The use of Theory.pptx

8/14/2019 The use of Theory.pptx

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The use of TheoryDr. Ayaz Muhammad Khan


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Outline

What is theory

When theory develop

Levels of theory

Forms of theory

Theory use in Quantitative research

Theory use in Qualitative research Theory use in Mixed Method


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Basic Vs. Applied Research

Basic research is conducted to expand knowledge

and understanding by either developing or testing

theory. Its focus is knowledge for knowledge's sake.

It is typically what we think of when we think ofscientific research.

Applied research is research conducted to further the

development of effective policies and programs. It

collects and analyzes empirical data to provide

knowledge that can be used to develop new policies

and programs or evaluate existing ones.


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What is theory

The word "theory" most simply means

"explanation." Theories explain "How" and "Why"

something operates as it does. Some theories arehighly developed and encompass a large terrain (i.e.,

"big" theories or "grand" theories); others theories

are "smaller" theories or briefer explanations


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What is theory? Theory is a carefully constructed set of interrelated

concepts and statements that explain or interpret some

phenomenon.

Theory is never proven, only supported.

Researchers are constantly challenging and questioningexisting theory.

The goal of basic research is to develop theory that is

supported by empirical evidence, or more precisely, that

empirical evidence does not contradict or refute. Theory in a given field consists of those theoretical

statements and propositions that have not yet been

refuted.


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Components of theorya) Assumptions. All theories are based onassumptions.

Positivistic and interpretive assumptions.

b) Concepts

c) Statements and Proposition

Statements and propositions make declarations

about relationships between concepts and

variables.

Statements and propositions are often causal, but

may also be correlational or even declarative in

nature.

Statements and propositions may be simple or

complex.


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Theories and Constructs

In attempting to explain and predict behaviour ,

scientist and philosophers often develop theories

that contains hypothetical mechanism andintangible elements. Although these mechanism

and elements cannot be seen and are only

assumed to exist, we accept them real because

they seem to describe and explain behaviors thatwe see.


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For Example

A bright child does poor work in his class because

he has low motivation.

A kindergarten teacher may hesitate to criticize alazy child because it may injure the students self

esteem

But what is motivation and how do we know that

it low? What about self esteem?


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So

Many research variables, particularly variables of

interest to behavioral scientist , are in fact

hypothetical entities created from theory andspeculations. Such variables are called constructs

or variables of constructs


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Constructs

A construct is a hypothetical attribute or

mechanism that helps explain and predict

behavior in a theory. Although constructs are hypothetical and

intangible yet they play very important roles in

behavioral theories


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Although

Constructs are hypothetical and intangible, they

play very important roles in behavioral theories. In

many theories, constructs can be influenced byexternal stimuli and in turn can influence external

behaviors.

External

Stimulus--- Construct----Behavior

Factors


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For example

External factors such as rewards or reinforcement

can affect motivation (construct), and motivation can

then affect performance. Thus it is possible forresearchers to examine the factors that theoretically

influence construct and study the behaviors that

theoretically result from a construct


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Operational definition

Although a construct itself cannot be directly

observed or measured yet it is possible to observe

and measure the external factors and the behaviorsthat are associated theoretically with the construct.

Research can measure these external observable

events as an indirect method of measuring the

construct itself. Typically a researcher identify abehavior or a cluster of behaviors associated with a

construct, the behavior is then measured and the

resulting measurements are used as a definition

and a measure of construct


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Operational Definition

An operational definition is a procedure for measuring

and defining a construct. An operational; definition

specifies a measurement procedure (a set of

operations) for measuring an external , observablebehavior and uses the resulting measurement as a

definition and a measurement of hypothetical

construct


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IQ test : an example of OD

Intelligence is a hypothetical construct, it is an internal

attribute that can not be observed directly. However ,

intelligence is assumed to influence external behaviorsthat can be observed and measured. An IQ test

actually measures external behaviorresponses to

questions. Although IQ score is really a measure of

intelligent behavior, we use the score both as adefinition of intelligence and as a measure of it.


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Definition of theory

A set of interrelated variables, definitions and

prepositions, that represent a systematic view of

phenomena by specifying relations amongvar iables, with the purpose of explaining natural

phenomena.

Theory provide explanation of expectation and

prediction.


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A theory is an explanation of a certain set of observed

phenomena in terms of a system of constructs and

laws that relate these constructs to each other.

Consider Piagets theory of intellectual development

. Piagets theory is a set of system and in that it

consists of a set of constructs and their relationship to

each other. Piaget observed how children of differentages responded to a particular task. The children

responses constituted phenomena to be explained by

theory


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Theories are strengthened bytest results

Theories ARE NOT provenbecause you never know

what tomorrow will bring


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The Principle of Evidence

According to the principle of evidence, what is gained in

empirical research is evidence, NOT proof. This means

that knowledge based on business research is ultimatelytentative. Therefore, please eliminate the word "proof"

from your vocabulary when you talk about research

results. Empirical research provides evidence; it does not

provide proof. Also note that, evidence increases when afinding has been replicated. Hence, you should take

NOT draw firm conclusions from a single research

study.


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Uses of theory

Theoretical construct identify commonalities

otherwise isolated phenomena. Piagets theory , for

example, identifies many isolated infant behavior asinstances of SENSORIMOTOR INTELLIGNECE. In

other words , theoretical constructs identify the

universals of experience so that we can make sense of

experience


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continue

Second, , laws of theory enables us to make

predictions to control phenomena. Because

astronomers have a well developed theory, they canmake very accurate predictions about the occurrence

of the eclipse and other phenomena in the universe.

Because professionals in special education work

from a well developed theory of learning (sometimes called behavioral theory ) they can make

instructional interventions that deeply lead to

positive changes in student behavior


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When theory develop

When researcher test a prediction

many times. It recall that investigator

combine independent, mediating anddependent variables based on different

form of hypotheses or research

question. Theory develops as

explanation to advance knowledge inparticular field.


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Level of theories

Micro level (explanation limited to

small slice of time, space or number of

people) Meso-level (link micro and macro

level)

Macro level (explain larger

aggregates)


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Forms of theories

Hopkins (1964) theory as a series of

hypotheses are:

The higher her rank, the greater hercentrality.

The greater his centrality, the greater

his observability.

The higher her rank , the greater her

observability.


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Second form

State theory as a series of if..then

which explain why independent

variable to cause the dependentvariable. (example)

If the frequency of interaction

between two or more person increase ,

the degree of liking with one anotherwill increase.


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Third form

Third form of theory is Visual

Model and it translate variables into

visual picture. Example


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Three independent variable influencing a single

dependent variable mediated by two intervening variable.

X

3

Y

2

Z

1

Y1

X2

X

1


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Placement ofQuantitative Theories

In quantitative study theory use

deductively and place in the beginning

of the study. For testing theory researcher collect

data and results of the test reflect the

confirmation and disconfirmation of

the theory.

Theory provide framework of entire

study.


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Deductive model use inquantitative research


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(Deduction)


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Placing theory inquantitative study

Placement Advantage Disadvantage

In the

introduction

An approach often found in

journal, convey deductive

approach

It is difficult for reader to

separate theory from other

components

In the literature

review

Theories found in literature

is logical

It is difficult for reader to see

theory isolate from scholarly

literature

After hypotheses

and research

question

Theory discussion is logical

because it explain how and

why variables are related

Writer may include theatrical

rational after hypotheses or

research question, leave theextended discussion about the

origin of theory.


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Theory use inqualitative research

Theory employ in qualitative research

as a broad explanation, explanation of

behavior and attitude. Inductive process is use for theory.


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Logic of inductive approach


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Locating the theory in qualitativeresearch


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Mixed Method Approach

In mixed method study the theory

include deductivelyin theory testing

and verification. Inductivelyin emerging theory or

pattern.


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Theory use in Mixed Method

Theoretical lens or perspective theory

use to guide the study.

Greene and Caracelli (1997)mentioned the transformative design,

and this gave the dominance to value

based, action oriented research such as

in participatory action research andempowerment approach.

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