginally chiefs of a small area in Peru around

their capital, Cusco. Having fought and raided neighbouringvillages, they had, by about 1200 AD, become the mostpowerful people in the region. The Inca emperors (below)claimed they were descended from the Sun, and that thisgave them the right to rule over others.

From 1438, the Incas began to conquer surroundingterritories. Pachacuti and later, his son, TupaInca, led their armies against forcestrying to invade their own lands, thenattacked their rivals to the north andsouth. By 1493, the Incas ruled over10 million subjects in a 4000-kilometres stretch of the AndesMountains. To help govern theirvast territory, they built a systemof roads which led out in alldirections from Cusco.

T

" The Incas used aquipu, plied strands ofllama hair with knots,to perform simplearithmetic.

Temple pyramid

Rope bridge

Incaroad

Incaofficial

Terraces

LakeTexcoco

Causeway

The Aztecs

The Incas

1. The Americas

" The building ofterraces, which allowedsteep slopes to befarmed, and stonewalls, in which huge,irregularly-shapedblocks were interlockedwith great precision,both demonstrated thesupreme craftmanshipof the Incas.

Chinampa

"

7

! Columbus first madeland-fall on the island henamed San Salvador(“Holy Saviour”). He wenton to explore Cuba andHispaniola.

! The three ships underColumbus’s commandwere the caravels, Niñaand Pinta and his flag-ship, the Santa Maria.

Niña

SantaMaria

Pinta

undreds of years after the Vikings first exploredthe coast of Canada, Europeans once againarrived in the Americas in 1492.

The Genoese mariner, Christopher Columbus, set sail fromSpain in search of a route to Asia. Believing, as manynavigators did, that the world was round, he reasoned thatthe Far East could be reached more easily by sailing westacross the Atlantic than by taking the hazardous route eastaround Africa. He had initially asked King John II ofPortugal to fund the expedition, but the king refused himthe money. King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spainwere keener and agreed to sponsor him. No one in Europeknew the Americas existed, so it came as a great surpriseand disappointment to Columbus when he could find notrace of the great Asian cities he had expected to see whenhe eventually reached land.

HThe Spanish in America

olumbus made three later voyages to the Americas,taking him to the coast of mainland Central andSouth America. While he still thought he had

discovered Asia, other explorers were not convinced. AmerigoVespucci’s exploration of the east coast of South Americaseemed to confirm the lands were part of a new continent,which was named “America” after him. The Spanish crownnow backed further expeditions to explore and conquernew territories.

The first campaigns were led by theconquistadores, soldiers andadventurers in search of riches andfame. Hernán Cortés landed on thecoast of Mexico in 1519. He waseager to find the fabulous AztecEmpire, of which he had heard somuch. Leading a small band ofSpanish soldiers and a large force ofnative warriors who despised theirAztec overlords, he marched to thecapital and captured it in 1521.

C

On his way to theAztec capital, Cortésmade an alliance withTlaxcala, a region hostileto the Aztecs. Alongwith a large force ofTlaxcalan warriors,he travelled on toTenochtitlán. Here,he and his translatorMarina were greetedwith great ceremony bythe Aztec emperorhimself, Moctezuma.Cortés later tookMoctezuma hostage anddemanded a hugeransom for his release.

! Cowed at first bythe Spanish, the Aztecslater fought backagainst the invaders.Initially they succededin driving them out ofTenochtitlán. But Cortésreturned to lay the cityunder siege. Cannon,horse cavalry, starvationand disease eventually

defeated theAztecs.

The Conquistadores

8 9

"

" Nearly all the Incagold seized by theSpanish was melteddown. But a few pieces,like this figurine,survived.

On hearing a signalfrom their leader,Pizarro’s horsemencharged from hidingplaces surrounding theInca forces andslaughtered them.

The Spanish won the battle easily and captured Atahualpa.Although they demanded, and received, a ransom of morethan 20 tonnes of gold and silver for his release, the Spaniardsdecided to execute their noble prisoner. Pizarro and anotherconquistador, Hernando de Soto, then set off for the Incacapital, Cusco, which they captured in November 1533. TheSpanish installed a new “puppet” ruler, Manco Inca, and setabout plundering the empire of all its treasures. Inca warriorskept up resistance, but the Inca Empire finally fell in 1572.

small band of Spanish soldiers under the commandof Francisco Pizarro arrived in Inca territory in1532. Pizarro was in search of an empire rumoured

to be rich with silver and gold. He found a land riven by civilwar and ravaged by an epidemic of smallpox — a diseaseintroduced to the Americas by the Spanish themselves.Leading a force of just 177 men, Pizarro crossed the Andes toconfront the Inca emperor Atahualpa and his army of 80,000men in Cajamarca. With their horses (which the Inca forceshad never seen before) and superior weaponry — guns, steelarmour and swords — the Spanish soldiers held theadvantage, despite being vastly outnumbered.

he conquistadores had travelled to the Americancontinent in search of riches. Following the fallof the Aztec and Inca empires, they went in

search of the Seven Cities of Gold in North America andEl Dorado in South America — both mythical places.The Spanish adventurers found little gold, but did discoverthe silver mines of Zacatecas in Mexico, and, in 1545, therichest of them all, Potosí, in the Andes south of Peru.

The silver came from rich ores inside the Cerro Rico(“The Rich Mountain”). The mining town of Potosí soongrew up in the neighbourhood and grew to be one of thelargest cities in the Americas. Some 45,000 tonnes of silverwas mined between 1546 and the end of the 17th century.The mine labourers, originally native Americans, and laterAfrican slaves, died in their thousands due to the extremelypoor working conditions and to poisoning by mercury, asubstance used in the process of separating silver from thenatural ore.

TDefeating the Incas

ATreasure from the Americas

! Under the eye of aSpanish soldier, a trainof llamas transportsilver from Potosí to thePacific port of Arica, athree-week journeythrough the mountains,on the first leg of itsshipment to Spain.Defeated by

diseaseSpanish military powerwas too much for thenative Americans, but afar greater peril theyfaced was disease. Theyhad no resistance to theEuropean diseases ofsmallpox and measles.By the end of the 16thcentury, the nativepopulation had declinedby 93%.

! Most silver and goldwas shipped in theform of large ingots,but around 20% wasmade into coins. Theingots, or bars, werestamped with both aunique serial numberand a mark to indicatethat the 20% royal tax(quinto) had been paid.

10

"

2. The story of shipsT IS IMPORTANT to learn about the history ofships, in order to understand why the galleon isbuilt the way she is. The first boats were made

thousands of years ago from logs, reeds or animalskins. These early craft were propelled by oarsor paddles. The first sailing boats had singlemasts with square sails fixed to them. Overthe centuries, boatbuilders arranged thesails, called its rig, in ways designed tocatch the wind more efficiently. Ships,large vessels, could now sail in largerivers and seas.

" By about 3400 BC, the first sailing ships werein use on the River Nile in Egypt. Thehulls of the earliest ships were made ofpapyrus reeds bundled together. Later,wood from acacia or sycamore treeswas used, although only shortlengths could be cut from thesetimbers. From 2900 BC, Egyptianmerchants began to import cedar, awood from which much longer planks couldbe sawn. Later Egyptian vessels were built withkeels and a ribbed frame, copying the designs ofmerchant ships from Minoan Crete. Warships of thisconstruction sailed under the command of PharaohRamesses III in about 1400 BC.

I

Egyptianwarship,1400 BC

Phoenicianhippo, 800 BC

" Greek power in the Mediterranean waslater challenged by Carthage, a Phoeniciancolony in North Africa. Carthaginiangalleys, called quinqueremes, outclassedthe Greek triremes until they werethemselves defeated by Roman galleys ofa similar design during the Punic Wars(264-241 BC). Roman cargo ships alsoborrowed some features from earlierPhoenician vessels. The Romans addedhigh sterns, more sophisticated riggingand a small sail at the bow, a spritsail, toimprove manoeuvrability.

! For several centuries, shipbuildersfrom northern Europe followed theclinker-built, single square sail design ofthe Viking longship. Thirteenth centuryships had raised platforms at both ends,known as fore and aft “castles” , fromwhere archers could shoot arrows.Trading ships had deep hulls for cargo,so the rudder was fixed to the sternend. These cogs, as they were called,were commonly used by members of theHanseatic League, trading ports of theBaltic Sea and North Sea, from about1200 onwards.

Greek trireme,480 BC

From about AD 800, Norseman fromScandinavia, the Vikings, began to makevoyages across the North Sea to raid coastalareas of Britain and Ireland. They also sailedround the coasts of France and Spain to reachthe Mediterranean. The hulls of their longships,built from overlapping planks (“clinker-built”)rivetted to frames, were strong and flexibleenough for long sea journeys. The ships were

also slender and shallow in shape — idealfor making journeys up inlets under oar.Viking ships travelled to Iceland andGreenland, eventually reaching NorthAmerica in about AD 985.

! The Phoeniciansfounded the coastal cities ofSidon and Tyre on the easternshores of the Mediterranean Sea. Theytraded their manufactures, includingglassware and dyes, for linen, oil, ivory andother goods with cities around theMediterranean coast. The Phoenicians reliedon their sturdy seagoing cargo ships, calledhippos, and their own expert seamanship.

Roman cargoship, AD 200

14th-centurycog

Viking longship,AD 900

! Warships needed oarsto provide extra speedand manoeuvrability.Oared ships, calledgalleys, were used bythe Greeks in war. Greektriremes were rowed bythree banks of oarsman,and fitted with a ramand steering oar.

"

12 13

! Between 1405 and 1433 a fleet of ships, called junks,made seven expeditions across the Indian Ocean fromChina. The massive, nine-masted flagship, said to be 152 min length, was under the command of Zheng He, a trustedservant of the Ming emperor of China. Wall-like internal

partitions called bulkheadsadded great strength to

the hull.

" As trade between northern and southern Europe expanded, so thedesigners of ships began to exchange ideas and methods. Instead ofclinker-built hulls, northern builders now began to adopt thesouthern “carvel” method, in which planks were fitted edge to edgeon to a frame. This allowed them to construct larger hulls. They alsoadded extra masts and lateen, or triangular, sails, enabling theirships to make better use of the wind. The deep hull, high fore andaft castles, and stern-mounted rudder were all kept. The result wasthe first full-rigged sailing ship: the carrack.

15th-centuryChinese junkThe rise of the galleon

y the 15th century, many ships had a mixtureof rigs: square-rigged sails on some mastsand fore-and-aft sails, set parallel to the

sides of the vessel, on others. In the early16th century, Spain needed a new kind of warship toprotect its vessels bringing back treasures from itsAmerican territories. It would combine the size, sailingrig and fore- and aftcastle design of the nao with thesleekness, speed and manoeuvrability of the caravel.

B

! In southern Europe, largerships were needed to trade withthe north, so carracks were built theretoo; they were known as naos. Theseships were too bulky and slow for long-distance voyages, so when Portuguese

seafarers began to explore the coast ofAfrica they chose lateen-sailed

caravels — smaller, more streamlinedvessels based on the design of

Arab fishing boats.

15th-centuryFlemish carrack

15th-centuryPortuguesecaravel

! The first galleons thus madetheir appearance in the early16th century.

17th-centurySpanish galleon

14

EFORE LEAVING for the Americas, a ship must bebuilt and a crew assembled. The galleon is built ata shipyard in northern Spain, close to the port of

Bilbao. Nearby grow forests of Bilbao oak, from which theship’s timbers will be made. The surrounding region is alsothe centre of artillery production, and the port has linkswith sources of pine (for masts) and other materials suchas canvas, rope and pitch from other parts of Europe.

First of all, timbers are delivered to the yard. The keel is laidout on the ground (the astillero), then curved pieces formingthe bow and stern are fixed to it. Next, a series of ribs isattached to the keel, forming the basic frame. They make aU-shape in the central part of the galleon (amidships) and aY-shape at the stern. The design must follow governmentregulations. The internal decks are then laid out, andsupports for the masts added. Planks are fixed to the decksand the outside of the hull. The masts are then loweredinto place, a rudder slung into position, and the bulkheads(deck partitions) erected. From start to finish,the whole process takes about two yearsto complete.

B" Trenail mooters fixplanks of wood to theframes with woodenpins (trenails) to formthe outside of the hull.Caulkers hammer ropefibres into the gapsbetween the planks.The fibres are coatedwith hot tar, or pitch,to waterproof them.

Sawpit

Mould-loft

Timber

Ribs

Forge

Rope-making

! A galleon is beingconstructed in thisshipyard. In the mould-loft, carpenters markout shapes on pieces oftimber which are thencut to size in thesawpits. Curved timbersare then joinedtogether to make theribs of the ship: itsbasic frame.

3. Prepare a voyage

he men aboard the galleon comprise the sailors,numbering about 80, and soldiers, about 125.In overall command is the capitán (captain). He is

a soldier rather than a sailor; the commander of the ship’ssailing crew is the maestre (master). He is responsible forsailing the galleon, for keeping it seaworthy and for ensuringit has adequate supplies.

The maestre is assisted by several officers, including thepiloto (pilot), responsible for navigation, the contramaestre(boatswain, or bosun), who looks after the rigging andensures the ship runs smoothly, the despensero (chiefsteward), in charge of food and drink, and the codestable(master gunner) who supervises the ship’s guns. There arealso officers who play no part in the running of the ship,including a chaplain, a surgeon and government officialswho oversee the cargo.

T

Captain

Carpenter

Gunner

Soldiers

Apprenticeseaman

Boatswain

Master

Pilot

Mastergunner

Ableseaman

Chiefsteward

Surgeon

Assemble a crewThe crew

The ship’s crewcomprises, in descendingorder of rank, marineros(able seamen), grumetes(apprentice seamen) andpajes (ship’s boys). Theship’s boys performmenial tasks such asscrubbing the decksand serving meals. Inaddition there are themaestranza, specialistcraftsmen, includingcarpenters, coopers andcaulkers, and theartilleros, gunners, whooperate the ship’s guns.The soldiers areinfantrymen whosepurpose is to defend theship from attackers.

17

1 Crow’s nest2 Bowsprit3 Mizzen sail4 Spritsail5 Mainsail6 Foresail7 Shrouds8 Mizzen mast9 Foremast

10 Mainmast

he galleon was originally built as a warship, to escortthe convoys of cargo vessels sailing between Spainand the Americas. From about 1600, all treasure from

the New World — including gold bars, silver ingots and coins —has been transported in the royal galleons.

T

This galleonhas a carrying

capacity — the maximumsize of its cargo — of about

500 toneladas (Spanish tons). Below theupper decks is the main deck, measuring around30 metres long by 10 metres wide at its widest. At thestern end are the captain’s quarters. Below the maindeck is the lower deck or gundeck. A galleon of thissize carries about 24 cannon. The holds, containing theship’s stores and its cargo, lie beneath the lower deck.At the very bottom of the ship are the bilges packedwith heavy stones, called ballast, to help keep the shipupright in the water.

11 Ship’s lantern12 Swivel gun13 Forecastle14 Prow15 Poop deck16 Forecastle deck17 Aftcastle18 Gunport19 Crew’s quarters20 Helmsman

with whipstaff21 Quarterdeck22 Ship’s boat23 Officers’ quarters24 Compass25 Cable store26 Galley27 Cannon28 Passengers’ quarters29 Brick oven30 Main deck31 Captain’s quarters32 Water store33 Tiller34 Provisions in barrels35 Capstan36 Lower deck or gun deck37 Treasure hold38 Water in barrels39 Sail hold40 Powder and shot store41 Dry provision store42 Bilges with ballast43 Rudder44 Keel

3

7

9

25

32

11

8

10

1

56

4

2

12

15

21

18

30

36

27

35

38 39 40 41

28

16

22

37

42

2926

34

19

13

14

17

31

2320

24

33

43

44

Inside the galleon

18 19

ach year, the Treasure Fleet sails in convoyto the Americas to collect treasures fromSpain’s new colonies there. The Flota de

Indias is made up of the Nueva España Flota and theTierra Firme Flota. The first fleet sails in April to Veracruz

in Mexico, while the second sets out in August for the portof Cartagena. Another fleet, the Manila Galleons, crosses the

Pacific from the Philippines bringing goods from China and Japanto Acapulco. From here, mule trains ship the goods overland to Veracruz.The Nueva España Flota collects this and silver from the Zacatecasmines and overwinters in Veracruz. Meanwhile, the Tierra Firme Flotatravels on to Porto Bello to collect silver mined in South America,returning to Cartagena, where it spends the winter. Both fleets meet upin Havana in the spring to embark on the voyage home to Spain.

Every year, the Manila Galleons bringsluxury goods from East Asia to Acapulco. From here,the goods are transported across Mexico to Veracruz andloaded aboard the Nueva España Flota bound for Spain.

Flota de IndiasTierra Firme FlotaNueva España FlotaOverland routesManila GalleonsSouth Seas fleet

Acapulco

Scale0 200 400 600 km

The Flota de Indias takes advantage of prevailing winds acrossthe Atlantic. The outward route from Spain runs southwest tothe Canaries before crossing the Atlantic. The return route picksup the fast-flowing Gulf Stream current back to Europe.

The Nueva España Flota makes the three-week journey to Havana from Veracruzeach spring. Here the ships undergorepairs and take on cargoes of tobaccoand sugar before setting sail for Spain.

LeewardIslands

CUBAM E X I C O

S O U T H A M E R I C A

Trinidad

Curaçao

St. Kitts

G U L F O F M E X I C O

Panama

Veracruz

Zacatecas

WindwardIslands

Barbados

#uerto RicoHISPANIOLAJAMAICA

San Salvador

Bahamas

FLORIDA

Planning a route CartagenaPorto Bello

Guayaquil

Havana

A T L A N T I C O C E A N

A F R I C A

SpainN O R T H

A M E R I C A

C A R I B B E A N S E A

Mule trains carry silvermined in Potosi to thecoast, from where it isshipped north.

fromPotosi

from thePhilippines

his is a map of routes taken by the SpanishTreasure Fleet, between Spain and theAmericas. The plans are necessary to

ensure ships arrive in ports at the correcttimes to collect treasure and other goodsfrom Mexico, South America, andSpanish traders in the Far East.

T E

A T L A N T I CO C E A N

P A C I F I CO C E A N

N E WS P A I N

AN

DE

S

20 21

hen the galleon finally reaches theAmericas, the important business ofloading the ship can begin. The galleon

will sail to Porto Bello, on the Caribbean coast ofPanama, Central America. Here, in October, thegalleon and others from the Tierra Firme Flota, willload a cargo of silver shipped from Potosi in Peru.

From Potosi, the silver is shipped to Panama City andthen transported over land to Porto Bello. It is anextremely valuable cargo, so the Spanish govenmenthas decreed that it will only be shipped by its ownroyal galleons.

It will be a long time before the galleon reaches thisstage of its journey, and it has many dangers yet toovercome. But it important to plan ahead so thatthe galleon will be in port at exactly the timewhen the treasure arrives. The transportationof the treasure must be as smooth andefficient as possible.

Loading the ship

W

Captain’squarters

Whipstaff

Mizzenmast

Quarterdeck

Dry provisionstore

Powderand shot

Cannon

Gunport

Water stores

Sail hold

Pilot

Poop deck

his is the scene that will meet you inPorto Bello. While supplies are loadedand passengers come on board,

merchants from Spain sell manufactured goodsand cloth to local traders. With the swelteringheat, filthy, stinking conditions and high risk ofdisease, the commander is anxious to set sail forCartagena, farther along the Caribbean coast ofSouth America (the “Spanish Main”) as soon aspossible. Here the ships will spend winter beforethey head for Havana and thence back to Spainthe following spring.

Preparing to sail

TMule train

Soldiers

Suppliesarriving by

oxcart

Quay

Main-mast

Main deck

Captainand

master

Lower deck

Loadingsilveringots Treasure

hold

Halyards

Swivel gun

Forecastle deck

Hatch

Foremast

Climbingratlines

T IS VITAL to have a detailed understanding ofsailing and navigation techniques, especiallywhen it comes to negotiate stormy seas.

The ship’s sails, together with the ropes used to adjustthem, are called the rigging. A sail is attached to themast on a horizontal yard, held in place by ties and

lifts and hoisted by halyards. Menclimb the rigging on

rope ladders,calledratlines.

he galleon has threemasts. From the bowthey are: the

foremast, mainmast andmizzen mast. The foremast andmainmast each carry twosquare sails; the mizzen mastcarries one square sail and atriangular, or lateen, sail. To

change direction when the wind is constant, or to maintain asteady course when the wind itself changes direction, theposition of the sails are adjusted. Braces, ropesattached to the ends of the yards, are used toswing them around. Keeping the sails braced atright angles to the wind will enable the ship totravel in the same direction as the wind. Bybracing sails parallel to the direction of the wind, theship can be slowed down.

To alter course, the square sails are adjusted in aclockwise direction to turn left or an anticlockwisedirection to turn right. Unfurling the lateen sailhelps catch the wind so the ship swings roundsmoothly. Adjusting the sails to a sharper anglecauses the ship to make a tighter turn.

T" Sails are fastened tothe yards by loops ofrope called robbands.The yards themselvesare mounted on themasts using a swiveldevice called a parrel.This allows the yards,to be adjustedto the positionrequired.

Helmsmanwithwhipstaff

Pilot checkingcompass

" Thissequence shows aship making a turn to theleft. The sails are braced atright angles to the wind(1). Swinging the yards ina clockwise direction andunfurling the lateen (2, 3)starts to turn the ship.Angling the rudder to theleft helps turn. Eventuallythe sails are almostparallel to the wind (4).

Clewlines

ClewlinesParrel

Crow’snest

Mainsail

Bonnet(laced-on sail

extension)Halyard

Mast

Sheets

Lateensail

Shrouds withratlines

Stay

1

2

3

4

Yard

Yard Robband

Mast Sail

ParrelLifts

I4. Sailing the ship

RiggingStanding rigging holdsthe masts securely inposition. They consist ofropes called shrouds,which attach the maststo the ship’s sides, andstays, which run betweenthe masts. Runningrigging takes its namefrom the blocks andpulleys through whichthe ropes run. Theyinclude the halyards,which hoist the yard upthe mast, sheets, whichkeep the sails taut, andbraces, which swing theyard left or right.

RudderThe ship is steered byadjusting the sails andrudder. The rudder iscontrolled by the helms-man. He holds a handle,called a whipstaff, linkedto the rudder by rods.

26 27

he pilot plots the course of the ship on a chart,a map of the sea and coastlines. The chart has acompass rose, indicating north, south, east and

west, and a scale bar. This showshow far a distance on themap — a few centimetres,say — is in the real world— several tens ofkilometres, perhaps. Tomeasure how far the shiphas sailed over a period oftime, the pilot uses dividers (right).He places the points first on the chart,one on the ship’s position the previous day, the other on her

current position. Then, keeping the points the samewidth apart, he holdsthem against the scale

bar and reads off theactual distance in kilometres.

An essential aid to navigation is thetelescope. Basically an extendable, hollow tube with lensesfixed inside, it brings anything seen through it closerto the viewer. A sailor can make outlandmarks on the coast to help plotthe ship’s position. On cloudlessnights, sailors can also use thestars to find their way. ThePole Star always lies in thenorth. It can be found by usingthe two “end” stars of thePlough, a familiar constellation,as pointers (right).

" The compass is thenavigator’s most valuabletool. The magnetic needlealigns itself with theEarth’s magnetic field,and so always pointsnorth. From this, thenavigator can work outthe ship’s direction oftravel, or heading.

To work out a ship’s latitude — how far north orsouth of the Equator it lies — sailors calculate theposition of the sun at noon, when it is at its

highest position in the sky. To do this, a sailor uses aninstrument called a backstaff (below). Standing with his backto the sun, he looks through the sighting vane. Lining up theshadow cast by a part of the backstaff called the shadowvane with the horizon, he then measures off the angle of thesun above the horizon. The higher in the skies the sun is atnoon, the closer the ship is to the Equator.

To work out longitude — howfar the ship lies east or westof the Prime Meridian — isa more difficult task.The best way is to keepdetailed records of theship’s speed and direction.

To work out her speed, sailorsthrow out a log line with a weight attached to the end fromher stern (below). The line, which has equally-spaced knotstied along its length, is allowed to reel out as the ship movesforward. Using a sandglass, a sailor can then time thenumber of knots that are reeled out over the course of oneminute. Multiplying this figure by 60 gives the speed inknots per hour. Using the compass, it is possible then tocalculate the distance travelled east or west.

T ! To prevent a shiprunning aground, a leadline is used to measurethe depth of water.Attached to a markedline, it is thrownoverboard. From thetype of mud picked upby the sticky tallow(wax) in its hollow base,a navigator can tell howclose the ship is to shore.

A log line onits reel

Weight

" A sandglass measurestime at sea. It is carefullydesigned so that it takesexactly 30 minutes for allthe sand to fall from topto bottom halves.

Navigation

First compassThe compass wasinvented in Chinaaround the 2nd centuryAD. It was used fornavigation by Chinesemariners in the 11thcentury. The compasswas invented in Europein about 1300.

Deciding ona course

The pilot applied thetechniques of navigationto plot the ship’sposition, but the captaininstructed the helmsmanin which direction tosteer. It was he, not thepilot, who decided onthe ship’s course.

28 29

torms are a risk to any ship at sea. The best wayto deal with heavy weather is simply to avoid sailingduring times with a high risk of storms.

The hurricane season in the Atlantic Ocean lasts fromJune to November, peaking in September.

At the first sign of bad weather, the boatswain trims the sails(reduces the amount of sail, below, left). This preventsthe ship from being flung in alldirections by the wind, andensures they are not rippedapart by gales. Some sailis left up, so that thehelmsman still hascontrol. In extremeconditions, thecommander may decide tosail “bare poles” (without any sails

hoisted). The force of the wind on the hull andrigging is reckoned to be enough to propel the

craft forwards.

The commander attempts to keep thebow or stern of the ship pointed end-

on into the waves, since a non-breaking wave, however high, willnot capsize a stable ship. He maydecide in the first place to run withthe wind, that is, to sail with thewind blowing directly from behind.The commander hopes that this willsucceed in carrying the ship swiftlyaway from the path of the stormand into safer waters.

S

ut if it is no longer possible to control the forwardmotion of the ship, the commander may insteadposition her with her bow pointing directly into the

wind. The ship is, however, at the mercy of the full force ofthe storm, and a very large breaking wave could pitchpoll(end-over-end capsize) her.

Providing the ship survivescapsizing, there are othermeasures that can betaken to prevent disaster.The stove in the galley isdoused to ensure firedoes not break out.The bilges are pumpedout around the clockso that any watergetting into the ship iscontinuously ejected.

B" Dropping anchorgreatly slows the shipand can help realign herbow so she pointsdirectly into the waves.

If the ship is indanger of sinking,orders must be issuedto passengers and

crew to throwoverboard any

unnecessaryweight. Thismay meansacrificingcannon,ammunition,food storesand evenpreciouscargo.

Surviving stormsSafe harbourIn the event of heavyweather, a commanderwould manouvre his shipinto a place where shecould ride out the storm,for example, a windwardshore: a shore that thewind is blowing out from,(centre, right). Here, thewaves would be smallerbecause of the reduced"fetch", the distance ofwater that the wind isblowing over. A saferstrategy was to find aharbour. A wide-mouthedharbour on a windwardshore was ideal. One on aleeward shore with anarrow entrance could betoo dangerous to enter.

" Steering the shipinto the direction ofthe oncoming waves toavoid capsizing.

30 31

"

ith so many people and animals crowdedtogether in a small space, conditions on board agalleon can become extremely unpleasant:

noisy, filthy and smelly. It is important that the crew cleanthe ship thoroughly, including pumping the dirty waterout of the bilges, on a daily basis.

The lack of proper toiletsaboard can be a problem.The crew might use the“heads” in the ship’s prow(right), holes cut intowooden boxes to either side ofthe bowsprit. Others may preferbuckets, or the bilges, which will soon stinkof human waste. Attracted by the dreadful smell, rats willalways find their way on board in their hundreds while theship is in port. They not only spread disease but eatprovisions, torment livestock and damage sails and rope.

Space is in shortsupply on board ship.The captain lodges inhis cabin in the stern,while his officers sleepin screened-off areason the upper decks.The crew and thesolidiers sleep inhammocks or on thefloor of the main orlower decks or, as manyprefer, in the open air.

WLife on board

4

5

12

3

6

! The crew’s dailyrations are as follows:wheat biscuit (1), a soupymixture of beans, lentilsand rice called menestra(2) and a litre of wine perman (3). Boiled saltedbeef (4) and sardines (5)may be added onalternate days or, when itis unsafe to light thegalley fires in rough seas,cheese. Garlic, olives andonions (6) providevitamins and help makethe diet healthier.

OR THE LENGTH of her voyage, particularly on thehome leg when laden with treasure, the galleonwill be under threat of attack by pirates and other

treasure hunters. But who are these men? And how arethey organized, armed and equipped?

Privateers (short for “private men-of-war”) are seamen whocapture and sell vessels and their cargo for ransom — apractice permitted by various nations hostile to Spain:Britain, France and The Netherlands. Buccaneers arefortune-hunters of English origin from Jamaica, Tortugaand Hispaniola. Together with their French and Dutchcounterparts, known as filibusters or freebooters, thebuccaneers try to steal and plunder the Spanish ships,often encouraged by their governments. These groups arealso joined by pirates, murderous outlaws operatingindependently, who attack ships purely for their own gain.

Master

Captain

BoatswainQuarter-master

Mastergunner

Helmsman

F6. Pirates

Keeping watchA system of threewatches operated whilethe galleon was at sea.The ship’s company wasdivided into threeteams, each keepingwatch for four hours ata time. The passing ofthe hours was recordedby the turning of a 30-minute sandglass. Thechange of each watchwas marked by thechanting of prayers.

! Recruitment is byword of mouth, or iscarried out at localtaverns.

Pirate officersThe captain is the ship’scommander but themaster is responsible forsailing her. He isassisted by theboatswain, in charge ofrigging and thequartermaster, whooversees the provisions.

32 33

A chase can last several hours.Both pursuer and prey use theirseaman-ship and judgment of thewind direction to make the chaselonger or shorter. The galleon mayhope to prolong the chase until

nightfall and then escape under cover of darkness. If thepirate ship succeeds on closing in on its target, the captain,having already made his own ship clear for engaging(opposite, bottom), fires a shot across the bow of thepursued ship (above).

If the galleon refuses to strike (lowering her sails, signifyingsurrender), then battle begins. The pirate ship tries tomanoeuvre to windward of its quarry, that is, lying betweenher and the oncoming wind, to gain what is called theweather gauge (above). From here, the pirate ship rakes her,firing down the length of the galleon from stern to bow,damaging her while making it difficult to be fired upon inreturn, since cannon fire only from the sides. The gunners willalso aim to hole the enemy ship’s hull below the waterline.

he Spanish TreasureFleet always sails inconvoy, escorted by

several warships. But a galleonmay become vulnerable toattack by pirates if sheseparates from the rest of theconvoy. In a one-to-oneconfrontation with a pirateship, the straggler may make arun for it, stay and fight, oreven try and run ashore, withthe hope of retrieving her cargo later.

On sighting a sail, the pirates go into action. First of all, theyidentify the ship, assess her fighting strength and decidewhether she is a potential prize. A pirate ship will chaseanother ship at speed — but is also ready to turn and run ifthat ship turns out to be significantly stronger than her.

! The boatswain and hiscrew furl the mainsail andtopsails in preparation forbattle. This keeps thevessel stable in a squall,improves visibility andensures the vessel can besailed with only a fewmen. The rest may beneeded to board theenemy vessel.

! A pirate captain makeshis ship “clear forengaging”. The crewmake the guns ready forfiring, piling up shot andcartridges next to eachcannon. Tubs are filledwith sea water forfighting fires.

" The pirate captainhails — calls out to thecaptain of the pursuedship —when the twoships are close enough.He will call for hisopposite number tosurrender without afight. On seeing thepirate crew heavilyarmed, the skull andcrossbones flagfluttering on themasthead andgunports opened, aterrified captain maydo just that.

TPirate ship

Pirate ship

Galleon

Galleon

Encounter at sea

Point blankrange

Although fighting theenemy by firing cannonbroadside to broadsideat point blank range wasnot considered a veryeffective tactic, manynaval engagements werelike this. The fightingresulted in muchdamage and manycasualties — on bothsides. But the greatestdanger for either shipcame from spiltgunpowder being setalight, blowing thevessel to pieces.

35

! Before they can board,the pirates must lay theirship alongside their prey.Amidships (1) or at thebow (2) are the bestplaces. The worst place isat the stern (3), since theaftcastle is the vessel’shighest point — althoughlying athwart the stern isthe best place from whichto fire cannon at her (4).Boarding across the bow(5) or from the bow toamidships (6) is unwise,the first because the menare forced to board one ortwo at a time, the secondbecause the pirates will bedangerously exposed toenemy cannonfire.

he pirates will be anxious to avoid a prolongedgun battle. If they damage the galleon too much,her prized cargo may be lost. Their own ship, more

lightly-built, may herself suffer damage from cannonfire andbe unable to escape at speed. So they will prefer to boardthe enemy vessel without delay.

Before they board, the pirates must clear the galleon’s decksand force her gunports to stay closed. This they can achievewith musket fire. A large crew can fire a fusillade of up to100 shots a minute at the decks of the enemy vessel (above).

T1

2

4

3

5

6

" One of the least riskyways for pirates tocapture a ship is bysurprise, especially atanchor and at night.In calm water, rowingboats can approach avessel undetected,particularly if thewatch is inattentive.The operation needscareful planning,because if they arediscovered the pirateswill be unable to retreatto their own shipquickly.

aving kept the enemy from returning fire longenough to draw alongside, the pirates nowprepare to board. When the two ships are only

metres apart, the pirates light the fuses of their grenades(iron cylinders or glass bottles filled with gunpowder) andhurl them on to the galleon’s decks. They also throw firebombs. Others sling grappling irons, large claw-shapedhooks on the ends of chains, over the rails, and pull theships to within touching distance so the lashers can ropethem together (opposite, bottom).

Through the cover of smoke, the pirate captain “enters”his men aboard. They may need to slash their way throughboarding netting with axes and knives. Musketeers fire attubs of gunpowder that have been positioned ready todrop from the yardarms. They also take aim at enemymarksmen lurking high in the rigging.

Some of the men carry boarding axes whichthey use for smashing holes in the decks andfor chopping through ropes. The boarderskeep up their musket fire on the defendingcrew through these axed holes. The battle ondeck can be a bloody affair.

H

Preparing to board

36 37

" Pirates going intobattle carry cutlasses,daggers and axes as wellas pistols. The cutlass (1) isthe favoured weapon forall fighting men at sea. Itsshort, broad blade is idealfor use in small spaces ondeck. Daggers (2) areuseful below deck wherethere is even less room.Axes (3) can chop throughropes to bring down sails.

Many pirate crews followrules that are agreed amongstthemselves. They share outwhat they seize betweenthem. But if someone takesmore than his share of thebooty, is found guilty ofstealing or is judged a cowardin battle, he is marooned (lefton his own) on a remoteisland with only a little waterand food. Details of how thespoils are to be divided areset out, along with otherrules, in Articles (right), whichevery crew member signs.

brigantine is a medium-sized ship oftenfavoured by pirates.

She is fast and manoeuvrableand can also sail in shallowerwaters where heavierwarships cannot follow.These features areadvantageous for chasingprey or for escapingfrom danger. At thebow, the forecastle isset higher than therest of the upper deckto give a good view.It is also a usefulplatform from which toboard other larger ships.

A

" Musketoons (5) are short-barrelled muskets.Like muskets, they are fired from the shoulder,but, along with hand-held pistols (6), are easierto use on a cramped deck.

" For guns, the pirates carry muskets,musketoons and flintlock pistols. With theirlong barrels, muskets (4) are perfect for long-range, accurate firing.

" Different flags havedifferent meanings. A whiteflag is hoisted when piratesare willing to “parley”(negotiate). A red flagsymbolizes bloodshed andindicates that they will giveno quarter (mercy). Blackflags mean death. Somecaptains add symbols suchas the scimitar (above) orthe famous skull and cross-bones to their flags.

1 Every man shall obey orders on this ship.

2 The Captain shall have one full share and a half in all prizes.

The first mate, carpenter, boatswain and gunner shall have one

share and a quarter. All others shall have one share.

3 If any man shall attempt to run away, or keep any secret from

the ship’s company, he shall be marooned with one bottle of

powder, one bottle of water, one small firearm and some lead shot.

4 If any man shall steal anything to the value of a piece of eight

or more, he shall be marooned or shot.

5 If any man shall sign the articles of another pirate ship without

the consent of our ship’s company, he shall suffer such

punishment as the ship’s company shall think fit.

6 If any man shall strike another, he shall receive 39 lashes on his

bare back.7 If any man shall fire his gun, or smoke tobacco, or carry a

lighted candle below deck, he shall suffer the same punishment as

in the previous article.8 If any man shall not keep his firearms clean or fit for an

engagement, or otherwise neglect his business, he shall be cut off

from his share, and suffer such other punishment as the ship’s

company shall think fit.9 If any man shall lose an arm or a leg during an engage-ment,

he shall have 800 pieces of eight, or 400 if a lesser part.

10 No woman is allowed on this ship.

1

Mainsail

Crow’snest

Main topsail Main foresail

Foresail

Bowsprit

Anchor

Forecastle

Stores

Cable store

Crew’squarters

CapstanKeel

Helmsman

Captain’squarters

2

3

4

5

6

Pirate ship The pirate lifePirates were certainlybetter treated, and hadmore freedoms andrights than “normal”sailors. Many of thembecame pirates in thefirst place to escape thebrutal treatment theyreceived on merchantships or warships. On apirate ship, both thecaptain and thequartermaster (theperson in charge of foodand living conditions onboard) were elected bythe crew. The captainwas a man to whom thecrew could give its trustrather than a hatedfigure of authority.He was often the bravestfighter amongst theship’s company.

38 39

"

he battle won, the pirates cast off the lashingsbinding the two ships together, chiefly as aprecaution against fire. The crew of the defeated

ship are ordered to haul down or furl their sails, and then,along with their officers, they are secured under guard. Thepirates will be wary at all times for any sign of treachery orof an uprising by the crew against them.

The pillaging starts straightaway. The pirates seize

their prisoners’clothing, jewellery,arms, and any other

“moveable” items. Thecargo itself is regarded

as plunder, and isshared out between the

officers and crew strictlyaccording to the Articles.

Once their prize has been plundered, the pirates may eitherset the ship free, burn it, use it as a replacement for theirown, or sell it for ransom. If the pirates choose to set thedefeated ship and its crew free,they will firstly cut downthe ship’s masts anddamage her rudder,thus ensuring shecannot quicklyalert other ships asto the where-abouts of thepirates.

! To prevent attemptsby the defeated crew totake back their ship, thepirates have themsecured in chains in thehold. Here they remainuntil they are freed, putashore or ransomed.

The victorious pirateshelp themselves to theirdefeated opponents’possessions, arms,supplies and cargo.

TPillage and plunder

N ORDER TO PROTECT her crew and her preciouscargo, the galleon must employ defensive tactics.Closed quarters, demonstrated here, is one such

tactic that protects a ship’s company from enemy fire andfrom being boarded by pirates. Anti-boarding nets arefixed to the rails. Barrels of gunpowder, primed to explodeif the enemy attempts to board, are placed on deck orfixed to the sides. All cover on deck, including boats, isremoved. Doors and other openings are boarded upand the crew take cover behind them, readyto fire on their attackers.

I " All openings onboard the ship,including hatches,grates, windows andgunports, are lockedand lashed down fromthe inside.

Poopdeck

Mizzenmast

Anti-boarding

nets

Gunpowderbarrel

Disablingguns

Fixinggrenadeto ship’shull

Quarterdeck

Cuttingloopholes

Sealedgunports

5. Defendingthe ship

A pirate’s fateWhat would happento the pirates if theythemselves werecaptured? If they wereprivateers, they mightbe ransomed or elseexchanged for prisoners.Buccaneers, filibustersor pirates could be sentfor trial or executed atsea by hanging orgarrotting. As well assudden wealth, death,injury, imprisonment ordisease was the fate ofmost pirates.

40

"

ow the gunnerpricks the cartridgethrough the vent

with a priming wire (3) andfills the vent with gunpowderfrom his powder horn, pouring

a little just behind the vent (4). Pulling on the breechropes through the ringbolts, the gun crew

haul the heavy cannon so its muzzlesticks out of the gunport (5). Theprecise direction of the gun can beadjusted slightly using handspikes(levers). When the order comes tofire, the gunner takes his linstock,strikes the match, and touches itto the powder just behind the vent

(6). With the ship rolling up and down in the waves, histiming is crucial.

N" A verso or swivelgun is a breech-loadingfirearm: it is loaded atthe rear of the barrel,not through its muzzlelike a cannon. It cantherefore be readied forfiring much morequickly. Mounted on ayoke fitted to the railsaround the upperdecks, it can be easilyswivelled towards itstarget. The gunnerloads a mug-shapeddevice called achamber, which is filledwith gunpowder andshot — a musket ball ora mixture of nails.

2

3

4

5

6

he ship’s cannon are kept in good order in case ofan attack. They are mounted on carriages withwheels. A breech rope is run through the carriage

and secured to the hull on either side of the gunport (anopening in the ship’s hull). Before engaging an enemy ship,the lids covering the gunports are removed. Each gun crewconsists of an artillero (gunner) supervising three or foursailors and a ship’s boy, who fetches gunpowder and shotfrom the store. The first job is to remove the tompion, thestopper that closes off the muzzle, and to unseal the vent ortouch hole. Next, the loader takes a cartridge (a case ofgunpowder) and places it in the muzzle (1). The rammershoves it down as far as it will go (2). He uses a pole which

has a sponge — which cleans outthe gun after a previous firing —at its opposite end. Then the shotis inserted, followed by a wad,usually made of oakum, fibresunravelled from old rope. Thecannon is now ready for firing.

T

2

1

1

6

1110

9

5

3

1 Sponge and rammer2 Linstock with match3 Tompion4 Powder horn5 Priming wire6 Shot wads7 Round shot8 Double-head shot9 Chain shot10 Cartridge11 Cartridge case

Different shots are usedfor different targets: roundshot is used against thehull or masts, whiledouble-head is effectiveagainst rudders and chainshot against rigging.

Ship’s guns

A gun crew preparesto fire a cannon. Thegunner aims the gunand lights the match.His crew are on hand toload the cartridge andshot into the muzzleand then haul the guninto its firing position.

4

7

8

Perfect timingWith both ship andtarget rolling up anddown in the waves,the timing of firingwas crucial to accuracy.In high seas, the gunnertook care to fire just asthe target ship wasrising on a swell.

Immediately after the gun is fired (7), it recoils —jumps backwards — into the ship.While the muzzle is beingsponged for the nextfiring, the gunner placeshis thumb over the ventto prevent any airaccidentally igniting the gun.

7

42 43

"

"

he Spanish Treasure Fleet is a tempting target forevery privateer, buccaneer, filibuster or piratesailing in the Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico and

Atlantic Ocean. To deter pirates and offer protection againstthese predators, the Spanish Treasure Fleet always sails inconvoy, accompanied by an escort of men-of-war: warships.

In a large convoy the admiral usually sails at its head, thevice-admiral at the rear and other men-of-war to windward.Keeping to windward gives the warships the “weathergauge”: they can quickly chase pirates approaching fromleeward. But sometimes the winds veer or calms hit theconvoy unexpectedly — a time of maximum opportunityfor pirates.

T" With the windblowing in this direction,the larger warship islying to wind-ward ofthe smaller pirate ship.The warship can beardown on the pirate shipeasily, whereas thepirate ship must tackfrom side to side toapproach the enemy.

With its precious cargo aboard, theTreasure Fleet convoy sets sailfrom Havana, Cuba, bound forSpain. Some convoys may be asstrong as 15 men-of-war and80 cargo ships

“A sail! A sail!” Thefirst line of defence isthe lookout on themasthead. A ship on thehorizon can be spotted,in ideal conditions, up toabout 40 km away.

Admiral’s ship

Vice-admiral’s ship

Cargo shipsCargo ships

Man-of-warMan-of-war

Man-of-war

Escorting the fleet o seek out andattack pirates off theSpanish Main. the

Spanish have also authorizedthe setting up of armadillas,squadrons of armed vessels.Smaller types of ships,including sloops and barquelongues (right), together withoared boats such as the canoe-like piraguas, form the defenceof ports along the Spanish

Main. But these craft often havedifficulty finding their targets, or come under attack in thebattles that follow. Some of their crews have even beenknown to turn to piracy themselves!

T"

Equator An imaginary circle around theEarth halfway between the poles.

Fore Towards the front of a ship.

Galleon A large, three-masted cargo shipused mainly by the Spanish to transporttreasure back to Spain.

Gunports Square holes fitted with hingedlids in the side of the ship through whichthe cannon are fired.

Latitude The distance north or south ofthe Equator. The Equator has a latitude ofzero degrees. The North Pole has a latitudeof 90 degrees north; the South Pole has alatitude of 90 degrees south.

Lead line A rope, with length markings,attached to a lead weight used to finddepth of water.

Log and reel A device for measuring aship’s speed.

Longitude The distance east or west of aparticular location from a north-south linethat passes through Greenwich, England.Greenwich has a longitude of zero degrees.

Aft Towards the rear of the ship.

Astrolabe A navigational instrument thatmeasures the height of the sun and starsand aids calculation of latitude.

Ballast Any heavy material, such as stones,placed low in a vessel to increase stability.

Bilges The lowest part of a ship where anywater in the hull collects. The bilges needto be pumped free of water at intervals.

Compass A magnetic pointer device used innavigation that always points north.

Cross-staff An instrument for measuringthe altitude of the sun or stars.

Glossary Mast A vertical pole, usually made ofwood or metal, that supports yardsand sails.

Musket A long, single-shot gun.

Musketoon A shorter version of themusket, popular with pirates.

Navigation Plotting or directing thecourse of a vessel. Determining a vessel’sposition using navigational instrumcnts.

Parley To speak to the enemy to see if itis possible to avoid a fight.

Parrel A swivel device that attaches ayard on to a mast.

Pilot A person who navigates a vessel.

Pole Star A star that is located due north,which makes it useful for navigation.

Privateer A ship and its crew membersthat are licensed by the government ofone country to attack ships from anenemy country.

Rudder A device mounted near the sternof a vessel to control direction.

Sail An assemblage of cloth cut to varioussizes and shapes (i.e., square andtriangular), and designed to catch the windand use its force to propel a vessel.

Scurvy A disease caused by a lack ofvitamin C which is found mainly in freshfruit and vegetables. Many sailors on longtrips developed scurvy, as they did nothave access to fresh food.

Spanish Main The Caribbean coast ofSouth America, claimed by Spain.

Trade winds Strong easterly winds thatblow from the northeast in the NorthernHemisphere and from the southeast in theSouthern Hemisphere.

Whipstaff A vertical pole linked to therudder and used to steer the ship.

Yard The pole on a mast that carries a sail.

46 47

ABAfrica 6-7, 22, 26aftcastle 12-13Alcantara, Battle of 27anti-boarding nets 21astrolabe 17, 28Atlantic Ocean 6-7, 26-27Azores 6-7, 26Aztec Empire 27bilges 11, 12-13, 23, 28boatswain 8-9, 10, 16, 18boys 9, 10-11, 15braces 19Brazil 6, 27

CDCabral, Pedro Alvares 27Canary Islands 6-7cannon 14, 21, 23Cape of Good Hope 6-7,

25, 26-27Cape Verde Islands 6captain 9, 10-11, 12-13captain of soldiers 9, 12, 20cargo 5, 6-7, 12, 23, 24-25carpenter 11, 12carrack 5, 28caulking 14Ceuta 26chaplain 9, 10-11, 13clerk 11, 15clewlines 18Columbus, Christopher 26compass 16, 28Constantinople 26cooking 15cooper 11, 12Cortés, Hernando 27crew 5, 8-9, 10-11, 12-13, 15, 20,

22-23, 24-25cross-staff 16, 28crow’s nest 18da Gama, Vasco 26-27Dias, Bartholomeu 26doctor 11, 12

EFGEquator 16, 28Europe 5, 6-7, 24, 26-27factor 24fire 15, 23fleet 5, 7, 8, 25food supplies 5, 9, 11 12, 15, 23, 24

forecastle 12-13gambling 13Goa 5, 6-7, 24-25grummets 9, 10-11, 12-13, 15gunners 9, 14, 21gunpowder 9, 12guns 9, 14

HIJKhalyards 18helmsman 12, 16, 18-19Henry the Navigator, Prince 26Holland 27holystone 14Inca Empire 27India 5, 6-7, 11, 26-27Indian Ocean 6-7, 26Japan 26-27knots 17

LMNlateen 18-19, 28latitude 16-17, 28lead line 16-17, 28Lisbon 5, 6log book 17log line 12, 17, 28longitude 17, 29Madagascar 7Madeira 6, 26Magellan, Ferdinand 27master 8-7, 10, 12, 18, 20, 24masts 12, 18-19, 29Mexico 27monsoon 6-7Morocco 26Mozambique 7Muslims 26mutineers 20Natal 7navigation 5, 16-17, 29New World 26-27, 29

PRparrel 18, 29passengers 8-9, 10-11, 12-13, 15, 23pepper 5, 7, 12, 24-25Peru 27pilot 10, 12, 16-17, 19, 29pirates 5, 6, 9, 20-21Pizarro, Francisco 27Pole Star 17, 29Portugal 5, 6-7, 26-27

Portugal, King of 5privateers 6, 20, 29raking 21ratlines 18religious services 11, 13rigging 12, 18-19rudder 12, 19, 29

STsailmaker 14sails 11, 12, 18-19, 22-23,29sand-glass 16-17, 29scurvy 13, 29seamen, ordinary 9, 10-11servants 11, 13, 15shipwreck 23sickness 11, 13silks 5, 12, 25Silk Road 26, 29Silves, Diogo 26soldiers 9, 12-13, 15Spain 26-27Spice Islands 27spice trade 26-27spices 5, 6-7, 12, 24-25St. Helena 6-7steering 18-19storms 6-7, 22-23stoves 12, 15tallow 14, 17trade winds 6-7, 29Tordesillas, Treaty of 27

VWYVaz Teixeira, Zarco and Tristão 26Vespucci, Amerigo 27water 11, 12whipstaff 12, 19, 29wind 6, 11, 18-19, 22, 29yards 18-19, 29

Index

48