LAIN

OSAN

INFORMATATION TECHN

LOG

Y:

TH

EPROMISE AND THE CHALLEN

GE

PREPARED BY

The Tomás Rivera Policy InstituteFOR THE

IBM Hispanic Digital Divide Task Force

Latinos and Information Technology:The Promise and the Challenge

Prepared by:

The Tomás Rivera Policy Institute1050 N. Mills Avenue, Claremont, CA 91711

For the

IBM Hispanic Digital Divide Task Force

©2002 The Tomás Rivera Policy InstituteUnauthorized duplication of this report is a violation of copyright

February 2002

Copies of this report may be obtained by contactingIBM Corporate Community Relations

at 914-499-6692 or wwwwww..iibbmm..ccoomm//iibbmm//iibbmmggiivveessand at wwwwww..ttrrppii..oorrgg

IBM Hispanic Digital Divide Task Force Members

Victor Cabral ............................................Vice-President of Government and Hispanic AffairsTask Force Co-Chair Verizon Communications

Maria Villar ................................................Vice President, e-Business Transformation PlanningTask Force Co-Chair IBM Corporation

Ronald Blackburn-Moreno ......................President & CEOASPIRA

Raul Cosio ................................................Vice President, e-Business TransformationIBM Corporation

Antonio Flores ..........................................PresidentHispanic Association of Colleges & Universities

Luis Miranda..............................................PresidentMiranda y Más

The Honorable Silvestre Reyes (D-TX) ..United States House of Representatives

Carmen Varela Russo ..............................Chief Executive OfficerBaltimore Public Schools

Acknowledgements

The Tomás Rivera Policy Institute is grateful to the IBM Corporation for their forethoughtin commissioning this report to advance the role of information technology in the Latinocommunity. Their support also made it possible to convene national leaders ininformation technology issues to ensure that they could contribute their guidance andexpertise towards making this report comprehensive.

We would like to give special thanks to the following individuals who contributedsubstantively to the completion of this report: Stanley S. Litow, President, IBMInternational Foundation and Vice President, Corporate Community Relations, IBMCorporation; Robin Willner, Director, Corporate Community Relations, IBM Corporation;Doris González, Program Manager, Corporate Community Relations, IBM Corporation;Harry P. Pachon, President, The Tomás Rivera Policy Institute; and Alex Ramírez,Executive Director, Information Technology Initiatives, Hispanic Association of Collegesand Universities. Additionally, we thank the participants of the Digital Divide and HigherEducation Executive Pre-Conference Session convened by HACU and IBM forcommenting on a draft of this paper.

Gratefully,

The Report Authors:Louis G. Tornatzky, Ph.D.Elsa E. Macias, Ph.D.Sara Jones, M.A.

The Tomás Rivera Policy Institute

Founded in 1985, The Tomás Rivera Policy Institute advances critical, insightful thinking on key issues affecting Latino communities through objective, policy-relevant research,and its implications, for the betterment of the nation.

The Tomás Rivera Policy Institute1050 N. Mills Avenue

Scott Hall, Pitzer CollegeClaremont, CA 91711-6101

Tel: 909-621-8897 / Fax: 909-621-8898

Texas Address:Post Office Box 8047Austin, TX 7713-8047

Tel: 512-471-2872 / Fax: 512-471-2873

New York Address:Columbia University / Mail Code 3320

420 West 108th StreetNew York, NY 10027

Tel: 212-854-3646 / Fax: 212-222-0598

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Executive Summary ........................................................................................iFindings ......................................................................................................iiRecommended Actions and Actors............................................................iii

I. Introduction ................................................................................................1

II . Access ......................................................................................................2Physical Access ..............................................................................2Educational Access..........................................................................2Community Access ..........................................................................3Cultural Access ................................................................................4Employment Access ........................................................................5

Key Issues: Access ....................................................................................5Language and Cultural Content ......................................................5Internet Usage Patterns ....................................................................6Latinos as Online Shoppers ............................................................7Latinos and e-Commerce ................................................................7Privacy Issues ..................................................................................7

Action Opportunities for Improving Access ................................................7

III . Learning ..................................................................................................10Learning Technology ......................................................................10Postsecondary Distributed Learning ..............................................11Educational Access--Changing the Terms of the Debate ..............12

Key Issues: Learning ................................................................................13Raising Standards for Computer and Information Literacy ............13Parental Awareness of IT and Education ........................................13Staff Turnover ..................................................................................13Staff Training in Technology Integration ..........................................13Technology Planning ......................................................................14

Action Opportunities for Improving Learning with Technology ..................14

IV. Technology Jobs for Latinos..................................................................16What are IT Jobs and Where are They?..........................................16The Challenge: The Failing Human Resource Pipeline ..................17

Key Issues: Employment ..........................................................................17Latino Family Dynamics ..................................................................17Immigration and Social Integration ................................................17Role Models, Mentoring and Access to Informal Networks ............18Early Childhood Education ............................................................18Latino Dropouts ..............................................................................19Educational Attainment and Achievement ......................................19The Special Role of the Community College ................................20Fixing the Innovation Engine ..........................................................21

Action Opportunities for Technology and the Workforce ..........................22

V . Who Owns the Action Agenda? ............................................................23IT Companies ................................................................................23Federal Education Agencies ..........................................................23Federal IT-Related Agencies ..........................................................23Higher Education............................................................................23State and Local Education Agencies ............................................23Private Foundations ........................................................................24Community-Based Organizations ..................................................24

VI . Conclusion ............................................................................................25

References....................................................................................................26

Executive SummaryFrom the beginning of time, the creation of certaintechnologies has driven periods of extraordinaryachievement that are later identified as “revolutions.”Information Technology, which has literally transformednearly every aspect of life, is now such a period.Though still in its infancy, IT has presented breathtakingopportunities for social and economic advancementthat were well beyond imagination just a decade ago.But despite the scope and power of the IT charge,certain segments of society have been left behind.

Commissioned by the IBM Corporation, this reportpresents the results of an analysis conducted by TheTomás Rivera Policy Institute for the IBM HispanicDigital Divide Task Force. Its goal is to focus nationalattention on how Hispanics can more successfullyengage and prosper by the expansion of IT into everyaspect of modern life.

Structure of the Report

Over the last few years, the “Digital Divide” hasemerged as the nation’s most popular catch phrase todescribe segments of society without access toInformation Technology and its potential to improve lifeand livelihood. While noting the inequities whereappropriate, this report focuses on the promise of thedigital age, and the associated challenges that Latinosmust surmount to join the revolution.

The promise of Information Technology for the Latinocommunity will not be realized only by the acquisitionof computers. Rather, technology must be viewed asthe symbol of a much broader and more profoundchange in the world economy. The creation of wealthworldwide — as well as for individuals and families —is now inextricably linked to knowledge andtechnological innovation. For the Latino community toadvance its social, political and economic agenda, itmust be a player in this new world. To participate,Latinos must be proficient in the basic tools oftechnology, such as computers and their applications.But to achieve proficiency, they must also achieve amuch higher general level of education and adapt theircultural norms and behaviors to an entrepreneurial,fast-moving and global approach to business and life.

Simply put, the promise of the digital age is inseparablefrom the larger change agenda that Latinos mustaccomplish, even if computers did not exist.

This “change agenda” includes the major challenge ofunderstanding and benefiting from the digital age. Todo so, Latinos must overcome issues of education andachievement — all of the ways that K-16 publiceducation have failed the Latino community — andobtain access to and expertise in computers and theInternet. Barriers to physical access to technology mustbe overcome, and a mastery of key computerapplications must be achieved.

The implications of this challenge are extraordinary —and there are no magic bullets. Gaining thebackground necessary to benefit from the IT revolutioninvolves every aspect of how Latinos engage the U.S.educational system, and key solutions are likely tonumber in the dozens. Moreover, the neededimprovements to education involve broad publicpolicies, focused intervention programs and thewidespread implementation of “best practices” thatwork. All of the changes required to guide the Hispaniccommunity into the Information Technology agedemand a better understanding of how to bring aboutchange, and how to move “the system.”

The findings of this report are organized into threebroad and interrelated topics. The first refers to issuesof access to Information Technology in Latinocommunities, including the basic understanding thataccess is a quality-of-use issue, rather than countingnumbers of computers per capita. The second sectionrefers to learning technologies across the educationalspectrum, while the third section addresses ITworkforce issues, including the implications ofeducational attainment and achievement.

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FindingsAccess to IT

To benefit from IT, Latinos must have access. “Access”has many definitions and occurs in many settings:

Physical Access. This means access to the basichardware, software, and Internet connectivity. Accessalso occurs in different settings such as home, schooland business. The basic findings are:

• Home access to computers and the Internet is lowerfor Latinos.

• Home access continues to be associated withincome.

• School access to computers and the Internet issomewhat lower for schools with a high percentageof minority and disadvantaged youngsters, thoughthe gap is rapidly closing.

Cultural Access. As in many technology domainsworldwide, English tends to be the language of choicein IT. This has important implications for Latinos:

• An increasing number, but a decreasing fraction, ofWeb sites are Spanish language or bilingual.

• Lack of Spanish language Web sites can be adetermining factor in Latino use of the Internet,particularly among older, first generation immigrantswith lower levels of education.

• Community relevance and cultural content areimportant predictors of Internet use by Latinos.

Commercial Access. Both consumers andbusinesses are increasingly using the Internet as thevehicle of exchange. Nonetheless, non-technologicalissues of access are quite important:

• Latinos are significant online shoppers, but thelimited array of Spanish language consumer Websites acts as a deterrent.

• Latino businesses, being mostly small and nottechnology-intensive, are not as deeply involved in e-commerce as their peers in other ethniccommunities.

IT in Learning

Labeled “educational technology” or “learningtechnology,” IT in educational and training settings ishaving significant impacts on the learning communityworldwide, including the Latino community.

Physical Access at School. As a result of variousstate and federal K-12 initiatives, the following seems tobe established:

• The gap in K-12 access to hardware, software andInternet connectivity as a function of race, ethnicityand economic standing across schools is closing.

• The post-secondary institutions serving theHispanic population has made effective use ofdistance education or distributed learning programsenabled by IT. However, across this community aregreat disparities in the quality and scope of thetechnology infrastructure.

IT and Educational Improvement. The debate andaction agenda regarding IT in learning is rapidlyshifting to the quality and context of applications. Inother words, IT alone will have little impact on thequality of Latino educational achievement andattainment. However, a number of findings suggest that“quality of use” of IT is the most important area forfuture research and intervention:

• The skills, background and professionaldevelopment of teachers and school officials are asignificant factor in whether IT-enabled educationwill yield positive student outcomes.

• IT must be tied to important and validated schoolimprovement efforts, such as increasing academicrigor, decreasing discriminatory tracking, andkeeping students focused on staying in school andentering post-secondary institutions.

• IT-related educational improvement is compounded bythe lower penetration of computers and high speedInternet access into Latino households. Thenegative impact is somewhat mitigated bycommunity access or by student access to schoolsin the evenings.

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The IT Workforce Pipeline

Despite the current and presumably temporaryslowdown in demand for IT workers, the long-termprognosis continues to be positive. Nonetheless,Latinos tend to be underrepresented in the existing ITworkforce, and the status of the “pipeline” is notencouraging. The relative lack of Latino involvement inhigh skilled IT jobs is an issue that is inseparable frommore general shortcomings in educationalachievement and attainment.

IT Jobs. Analysts have different opinions about whatconstitutes an “IT job” or, for that matter, IT industrysectors. The traditional definition has focused oneducation and training in the core disciplines ofcomputer science and engineering, and their links toindustries such as telecommunications, software,computer manufacturers and computer services.Current thinking is more inclined to include “IT-enabled”jobs, in a much wider array of industries. Thus, anindividual doing part or component design withcomputer-assisted-design (CAD) tools in amanufacturing setting might therefore be classified asan IT worker. Key findings:

• IT jobs, however defined, are increasing in numberand have high earning potential.

• IT-enabled jobs are increasing at a much faster ratethan “core” IT jobs.

• IT jobs are becoming more dispersed, geographicallyand by industry sector.

Schooling and the IT Workforce Pipeline

While not necessarily specific to IT workforce issues, anumber of educational problems are relevant. Theyinclude:

• Educational attainment and achievement is lower forLatinos than it is for most other racial or ethnicgroups.

• Attainment and achievement are significantlyimpacted by immigrant status and nativity.

• School dropout rates are very high for Latino youth,and are both a symptom of prior school failings anda predictor of subsequent problems.

• There are few role models and mentors from the ITcommunity that reach Latino youth. As a

consequence, there is insufficient understanding ofIT-related career paths.

• Latino parents’ understanding of the importance ofeducation generally, and of opportunities afforded byIT-related careers specifically, is quite mixed.

• There is a growing number of validated programsthat work to improve Latino achievement andattainment, but they are not widely known or adopted.

Recommended Actions and Actors

Over twenty detailed action recommendations weremade, and a number of organizations that could playsome role in implementing those actions wereidentified. The following action themes seem mostpertinent:

• Increase awareness throughout the Latinocommunity — parents, community leaders,educators, business people — about theimportance of IT in their lives and its relevance forfuture opportunities.

• Make IT more culturally compatible to the Latinocommunity, in terms of content, tools, and futuredirections.

• Benchmark exemplary IT-related programs across a variety of settings — schools, communities,the private sector — and aggressively foster thedissemination and replication of these “bestpractices.”

• Close the “digital divide” in all its manifestations —cultural, physical and quality of applications.

• Focus significant resources and policy remediation on improving the educational attainmentand achievement of Latinos.

The following organizational categories were identifiedas needing to play a significant role in implementingthe action recommendations of the report:

• IT Companies• Federal Education Agencies • Federal IT-Related Agencies• Higher Education Institutions• State and Local Education Agencies• State and Local Elected Officials• Private Foundations • Community-Based Organizations

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I. Introduction

The revolution underway in information technology (IT)is increasingly affecting the lives, communities,educational prospects and culture of Latinos. Thedigital revolution has created opportunities to improveour economic outlook through high-wage IT jobs,reinvent our public institutions through the creative useof digital media, develop our social networks, andenhance educational outcomes for children and adults.

The globalization of the world economy is transformingthe way people work. Economic opportunities increasinglyrequire digital literacy, and learning computer programmingand multimedia skills is a viable way to earn a livablesalary. The five fastest-growing careers in the UnitedStates are in computer-related fields and they offerabove average earning potential (U.S. Department ofEducation, 1999).

The Internet creates many new ways to conductgovernment and deliver social services. For example,telemedicine widens the ability of doctors and healthcare systems to deliver higher quality care to patients,especially in remote and rural areas. The delivery ofgovernment services to citizens, known as e-government, is gaining momentum in every part of thecountry. E-government can potentially allow the deliveryof better and more personalized services at less cost,and at the convenience of the citizen (Galbi, 2001).

For children, the use of computers and networktechnologies can improve educational achievementand increase motivation to stay in school. For adults,online classes can help meet a range of educationalgoals: learning word processing, obtaining a GED,taking citizenship classes, and earning a universitydegree.

The Internet has been transformed from being primarilya data resource for researchers to a multimediaresource serving entertainment, educational andcommercial objectives. This raises the importance ofaccess to high-speed Internet access, or broadband.Faster connection speeds improve the overall onlineexperience, encouraging users to explore more sitesand spend more time online. Streaming media is amajor driver behind broadband adoption in the generalpopulation, and is likely to be for the Latino communityas well. The added activity benefits e-commerce sitesand content producers.

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II. Access

In order to realize the benefits of digital technologies,Latinos must first have access. Their relative lack ofaccess has been described as a “digital divide,” acatch phrase, but one that is somewhat simplistic.Access has several dimensions and venues, each withits own characteristics and issues. One is physicalaccess to the basic hardware, software, and Internetconnectivity. Second, is educational access wherebyLatino learners can have the opportunity to use IT ineducational and training settings. Third, is communityaccess via which Latinos can utilize the technologiesin organizations in their neighborhoods. Fourth, iscultural access such that Latinos can availthemselves of websites, IT tools, and digital productsthat are in Spanish or bilingual and that are culturallycompatible as well. Fifth, is job access wherebyLatinos with the appropriate skills and education canavail themselves of a host of new job opportunities, inboth core IT industries and in industries that are goingthrough a productivity renaissance that is enabled byinformation technology. The digital divide is in manyways a “digital job divide.”

Physical AccessWhile there is indeed a physical access variant of the“digital divide,” it would be incorrect to describe theU.S. Latino population as absent from the digital age.Researchers at the Tomás Rivera Policy Institute (TRPI)estimate current Latino Internet usage in majormetropolitan areas at approximately 40%, although thisfigure varies considerably across the country. Based ondata from the National Telecommunications andInformation Administration (NTIA, 2002) and the U.S.Census Bureau (2000), nearly 14 million Latinos owncomputers and over 11 million have access to theInternet from home. Latinos online in the U.S. in 2000exceeded the number of Internet users in Spain (5.4million) and Brazil (5 million) and were roughlyequivalent to the number online in all of Spanish-speaking Latin America (8.4 million) (ITU, 2000).

With 35 million Hispanics, the U.S. is the fifth largestHispanic country in the world. Nearly half of Hispanicsin the U.S. are foreign born and Spanish dominant:many of these can read some English and most canspeak some English. As such, they constitute an

impressive market for electronic commerce, with anestimated buying power of over $450 billion.

These data notwithstanding, there continues to be agap in access to computers and the Internet betweenHispanics and white, non-Hispanics. For example,according to the latest Department of Commercestudy, while national computer ownership rates in2001 were up from the previous years, a significantdisparity persists:

2001 2000 1998Hispanic 40.0% 33.7% 25.5%White, non-Hispanic 61.6% 55.7% 46.6%All U.S. Households 56.6% 51.0% 41.2%

Similarly, the Internet penetration rates forhouseholds across the country were:

2001 2000 1998Hispanic 32.0% 23.6% 12.6%White, non-Hispanic 55.4% 46.1% 29.8%All U.S. Households 50.5% 41.5% 26.2%

The same technology gap exists as a function ofsocioeconomic status, whether measured by incomeor levels of education. If you earn over $75,000 peryear, and are well educated, it is much more likely thatyou will have Internet access at home (NTIA, 1999,2000; TRPI, 1998). Ethnic and racial differencescontinue to persist even when income and educationlevel are controlled.

Although these data are important, the focus of thenational dialogue on the digital divide should becomefocused on how the technology can be moreeffectively used, rather than physical access.This shiftsthe policy and program debate to the humanresources component-skills, training, professionaldevelopment, and users.

Educational AccessIn public schools there has been until recentlysignificant inequality in terms of Internet access,particularly as a function of economic status. In 1999,63% of all classrooms had Internet access: 74% ofclassrooms in the wealthiest schools were connected,but only 39% of classrooms in poorest schools wereconnected (NCES, 2001). By 2000, 77% of allclassrooms had access, but once again only 60% of

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classrooms in the poorest schools were connected,compared with 82% of wealthiest schools. While the gapin schools is closing, there is still some distance to cover.

There have been major changes in these indicatorspertaining to minorities. Thanks to enabling legislationthat made it easier and cheaper for schools to getInternet access, and because of the actions of localand state educational agencies, there are morecomputers in schools and more of them with highspeed Internet access. According to data from theNational Center for Education Statistics (Cattagni &Farris, 2001), between 1994 and 2000, much of theclassroom-based digital divide as a function of minorityenrollment has closed. For example, the study lookedat schools with four different levels of minorityenrollment, ranging from less than 6% to 50% or more.

In 1995 the percent of public schools with Internetaccess, by minority enrollment, ranged from 39% inschools with the highest minority enrollment to 52% inschools with the lowest minority enrollment; by 2000that range was from 96% to 98%. Similarly, the percentof instructional rooms with Internet access ranged from13% to 37% in 1997; by 2000 the range was 64% to85%. By 2000, students from high minority enrollmentschools were more likely to have school-based Internetavailability outside of regular school hours than theirpeers in low minority enrollment schools. This does notmean that the gap in home-based access tocomputers and the Internet has closed as well. Forexample, we know that only 18% of Latinos use acomputer at home versus 52% of whites (ERIC, 2001).

As schools become digitally connected, academicachievement tends to increase. Students attendingschools with good media libraries have been shown todo better scholastically. A recent study reports that 71%of middle and high school students primarily rely onthe Internet for homework that involves information-gathering and research, far above the 24% whoprimarily rely on libraries (Pew, 2001). Other reviewsindicate that, if educational technology is tied to schoolreform and integrated into instructional delivery, it willenhance student educational outcomes (NASBE, 2001).

Nonetheless, there are still lagging disparities acrossand within school districts in the pace and, moreimportantly, the quality of technology implementation.For example, the Los Angeles Unified School District

has only recently begun to implement a plannedstrategy for the deployment of information technologiesacross the district, and instead left deployment to localsite administrators. This resulted in an unevendistribution of technology across the district. Theproblem can be further understood when we look atthe results of a 1999 Department of Education studyreporting that most new teachers do not feel wellprepared to use technology in the curriculum. Sincemany Hispanics use the Internet for the first time atschool, and many use the Internet primarily at school,the implications for increased Hispanic access areclear (NCES, 2001; NTIA, 2000; Pew, 2001).

Libraries located in low socio-economic statusneighborhoods are significantly less likely to havepublic Internet access. An estimated 47% of librarieslocated within areas of more than 20% poverty had nopublic Internet access in 1999 (Bertot & McClure,1999). Also, to be fully beneficial, Internet access mustbe freely available to community members on a regularbasis. One terminal available on a limited basis doesnot constitute public access.

As will be discussed below, the debate on educationalaccess is shifting away from simple availability ofcomputers and high speed connectivity to the Internet.For educational technology to have the maximumpossible impact on Latino children it must beintegrated into the task of learning and tied toeducational reform. In addition, students must haveexperiences that enable them to see the link betweencomputer skills and increased life chances. They needto be exposed early to career paths and the jobopportunities afforded by computer skills. One key toreducing Latino dropouts is to increase the perceivedrelationship between schooling and “real life.”

Community AccessIn the absence of high levels of home computer andInternet access, TRPI research has demonstrated thatLatinos are more likely to turn to public institutions suchas schools, libraries and community centers. Thesepublic institutions serve as technology “safety nets.”However, even in public institutions there is evidence ofthe digital divide. Community centers are viablemechanisms to serve the communication andinformation needs of low-income communities. Theyserve as a technology resource, providing “a solid,extensive experience base from which community

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leaders, funders, elected officials, and corporateleaders can draw” (Fowells & Lazarus, 2001).Community-based organizations (CBOs) provide anatural interface for Latinos, since they are locatedclose at hand, and they have established trust andcomfort levels to ensure that their services will beutilized. CBOs can be very effective venues forcommunity and economic development inunderserved neighborhoods by bringing togethertechnology and training with local initiatives thatstrengthen the community.

IBM’s Teaming for Technology (T4T) program helpsnonprofits build their technological capacity, includingcreating technology plans and conducting training. Forinstance, in New York City, the Hispanic Federation wasa key partner with IBM and the United Way in the T4Tprogram. The Hispanic Federation helped to createtechnology plans in its network of more than 70agencies that serve the Latino community, andidentified the agencies that were ready for technology.The Federation then helped to install and maintainequipment in the selected agencies, and train the staff.The Federation even helped to select three agencies toreceive computer labs that became a communitytechnology resource (IBM, 2001). Moreover, sometechnology centers, such as the Computers in OurFuture and Harambee programs in California, as wellas others around the country, specifically seek to buildleadership capacity within underserved communities(Fowells & Lazarus, 2001; TRPI, DSS, forthcoming).

Aside from physical access to computers and theInternet, the most significant barriers to digitalopportunity facing Latinos today revolve around thelack of skills and training to use network technology.CBOs can play a significant role here. Many peopleneeding assistance in learning the skills needed tonavigate the Internet and using computer applicationsfrequently turn to public access centers, even whenthey have a computer at home. CBOs remain anavenue with great potential for educating and buildinginformed consumers in under-served communities. Formany community-members, a CBO represents acomfortable, familiar environment in which to gain new skills.

Nevertheless, many CBOs are currently unable toprovide any or enough connectivity to the public, andthey remain under-utilized. A continuing concern forCBOs is that some initiatives may raise expectationsand not be able to deliver because of sustainabilityissues.

Cultural AccessAs the Internet continues to develop, a logical andexpected consequence is the diversification of theservices and information available online. Yet anotheraccess barrier to Latinos is the dearth of culturallysensitive, language appropriate content that is alsocommunity relevant. The Internet developed as anEnglish language medium, and the content has beenprimarily created in the U.S. While this is changing asthe percentage of U.S. web pages is decreasingcompared to web pages from other countries, there isstill a need for culturally appropriate content that isspecific to Latino community needs.

The Children’s Partnership reports that millions of low-income and underserved Americans face a “contentgap” online, with content either non-existent or difficultto find (TCP, 2000). According to this report, thesepopulations are most interested in local information, joblistings, information at basic literacy levels, and contentfor non-English speakers that extends to culturalpractices and health matters. A July 2000 count by theSpanish-based Vila web estimated the number of webpages in Spanish to be 7.5 million compared to 214million web pages in English. Hispanic users continueto prefer mainstream portals, and Yahoo! has increasedits lead as the primary portal for U.S. Hispanics goingonline in English (Cheskin, 2001). Just as Australian orother English-language websites are less interesting toU.S. users than American websites, Latinos preferwebsites that are more relevant to their localcommunities than what Spanish or Argentine websitescan offer.

What is distinctive about the Latino digital divide is thatEnglish language literacy stands out as a substantialdetermining factor of the degree to which Latinos canaccess the wealth of information and resources on theweb. The web, despite its early promise of becoming aglobal community, is still heavily English-based and hasgenerally lacked a true mix of cultural viewpoints.

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Among those Latinos who are online in the U.S., over10% cite insufficient Spanish content as a perceiveddrawback to the Internet. This potentially long-termissue will lessen for some members of the Latinocommunity, as they become increasingly Englishproficient. However, given the large and growingnumber of first generation Latinos, the issue of Spanishand bilingual language content will continue to beimportant. Commercial interests will further develop theLatino market, Latinos will increasingly become contentdevelopers, and a growing number of non-profit andcommunity-oriented sites will appear.

Nonetheless, these data describe an opportunity forcontent players in the Hispanic market as moreSpanish-dominant consumers go online. Latinowebsites must do more than translate content fromEnglish to Spanish; they must provide content that hascultural interest to address the special communitiesthey serve in order to entice an audience that genericweb sites will not attract. However, if web portals aretoo narrowly focused and no distinctive characteristicsrelative to competitors, they can also fail.

Technology can be intimidating and impersonal for thenovice user, even one who is English proficient. This“technophobia” can be overwhelming when combinedwith limited English proficiency. Regardless of one’slanguage, Internet usage requires a certain degree ofcompetence. It is wholly unlike radio and television --being audio and visual media -- and more likenewspapers and books. However, with time andtraining it opens doors to opportunity andempowerment.

Employment AccessMuch has been written about the burgeoning of theknowledge economy, and the associated demand for“knowledge workers.” The majority of new jobs--even atan entry level--will require some amount of postsecondaryeducation (Carnevale & Reich, 2000). In addition,“knowledge worker” is increasingly being defined interms of the ability to use computers and networkedtechnologies to solve problems and execute tasks. Animportant part of “access” for Latinos is being able toqualify for the knowledge jobs that pay well and offercareer paths to the future (Jenkins, 2001). Many ofthose jobs are in industries in which IT has enableddramatic increases in productivity.

Relevant conclusions:• Ensure that communities have equitable

opportunities to benefit from emerging informationtechnologies by increasing the number of Latinohouseholds with networking resources.

• Promote awareness of the importance and value ofinformation technology in Latino communities.

• Cultivate public access points where the Latinocommunity can learn to use and manipulate networktechnologies.

• Focus on the quality of use of educational technology,and its applications to improve student learning.

Key Issues: Access

Language and Cultural Content. Latinos have had arelatively late entry in using and contributing to theWorld Wide Web. The pervasiveness of contentdeveloped in the United States, and by extension, of itsculture, has led to concern that the Internet iscontributing to a general homogenization of culture.Market values have contributed to this trend. However,there are countervailing influences, including thedevelopment of websites and content in othercommunities, countries and languages. According tocurrent research, as much as 50% of all online saleswill be sold outside the U.S. by 2004, suggesting thatmultilingual sites may be essential for companies tosucceed in the new economy (Forrester, as cited inPastore, 2001). The U.S. Latino community can likewiseincrease the amount of relevant content by creatingthat content. A pressing question is how one transitionsfrom being a passive user of technology to being aproducer of technology, a producer of content, and acreator of knowledge. Nonetheless, while non-Englishwebsites will increase in absolute number, the fact thatEnglish has been for decades the overwhelminglanguage of choice in global business lessens therelative prominence of this trend.

Present research efforts by TRPI have been directedtoward gaining an understanding of these issues.Investigations of usage patterns and characteristics ofLatinos online were conducted by TRPI in 2000 withsurveys in Los Angeles, New York, Chicago, Houston,and Miami, along with focus groups in Los Angelesand New York.

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Internet Usage Patterns. The survey results indicatedthat Latino Internet users are a population of bothexperienced users and “newbies.” While 40% of thosesurveyed indicated that they had been using theInternet for three or more years, 29% reported lessthan one year of experience online, including 15% atless than six months. The more recent Pew InternetProject (2001) reports similar figures, with 24% havingless than one year of experience, and 14% at less thansix months. This translates into a population that onone hand is already established and experienced withthe Internet, and on the other hand, is new to theInternet and requires user-friendly applications andweb pages that are easy to navigate. Moreover, LatinoInternet users are actively online, with six out of tengoing online five days a week or more, and anadditional two out of ten using the Internet three to fourdays per week. Furthermore, nearly 60% of Latinoswho use the Internet spend over an hour online eachtime they log on. These findings have beencorroborated by several other studies (Cheskin, 2000;Pew, 2001; TCP, 2000).

The focus groups further explored Latino Internet use,existing Internet content, and Latino community needsfor online content, including why Latinos are notaccessing the Internet. Findings from this studyindicate that both Internet users and non-users areaware of the variety of positive functions that theInternet is able to serve. The discussions pointed tocommunications, and access to information andresearch as the most important reasons participantsuse the Internet. While online purchasing amongparticipants who use the Internet varied, they are usingthe web extensively to obtain product and companyinformation. While focus group participants indicatedthey would like the Internet to be more reflective ofLatino culture, such content is not the primary factorrequired to increase Latino Internet use. Rather, it is themore practical issues--such as lack of computerhardware, affordable access to an Internet ServiceProvider, and a general lack of computer related skills--that inhibit Latinos from getting online. Inaddition, fears and misconceptions about the Internet,as well as intimidation due to weak language skills orlack of understanding of the technology, play a role. Itis only after these other obstacles to access areovercome that Latino Internet content becomesimportant.

To illustrate, focus group participants who were alreadyInternet users stressed the desirability of Spanish/Englishlanguage options for personal reasons as well as toassist Latino populations, implying that bilingual andSpanish-language sites serve a valuable purpose inthe Latino community. Focus group participants furtherexpressed a strong interest in content that is relevant tothe community in which they live.

As with most other segments of the population, theprimary point of access for Latinos is at home, followedby work and then school. Latino households tend to belarger than non-Latino households. The Bureau ofLabor Statistics reports that the average Latinohousehold is 3.2 persons while non-Latino householdsconsist of only 2.4 persons. It is not surprising then, thatfour or more people are using the computer to accessthe Internet in 25% of Latino households. Furthermore,approximately 6.4 million Latino households do nothave access to the Internet at home, work or school. Ofthese, 38% indicate that they plan to gain access tothe Internet in the near future. Therefore around 2.4million new households will be shopping for PCs,connecting to the web, and looking for Latino-orientedcontent online.

All the different elements that go into programming anddesigning a website are meaningless unless the end-user has an enjoyable experience and becomes arepeat visitor. What keeps Latino Internet users comingback to a particular website is primarily interestingcontent, followed by fast loading pages, interestinggraphics/layout, and free services such as e-mail andchat. This suggests that resources used to create high-tech web design and a specialized look are not nearlyas important as the actual content that the site offersto users. This finding is similar to general studies aboutwhy people are repeat visitors to websites.

Not surprisingly, over half of Latino Internet usersindicate that they visit websites that are “Latino and/orLatin American-oriented.” Of those that visit these sites,about one-third use U.S. Latino sites more, one-thirdsaid they use Latin American sites more, and one-thirduse both types of sites equally. Furthermore, nearly50% of Latinos use e-mail to correspond with friendsand family in Latin America and many would beinterested in using the Internet to send secure moneytransfers to Latin America.

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Latinos as Online Shoppers. With approximately 11million Latinos using the Internet in 2000, there is alarge potential Latino e-commerce market. This surveyfound that 43% of Latino Internet users have made anonline purchase, or about 3.5 million Latinosnationwide. The Pew Internet Project also reported that43% of Hispanics have made online purchases (2001).The most frequently purchased items are books, newsand educational materials, followed closely by music,videos and electronics. Clothing is the next mostpurchased item, followed by computer software andhardware, travel reservations and toys and gifts. Homeand office supplies, flowers, health and beautyproducts and food all ranked low on the list of itemspurchased.

These patterns closely match those of the generalpopulation (Pew, 2001). In general, Latinos are morelikely to purchase products on English languagewebsites, but not by a large majority. Half of therespondents preferred English language e-commercesites, but 21% preferred Spanish language websites,and an additional 23% used websites in bothlanguages equally; 44% could be described aspotential Spanish language e-commerce customers.

Spending patterns online vary among Latino e-shoppers. Most Latinos spend between $50 and $100on a typical online purchase. With approximately 3.5million Latinos engaging in e-commerce, that equalsnearly a half billion dollars into the “dot.com” marketeach time Latinos buy online. Further, Latinos tend tobe very satisfied with their purchases and are likely toshop again online.

Latinos and e-Commerce. While the popularconception of e-commerce is focused on consumer-oriented websites, the most profound growth ofapplying the technology to business has been inbusiness-to-business (B-to-B) relationships. Forexample, small manufacturing companies may beparts or components suppliers to major originalequipment manufacturers. Whereas 15 years ago,ordering, billing, or inventory management in such arelationship would have involved the exchange ofpaper and phone messages, today it is electronicallymediated over the Internet, or via private intranets.Unfortunately, Hispanic businesses have alsounderutilized network technologies and their e-commerce applications (TRPI, 2001). Most Hispanic

businesses tend to be smaller than average, and witheven the larger of these spending an average of only$2,000 on their websites for start-up costs andoperational expenses, the ability to compete ismarginal. An e-commerce website that is customer-friendly, well-integrated with the company’s activities,and using upgraded technology is likely to costconsiderably more (CHCI, 2000; TRPI, 2001). Theseshortcomings are exacerbated by the relative shortageof Latino engineers and computer scientists, who mightplay a role as a principal in an e-commerce company.

Privacy Issues. Finally, the issue of online privacy is amajor concern for Latino Internet users. Two-thirds ofrespondents report concern about ensuring theirprivacy and preventing personal information from beingobtained from the various websites that they visit.These data have also been corroborated by similarstudies (Cheskin, 2001). It is possible that there is onlya perception that privacy is an issue online, due to thelarge amount of media coverage surroundingoccasional website break-ins by hackers, but it is apotentially devastating perception for dotcoms whosebusinesses rely on users feeling comfortable and athome on their websites. The patterns of concernregarding privacy within the Latino community do notdiffer markedly from those in the general population.

Relevant conclusions for this section are:• There continues to be a lack of online content that is

culturally and community relevant, and in Spanish orbilingual.

• Latinos represent a growing and robust potentialmarket for online sales.

Action Opportunities for Improving Access

What is missing from public and private effortsdesigned to narrow the Latino digital divide areconcerted efforts that combine limited resources, andfocus on replicating what has been demonstrated towork. The following are recommendations to bridge thegap in access to network technology for Latinos:

Develop Leadership and Vision around IT fromwithin the Latino Community. Latino leadershipneeds to “own” the fact that economic and socialdevelopment goals can be more quickly realized viagreater efficacy in IT. Create new opportunities for

leadership development, such as training, mentorshipand job shadowing. Look to existing programs--forexample, the Computers in Our Future program, andIBM’s MentorPlace program--for best practices. IBMMentorPlace provides IBM employees with aninnovative opportunity for volunteering “virtually”inschools. Through the program, IBM employees engagein structured online activities that include mentoring,tutoring, and classroom projects with students andteachers.

Replicate and Disseminate Successful ITPrograms. Find examples of existing communityprojects that are demonstrably effective in allowingLatinos to experience the fruits of digital opportunity.These exemplary programs should be documented,described and disseminated nationally.

Make Networked Computers Publicly Accessible.Develop public access points with broadband Internetcapability. These might include digital kiosks atshopping malls, terminals in community centers, orprograms based in schools and libraries. All shouldpreferably include staff assistance for first-time users.How to access and use the information that isavailable through the Internet is an important part ofovercoming the digital divide for Latinos.

Educate Latinos about the Value of the Internet.It is essential to educate Latinos about the value ofadvanced technologies--how to use computers andthe Internet and its relevance to them--in order toincrease the use of technologies within theircommunities. Information technology can offeropportunities to surmount social and economicobstacles. Besides access, IT programs offer skillstraining, tutoring in applying for jobs, night-time Englishas a Second Language classes, and other classesneeded to enter the work force. Programs thatdemonstrate the wide range of uses will likely garnerthe most engaged and active Internet users. Outreachefforts should include Spanish language media.

Effective strategies to accomplish this goal should alsoinclude programs that encourage families to learn toexplore information technologies together. The dualbenefit of such programs is that parents can take anactive role in overseeing their children’s Internetexperience, while driving home the value of these

technologies to their education experience, career,finances, shopping and other activities to their childrenand themselves.

Increase Spanish and Bilingual Websites and Content.Create culturally appropriate content in English andSpanish specifically for the Latino community, andmake it relevant to local communities. Supportinitiatives that encourage the transition of Latino usersfrom passive consumers to active creators of contentto increase Latino-specific online content. While suchinitiatives carry a high cost, the investment is worthmaking to enhance cultural values, and give Latinos avoice to make significant cultural contributions throughthis medium of the 21st century.

Develop Reliable Translation Software. While currentsoftware is useful in making first-cut translations, itcontinues to have low accuracy rates, especially withculturally specific interpretations. However, it should bestressed that content created specifically for Spanishand bilingual Latino needs is greatly preferable totranslated content. IBM has developed speechrecognition software that enables users to surf theweb, execute online transactions, dictate text andaccess information by speaking into a computermicrophone, mobile device or a telephone. As part ofits Reinventing Education program, IBM’s Watch-me!-Read software is being used to teach reading in theearly grades at the Houston and Philadelphia schooldistricts which have a large concentration of studentswho only speak Spanish. A version of the software isbeing used at seven adult literacy centers across thenation--including in the South Bronx with a largelyLatino population--to help adults gain literacy skills,whether or not they are fluent in English.

Provide Incentives and Technical and MarketingTraining for Latino Businesses to Expand their WebPresence and E-Commerce Activities. Most Latino-owned businesses are small, and often operate in low-margin service sectors. A mix of public and privateprograms should be implemented, including buildingthe capacity of Hispanic-serving colleges anduniversities to provide e-commerce curricula andservices, such that Latino businesses can takeadvantage of e-commerce opportunities. Businessesshould be encouraged to invest in e-commerce tocapitalize on the digital economy, and to move thesecompanies into high value-added markets.

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In addition to focusing on existing Latino businesses, apublic-private infrastructure needs to be developed tofoster entrepreneurial, e-commerce start-ups. Forexample, there is a national network of over 600business incubation programs, with approximately 100focused on technology-based fledgling companies(Tornatzky, Batts, McCrea, Lewis, and Quittman, 1996).No more than a handful of these are focused on Latinocommunities and e-commerce opportunities, whichrepresents a huge public policy failing.

Provide Communities with Opportunities to UseTechnologies so that the Community Can Adaptthem to its Particular Activities. It is essential tohave a robust technical infrastructure and intuitiveapplications built around community activities. In manycases, lack of technical expertise and a focus onteaching office software applications makes centersless effective and attractive. There is no shortage ofinnovation and enterprise once communities begin torealize the potential of computer resources. Theseinclude applications that help people communicatewith each other, share ideas and find out what reallyinterest them.

Provide Opportunities for Teachers, Parents,Communities, and Businesses to Collaboratearound IT. Support community efforts that build on thediverse resources which partnerships can garner.Private/public partnerships in education and librarysettings extend the limited resources under whichthese institutions often function in underservedcommunities. This represents opportunities to uncoverbest practices and create experimental programs thatallow us to study and describe the process by whichthese groups can work together.

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III. Learning

The potential payoffs of IT in teaching and learningapplications are several: (1) there is great potential fortechnology to enhance learning, educationalattainment and achievement; (2) the acquisition of ITskills in an educational context can launch students onIT career paths and make them much more attractiveto employers; and (3) educational technology canchange learning to an “any time, any place” mode ofdelivery.

Learning TechnologyNot only is technology in education important toprepare students to be competitive in the workforce,but technology may also enhance the quality ofeducation (NASBE, 2001). Several factors create acompelling rationale for greater utilization of technologyin education. Computer use in the classroom createsgreater student “engagement” and appears to increasetime-on-task, an indicator that suggests students arefocusing on the learning exercise. Given the criticaldropout rates and college retention rates of Latino students,any approach that increases motivation and interestscan have secondary benefits in this area as well.

Research indicates that when computer technology iseffectively implemented in the educational system,teacher outcomes can be positive. Specifically,teachers show an increased interest in teaching andexperimenting with new applications for technology, anincrease in time spent on individualized instruction andmentoring, and improved communication withcolleagues and parents. There is a growing trendtoward learner-centered and project-based learning inwhich computers are used as a tool for the learner toaccomplish more diverse and complex learning goals,as opposed to the once-common approach to teachingstudents computer-related skills as separate subjects.Furthermore, these activities are more often takingplace in individual classrooms as more technology isdeployed there. Integrating technology into thecurriculum and placing the technology in the individualclassrooms facilitates the integration and consolidationof computer and learning endeavors. The NationalResearch Council (Bransford, Brown, and Cocking,2000) concludes that technology can be used to

create an effective learning environment in five ways:

• Bringing real-world problems into classrooms throughthe use of videos, demonstrations, simulations, andInternet connections to concrete data and workingscientists.

• Providing “scaffolding” support to augment whatlearners can do and reason on their path tounderstanding. Scaffolding allows learners toparticipate in complex cognitive performances, suchas scientific visualization and model-based learning,that is, more difficult or impossible without technicalsupport.

• Increasing opportunities for learners to receivefeedback from software tutors, teachers, and peers;to engage in reflection on their own learningprocesses; and to receive guidance towardprogressive revisions that improve their learning andcritical thinking skills.

• Building local and global communities of teachers,administrators, students, parents, and other interestedlearners.

• Expanding opportunities for teachers’ learning (p. 243).

A recent evaluation of IBM’s Reinventing Educationprogram (Education Development Center, 2001)indicated that investments in educational technologyproduced improvements in student performance,classroom management, and teaching quality. Theprogram, which was launched in 1994, reportssignificant performance gains for students in grades 7 through 11, and has now been expanded to 21school districts and states and eight countries. TheWatch-me!-Read software doubled gains in readingand reading comprehension in the HoustonIndependent School District, which has a largepopulation of Latino youngsters.

The lesson of initiatives such as this IBM program isthat the effective use of educational technology mustbe tied to school and curricular reform. Educationaltechnology is not an end in itself. It must lead tostandards-based reform, intellectually challengingcurricula, and getting underserved and minoritystudents “untracked” from dead-end schooling that isneither challenging nor relevant to their real worldfuture.

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In summary, learning technology has the potential toincrease student motivation, improve learningoutcomes, and engage teachers more effectively in K-12 schools and colleges and universities. Theseoutcomes have important positive implications forLatinos.

Postsecondary Distributed LearningIn addition to the technology-enhanced learningcapabilities mentioned above, the rapid expansion ofinformation technology in postsecondary educationhas also resulted in more opportunities for deliveringinstructional programming through distributed ordistance education programs. Distance education isdefined as “education or training courses delivered toremote locations via audio, video, or computertechnologies, including both synchronous andasynchronous instruction” (NCES, 1999). Distributedlearning encompasses distance learning and the useof technology to enhance learning on-campus and forlocal “commuter” students. The most significant benefitof distributed learning is that education becomesavailable “any time, any place.” This widespreadavailability can increase access among traditional andnon-traditional postsecondary students who becauseof work, family, geography, finances or otherconstraints, either cannot attend a “traditional” college,or cannot always be on-campus. The relevance forLatinos is obvious because these constraints areamong the most important obstacles to being involvedin postsecondary education.

Postsecondary distributed or distance educationprograms have increased significantly over the pastdecade. Data from the National Center for EducationStatistics (NCES) indicate that for the 1997-98 schoolyear approximately 34% of two-year and four-yearpostsecondary education institutions offered distanceeducation programs with an additional 20% planning tooffer distance education in the next three years (NCES,1999). Such programs were much more common inpublic schools, with 78% of public four-year institutionsoffering distance education compared to 19% ofprivate four-year schools. Distance education was alsomore likely in larger schools, with 87% of schools with10,000 or more students offering distance educationcompared to 19% of schools with less than 3,000students. However, because the majority of studentsenrolled in postsecondary education attend publicschools (77%) as well as schools with a population

over 3,000 (81%), most students have access todistance education. Overall about one millionundergraduates and 280,000 graduate students wereenrolled in distance education courses during the 1997-98 academic year (ibid).

Despite the increase in the number of distributed anddistance education programs, research data on itsimpact on the Latino community are limited, as aremore general data on access and participation. TheNational Center for Education Statistics studyconcludes:

Currently, there is very little information available onhow many students are actually making use ofdistance education course offerings, and we knoweven less about the characteristics of distancelearners. Without such information, there is no wayto know whether distance education is reachingthose who might not otherwise have access topostsecondary education, or simplyaccommodating those who already take advantageof such opportunities. (NCES, 1999).

Without this information, it is impossible to drawconclusions about the extent to which distributed ordistance education is reaching the Latino post-secondary market.

One research topic that has been of considerableinterest to distance education is the question of“comparative impact”. That is, if one compares studentstaught in a traditional setting versus those reached viadistance education, what are the differences in termsof learning and other outcomes? Across hundreds ofstudies, the most common finding (Russell, 1999) incomparative evaluation seems to be “no difference.”However, this becomes in effect a very positiveendorsement of the expansion of distance learning.When one factors in the savings in time, money, andlogistics for non-traditional students, the balance isarguably tipped toward the distance learning approach.Another research and program development issue indistance learning is that of standards and guidelinesfor curriculum development. That is, what constitutesan exemplary distributed-learning offering? What arebest practices in the presentation of materials, studentassessment, or the fostering of interaction amongparticipants, both instructional and student?

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Although the potential benefit of distributed or distanceeducation for Latinos may be high, it is most hamperedby limited home access to high speed Internet service.In actuality, the “any time any place” vision ofdistributed learning typically involves an individualhunched over a computer during the late hours. If thatcomputer is absent from a Latino home or dorm room,or the Internet access is snail slow, the potential fordistributed learning will never be realized.

In summary:• Distributed learning, at all levels and in many venues,

is rapidly increasing. Given the advantages oflogistics, cost, and “virtuality,” the approach haspotential in solving many issues of Latino educationalattainment. Some of the most dramatic impacts maybe realized with adult learners who are already in theworkforce.

• Limited home and campus access to computers andhigh speed Internet among Latinos is a criticalproblem in the greater use of distributed learningopportunities.

Educational Access--Changing the Terms of the DebateMuch rhetoric and writing has been devoted to the“digital divide” that has separated Latinos and otherminority groups, particularly in lower incomecommunities, from the opportunities afforded whites inusing computers in educational settings. In the earlyyears of this debate, much of it was focused on thedeployment of computers into classrooms, and theavailability of high-speed Internet service. For example,the ratio of students per computer has been and still isa common metric for the utilization of learningtechnology.

Nonetheless, other recent NCES data on K-12 indicatethat the quality of use of technology by classroomteachers differs markedly as a function of schoolcharacteristic. These are the more compelling statistics,strongly suggesting that “use” is much more thanmerely the presence of hardware, software, andInternet access. Specifically, teachers in low-minorityand low-poverty schools were more likely to usecomputers or the Internet for a wide range of activities(57%) than were teachers in high-minority and high-poverty schools (41%) (Smerdon, Cronen, Lamahan,Anderson, Iannotti & Angeles, 2000). These data

indicate an important need to not only provide schoolswith access to technology but also to provideadequate support and training to effectively integratetechnology into the curriculum. For example, in a 20-state study of K-12 “best practices” in implementinglearning technology, the most pressing need voiced byfaculty was for additional time and resources forprofessional development in applications of thetechnologies (Casson, Bauman, Fisher, Lindblad,Sumpter, Vickery & Tornatzky, 1997).

There are undoubtedly other factors contributing tothese figures on the quality of use of learningtechnology. For example, all things equal, poorer andminority K-12 schools tend not to attract the mostexperienced “master teachers.” Teacher turnover isoften higher, as is administrative leadership. The pointis that closing the quality-of-use gap will not springautomatically from more intensive professionaldevelopment and training in the technology. Poor andminority schools differ on a variety of dimension, andthe application of technology is only one of the moreimportant.

While hard data are mostly nonexistent at thepostsecondary level in terms of access and effectiveuse of distributed learning, informed observers indicatethat Latino-serving institutions are somewhat at adisadvantage in terms of hardware, software,infrastructure and staff training. Nonetheless, within thiscommunity a number of initiatives are underway toclose this gap. For example, HACU is involved in astrategic partnership with EDUCAUSE (Ramirez, Davis,Harris & Staudt, 2001), the leading informationtechnology organization in higher education workingon this issue. This National Science Foundation-sponsored network development initiative with anumber of its member institutions, as well as otherassociations of minority-serving institutions, is expectedto positively impact distributed learning as well as otherIT applications and planning. In the postsecondarycontext as well, the most problematic issues involvefaculty development. In one study (Irani, 2001), asurvey of postsecondary faculty found that only 7%considered themselves to be advanced in thetechnology they planned to use, and a full 65% viewedthemselves as beginners.

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Relevant conclusions:• School and institution-based access to IT hardware

and software has been significantly improved in thepast five years, although there are still significantqualitative differences in the quality of classroomapplications.

• A home-based “digital divide” still exists, andhampers Latinos in the development of basic andadvanced computer and information literacy skills.

• The most critical issue in K-12 school and highereducation learning technology use is the availabilityof people with skills and background to develop andimplement those applications.

Key Issues: Learning

In order to create equitable access to importantlearning technologies among underserved Latinopopulations several issues must be addressed. To asignificant degree, these issues express themselves inboth K-12 and postsecondary settings, although withquite different contexts and participants.

Raising Standards for Computer and InformationLiteracy. Developing a high degree of computer andinformation literacy among staff members is a prioritybecause technology cannot be fully utilized unlessthere is qualified staff available to train and assistusers. Increasingly, K-12 schools are creating standardsthat set minimum technology skill requirements for newteachers while also working to upgrade the computerand information literacy of all staff through ongoingtraining. In the postsecondary context, standards andguidelines are also being developed for distributedlearning and information literacy. To the extent thatsuch activities set rational directions and provide usefulpractices, they should be encouraged.

Parental Awareness of IT and Education. Becauseof lingering physical access problems in the home, andbackgrounds of lower educational attainment andlimited exposure to IT in the workplace, parents ofdisadvantaged and minority students are less likely tounderstand the linkages between IT, education andopportunities for their children. These issues are rarelyaddressed, as such, in school conferences, events orprograms. There is a huge and rewarding opportunityfor information outreach programs focused on parents.

There is also enough general knowledge about whatworks in terms of parent involvement programs toprovide early action templates.

Staff Turnover. The overall level of staff computer andinformation literacy can be affected by staff turnover.Loss of experienced staff can have severerepercussions for a technology program, dependingupon the nature of the position vacated. The level ofimpact depends on the degree of technology expertiselost, how hard it is to regain, and the size of theorganization. For programs in the early stages ofintegrating technology into their curriculum, the loss ofkey staff, such as a chief information officer, networkingor computer staff, technically sophisticated librarians, ortechnology coordinator, can dramatically slow the process.

Staff Training in Technology Integration. Manyteacher-training programs at universities are nowrequiring courses on how to integrate technology intothe curriculum, including some Hispanic-ServingInstitutions (HSIs). The impact of this type of trainingmay be evident in recent NCES data which indicatesthat 43% of teachers with less than three years ofclassroom experience--but with more extensiveexposure in their teacher training to instructionalapplications of technology--use network technologiesto create instructional materials compared to only 35%of teachers with 20 or more years of experience(Rowland, 2000). However, such training is notmandatory in all states and even where it is available tonew teachers it does nothing to eliminate the disparityin technology use between new and “old” staff.Professional development, however, does seem toimpact whether a teacher uses technology in theclassroom. For example, 41% of teachers who receivedno professional development used technology forclassroom instruction compared to 82% of teacherswho received more than 32 hours of professionaldevelopment (Rowland, 2000). Such training requires atime commitment from staff as well as financial supportfrom administration, and frequently enhancements todepartments, schools or colleges of education atcolleges and universities.

How technology is specifically integrated into thecurricula of a K-12 or college program depends onprogram goals and objectives. Technology integrationmay include teaching keyboarding, spreadsheet and

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multimedia production, or computer and networkhardware technology skills in a vocational programgeared towards job training, or it may mean developinglearner-centered or project-based learning toincorporate research, writing, creative and criticalthinking skills in a classroom. The scope and quality ofstaff training varies widely across the country and therehave been few if any systematic efforts to define andidentify best practices and exemplary programs.

Technology Planning. Developing a technology planor strategy appears to help the process of integratingtechnology into curricula K-12 schools or colleges anduniversities. While a program may succeed without aclearly articulated plan in place, an organization thatlacks a technology plan risks encountering major andexpensive diversions that can jeopardize its success.Whether part of a larger strategic plan or a stand-alonedocument, a technology plan establishesimplementation procedures, explains the decision-making process, sets future goals and clarifies theintended uses of technology.

Action Opportunities for Improving Learning with Technology

As suggested above, the “gap” in effective use oflearning technology through distributed learningapplications is a combination of: (1) physical access tohardware, software and high speed Internet access;and (2) more knowledge, shared among more people,in how to effectively harness the unique potential of ITto educational applications. The first issue is graduallybeing acted upon as a result of public policies andincentives, greater competition and national marketpenetration, as well as by a steady decline in the realcost of the technologies.

The most prominent issues--and associatedopportunities--concern the people part of the equation.Not the technology per se, but the ability to harness itto educational goals and objectives in ways that aremeaningful and appropriate for Latino learners. Thereare many opportunities for corporations andfoundations to make a difference in the national skillsset, as well as in the IT competencies of educationalleadership, as follows:

Focus Post-Secondary Attention on Hispanic-Serving Institutions (HSIs). Approximately half ofcollege-attending Latinos go to school in HSIs. TheseHSIs are also major producers of the K-20 teachersgoing into the Latino community. To the extent that thecommunity is to partake of the opportunities affordedby distributed learning, including distance learning, andthe pre- and in-service teacher training, these are likelyto be delivered by HSIs. A variety of capacity-enhancing initiatives, including the enhancement oftechnology infrastructure and the integration oftechnology across the curriculum, could be undertakenamong these institutions, as well as their participationin activities mentioned below.

Benchmark Performance and Practices in the Useof Learning Technology. The associated fields ofclassroom educational technology and distancelearning, which we have referred to here as distributedlearning, are rife with program “innovation” that isneither channeled nor challenged. For any givensubstantive (e.g., math) or setting (e.g., K-12,undergraduate education or graduate training)application, there are dozens or hundreds of programsthat are presumably innovative and effective. There is astrong need for national benchmarking researchprograms that can: (1) identify programs, policies, andpractices that are truly exemplary; (2) document anddescribe those exemplary approaches such thatothers can replicate the experience; and (3)aggressively disseminate those exemplars to otherLatino-serving organizations.

As an example, Achieve, Inc. is an independent,bipartisan, nonprofit organization that helps states raiseacademic standards, measure performance againstthose standards, establish clear accountability forresults and strengthen public confidence in theeducation system. Achieve, Inc. was founded followingthe 1996 National Education Summit that IBM hostedto address a growing concern about the quality ofeducation in America’s schools.

Concentrate on Faculty and Staff Development.The key to effective utilization of technology in either K-12 or colleges and universities seems to be in staff andfaculty development activities. These run the gamutfrom special emphases in teacher training curriculum,

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intensive summer workshops and institutes, in-servicetraining, individual and group faculty support, and peer-to-peer mentoring. A very intensive, longitudinal effort(using benchmarking and other evaluation researchapproaches) needs to be focused on developingprograms, and sorting out these programs amongthose that work well and those that do not. Collaborationsamong colleges and universities, particularly HSIs, andHispanic-serving school districts need to be supportedto enhance pre- and in-service teacher training.

Foster the Development of Standards and RationalAccreditation. One long-standing mode of definingthe range of acceptable practice in the educationalarena has been the use of standards and anaccreditation processes. These approaches arealready being used in teacher training programsfocused on technology, and in distributed learningstandards. An accelerated, thoughtful increase couldincrease the effective use of technology in education.

Launch Educational Outreach Programs to LatinoParents. A large scale information outreach programshould be launched to inform parents about the rolethat technology plays in education, the links betweenIT skills and job opportunities for their children, and thelong-term benefits of educational attainment.

Foster the Development of Technology StrategicPlanning. For the effective integration of technologyinto a learner-centered curriculum, or the administrationof a school, a district or a college or university, strategicplanning of technology to meet programmatic goals isessential. Efforts to enhance strategic planning at K-12schools and colleges and universities, involving thefaculty as well as administrators and other staff, needto be supported for technology to have an enduringand significant impact on the education of Latinos, andother students. IBM’s Project FIRST (FosteringInstructional Reform through Service and Technology)coordinates and develops partnerships amongparticipating Local Education Funds, schools,communities, and local technology corporations toincrease their understanding and use of technology,while enhancing teaching and learning.

Maintain Support for Applied Research onTeaching and Learning Technologies. The dearth ofresearch on Latinos and the application of teachingand learning technologies speaks to the need forresearch to better understand these technologies andappropriately deploy them for the enhancement ofLatino learning and educational attainment. This isparticularly true in higher education, but much of thework in K-12 schools does not take ethnic and culturalvariables into consideration, let alone gender andethnic interaction effects, and have many of thedrawbacks almost inherent in research in natural settings.

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IV. Technology Jobs for Latinos

It is abundantly clear that national economic growthover the past few years has been fueled in large partby advances and applications in information andcommunications technology (Atkinson, Court & Ward,1999). The sector has also been hampered by anuncertain supply of appropriately educated and skilledpersonnel. According to information technologyindustry estimates, over 425,000 of 900,000 new IT jobswill go unfulfilled in 2001 (ITAA, 2001). The five fastestgrowing careers are in computer-related fields, andthey offer earning potential that is significantly aboveaverage (Fullerton, 1999).

What are IT Jobs and Where are They?The definitions of an IT job are changing. Two generalapproaches have been utilized. One has identified anIT job existing in an industry that primarily sellsinformation and communication products. These mightinclude industries such as major telecommunicationscompanies, software producers, computermanufacturers, and companies that provide computerservices. A second, somewhat overlapping approachfocuses more on the skill sets involved in particularjobs, rather than the end products produced by acompany. By this definition an industry that is involvedin non-IT products or services (e.g., toasters, steel wire,graphical design), but uses information andcommunication skills and technologies in theirproduction, development or delivery might have manyIT jobs.

A recent study trying to identify “high tech” metropolitanareas (Markusen, Chapple, Schuck, Yamamoto & Yu,2001) included a more liberal definition of technologyindustries to include the service sector (e.g., financialservices, insurance). The findings surprisingly placeChicago in the top tier of technology-based regionaleconomies, and the overall ranking has much more ofa frost-belt flavor--with a greater representation of oldermanufacturing centers--than do past studies of thistype. As some of the core IT industries (e.g.,computers, telecommunications, and electronics)become “mature,” they will be overshadowed by a host

of unforeseeable applications of those technologies innew markets and settings.

One implication of IT pervasiveness is that there will besubtle, cumulative, and continuous changes in IT skillsets. To the extent that IT becomes an integral part ofother technological domains, those who take theresultant jobs will be expected to mastermultidisciplinary skills and knowledge. The biotechrevolution is illustrative. While much popular attentionhas been focused on the Human Genome Project, andits implications for preventive medicine and drugdevelopment, not widely known is that much of thecritical research will involve information-processing ona grand scale, involving new hardware and softwaretechnologies.

This phenomenon of IT technologies migrating into anincreasing variety of industries and the associatedchanges in requisite skill sets, also has implications foreducation, training, and the “pipeline” into IT jobs. Forexample, the traditional educational route has passedthrough coursework and/or degrees in computerscience, systems analysis, electrical engineering orallied fields. To some extent this has been a deterrentto many individuals with the cognitive skills andinterests to succeed in IT fields, but who arenonetheless turned off by the culture of thesedisciplines. An extensive literature search suggests thatwomen and minorities are turned off by the “geek”world (Margolis, Fisher & Miller, 1999) that has beenhistorically dominated by white or Asian males.

Some of the implications of these observations forLatinos and IT jobs include the following:

• Despite recent setbacks in some IT industries, thereare a large number of jobs that demand networkskills and knowledge, and the long-term growthprospects are bullish.

• IT jobs offer high earning potential.• IT jobs will be geographically dispersed, with

opportunities emerging anywhere, including wherethere are large concentrations of Latinos.

• Most IT jobs and job growth will be in industries thathistorically have not been considered as IT-intensive(e.g., financial services, manufacturing). In thestrictest sense, these are “IT-enabled” jobs, asopposed to hard-core IT positions. Nonetheless, mostof them pay well and create substantial opportunities.

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• IT job skills will increasingly be merged withknowledge and skills from other disciplines andfields, which represent prime applications of the coretechnologies. This implies that the locus of IT skillsdevelopment -- and associated jobs -- will beincreasingly found outside of computer science and engineering fields per se.

The Challenge: The Failing HumanResource PipelineDiscouraging statistics could be cited at great length,but perhaps an appropriate summary of the problemcan be derived from the President’s InformationTechnology Advisory Committee (PITAC, 1999) reporton an IT research agenda:

There is, without any doubt, a vast untapped talentpool in the United States among women andminorities, currently under-represented in engineeringand information sciences. African-Americans, Latinos,and Native Americans constitute a fourth of the totalU.S. workforce. Yet members of these minoritiescollectively comprise only 6.7 percent of the U.S.computer and information science labor force (alldegree levels), 5.9 percent of the engineeringworkforce, 1.7 percent of the U.S. computer sciencefaculty, and 4.9 percent of the engineering faculty.Women participate in both computer science andengineering at low rates for all degrees andsubsequently in academia and industry.

Key Issues: Employment

The problem of Latino preparation for and participationin the rapidly growing IT sector is inseparable fromlarger, chronic issues of education and training. Theseissues are obvious in settings that range from pre-school through postsecondary education, and are atthe core of most of the problems that have hamperedLatino social and economic advancement. Some of themost critical of those issues include the following:

Latino Family Dynamics. The work of researcherssuch as Eccles (1994); Eccles, Wigfield & Schiefele(1997); and Margolis, Fisher & Miller (1999), hasdemonstrated the importance of personal values,attitudes and expectations, and how many of these aregrounded in cultural values and family patterns. Latino

families (Shorris, 1992) possess a strong centripetalforce; that is, they tend to stay close together and inthe same location. The pull of family may be observedin the tenacity of beliefs as well as enduring roleimages for Hispanic males and females. At a basiclevel of belief and values, the men’s role is to work tosupport large families; women stay home to tend to thechildren. Bureau of Labor Statistics figures show thatwhile Hispanic males have the highest workerparticipation rate in all U.S. industries by race and sex,Hispanic women have the lowest participation rate(Fullerton, 1999).

Jobs in information technology may not be coincidentwith the traditional images of what a man or womanmay do. As heard from one Ph.D.-level Latina informant:“So you can write code, but can you make a tortillafrom scratch?” And what a young person from a Latinofamily does reflects upon the family. Thus, given thepower and attraction of the family, Latino students maybe reluctant to go away to college or to move awayfrom the neighborhood to take a job. They are also likelyto leave college if they do not find cultural support frompeers, mentors, and Latin studies programs aimed atretention (Tapia & Lanius, 2000). There are, of course,countervailing forces such as scholarship programs thatencourage bright students to excel in school, a naturalconsequence of which is leaving home. Nonetheless,the degree to which primary relationships keep studentsbound to home and neighborhood versus moving awayto attend higher education and participate in IT careersremains a large unknown.

Immigration and Social Integration. Virtually everyindicator of educational or vocational accomplishmentwithin the Latino community is related to whether ornot individuals come from first generation immigrantfamilies or earlier periods of social integration. In arecent large-scale study conducted by the TomásRivera Policy Institute, it is clear that immigrant Latinofamilies experience reduced educational outcomes,despite major parallel gains by U.S.-born Latinos(Bean, Trejo, Capps & Tyler, 2001). The pattern ofimmigration is likely to be a major factor in the schooldropout problem, particularly given the relatively highshare of immigrants among Hispanic adults, which isincreasing.

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Language skills are an important component of thesephenomena (Rumberger & Larson, 1998), and thereare differences across immigrant groups. We expectthat this factor will be reflected in educational andvocational aspirations at the close of middle school, incourse-taking behavior during high school, in theavailability of home-based computers, and in access toIT role models in the community. In many immigrantfamilies there is insuffient knowledge about the natureof the U.S knowledge economy, the link betweeneducation and job opportunities, and the absolutenecessity that children reach the highest levels ofeducational attainment that is possible. In conclusion:

• Latino immigration patterns may be exacerbatingproblems in the IT workforce pipelines, particularly tothe extent that it introduces students into schoolsystems with language deficits and limited parentalmodels of academic achievement.

Role Models, Mentoring and Access to InformalNetworks. Formal educational accomplishments areonly one aspect of being directed to and succeedingin IT careers. To succeed, and make appropriateeducational choices, it is critical that middle and highschool students avail themselves of social capital, oftenmediated by their parents and significant institutionalagents (Stanton-Salazar & Dornbusch, 1995). There isalso likely to be a somewhat different level ofinvolvement of peer role models in the Latino community.In many non-Latino communities, IT is not only visible,but also pervasive. It is reflected in the presence in thehome of computers and high speed Internet access,and in the prominent use in of IT metaphors and code words in casual conversation. It is inherently easier for young, middle class non-Hispanic whites and/or Asiansto become connected to the IT-related social capital oftheir communities than it is for Latinos.

Mentoring and informal exposure to IT role models canperform a critical function for Latino youth. It can raiseawareness about career paths and employmentopportunities in a wide variety of IT-enabled jobs. Ifacquiring IT skills in school can be seen as instrumentalto a more attractive future life, it will likely increase theperserverance of student in school and in IT.

During the post-secondary years, formal internship orco-op programs can enhance mentorship and

networking, but in their absence relatively fewerwomen and/or minorities have comparable resources.Tapia & Lanius (2000) studied the retention rates ofHispanic American and African Americanundergraduate students at Rice University. Retentionseemed to be a function of the degree of interactionswith other students (particularly other minorities), theProgram Director, and an identifiable mentor.

Even after women and minorities have gained entranceto the IT industry, problems still often exist. A recentsurvey of industry executives (Bruno, 1997) found that69% of respondents had company diversity policies inplace to encourage the hiring of women and minorities,but only 14% and 25% had programs to help furtherthe careers of women and minorities, respectively. Thefollowing conclusions seem appropriate:

• Latino youth have relatively weak or underdevelopednetworks of IT role models in their communities.

• Latino youth tend to have less involvement in ITmentoring and informal networking through theireducational experiences.

Early Childhood Education. It may seem prematureto discuss pre-school in the context of informationtechnology jobs, but the data are clear on two points:(1) early learning experiences, at home and away, arecritical for cognitive development and insuringsubsequent success in K-12; and (2) Latinos are lesslikely to partake of high quality pre-school education.This occurs in the context of the rich family orientationof Latino culture. However, to the extent that economicnecessity dictates that both parents enter theworkforce, and with the potential absence of extendedfamily support among recently arrived immigrants,nuclear families may be more reliant on extra-familialresources such as day care centers.

Unfortunately, there is also overwhelming evidence thatLatinos do not avail themselves of preschool programs(ERIC, 2001). Only 20% of Latino children under theage of five are enrolled in early childhood education,compared to 44% of African Americans and 42% ofwhites. Despite the fact that over a third of Latinochildren live in poverty, only 26% are enrolled in HeadStart. Only 65% of Latino children three to five yearsold are read to, compared to 90% of whites and 75%of African Americans.

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On the plus side, there is evidence (The CollegeBoard, 1999) that a number of day care models seemto produce long-term, substantial academic gains. Forexample, IBM’s KidSmart Early Learning Programprovides low-income preschool children withexperience with technology using educational softwareand specially designed computers in nonprofit daycarecenters. In New York City, the KidSmart program placedYoung Explorer computers in the Grand StreetSettlement on the Lower East Side, a mixed day careand Head Start program. The center serves 180children; 85% are Latino, and the substantial majorityare low income, with almost half qualifying for HeadStart. The KidSmart program is also being used inLatin America using early learning software in Spanish(IBM, 2001). A conclusion is:

• Weaknesses in the educational pipeline for Latinosbegin at the preschool level, with profound differencesin access to and utilization of educational experiences.

Latino Dropouts. Latino children are significantly morelikely to leave school early, most of them by the ninthgrade. This is arguably the most critical IT “pipeline”problem. At 57.5% in 1996, Latinos have the lowest highschool completion rate of any major ethnic group. Thiscompares to a rate of 82.3% for whites, 75.3% forAfrican Americans, and 70.0% for Native Americans(Gandara & Maxwell-Jollly, 1999). This problem is alsoexacerbated by the fraction of the Latino populationwho are immigrants, some of whom never enter theformal school system in this country and who, onaverage, are likely to have fewer years of schooling intheir country of origin.

For example, according to data analysis by the CollegeBoard (Vernez & Krop, 1999), of the adult populationaged 25 or more in 1990, 21.1% were not collegegraduates. For Latinos of Mexican descent the figurewas 51.0%, and 36.7% for all other Hispanics. Thesefigures are expected to drop to 39.1% and 28.9%respectively by the year 2015. However, over the nextfew years the dropout rate for other racial and ethnicgroups will decline more sharply, and by 2015 thelikelihood of adults of Mexican descent having lessthan 12 years of education will be four times more likelythan for non-Hispanic whites (compared to a 3 to 1ratio in 1990). The recent resurgence in educationaltesting may exacerbate the Latino dropout problem aswell (Beatty, et.al., 2001).

It should be pointed out that despite the somewhatdiscouraging nature of these summary statistics, thereare hopeful signs that this problem can be meaningfullyaddressed. For example, there are a number of earlyintervention programs targeted toward Latino youth atrisk--as well as other minorities--that are producingsignificant and replicable results (NPEC, 2001). Whilefurther program development work is needed, evengreater effort need to be devoted to disseminating“what works” to schools around the country.

Relevant conclusions are:• In terms of sheer magnitude, the dropout problem is

the most significant contributor to a weak flow of ICT-qualified young Latinos.

• The dropout problem is exacerbated by projectedimmigration patterns.

Educational Attainment and Achievement. Even forthose Latino students who remain through high school,there are de facto dropouts from the IT workforcepipeline because of decrements in educationalattainment or achievement. There are several aspectsof this phenomenon. One is the tendency of Latinostudents to get poorer grades, to get “tracked” into lesschallenging (and qualifying) curricula, and most criticalfor this discussion, to not take computer sciencecoursework and to opt out of higher level math andscience coursework. For example, in data reported bythe College Board, Hispanics tended to be outscoredby a multiple of 3 to 4 by whites and Asians in thepercentage of 12th grade students scoring at theproficient or advanced levels in the reading, math andscience NAEP tests (The College Board, 1999). Inaddition, NCES data show that, as recently as 1994,about 62% of non-Hispanic white students and 67% ofAsian/Pacific Islander students take Algebra II,compared to 51% of Hispanics (NCES 1997). Theimportance of these data is underscored given thatone of the most powerful predictors of collegegraduation is the intensity of the high schoolcurriculum (Adelman, 1999).

Some of these differences may be a function ofstructural discrimination. A recent study by the TomásRivera Policy Institute (Pachon , Federman & Castillo,2000) found that, controlling for size, the availability ofAdvanced Placement (AP) courses in California high

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schools was negatively related to both minorityenrollment and having a large proportion of lowincome students.

A second aspect of educational attainment involvespostsecondary education. On average, a much smallerpercentage of Latinos obtain four-year college degreesin any field. For example, in 1996 the National Centerfor Educational Statistics (NCES, 1997) reported thatLatinos accounted for 5.8% of enrollment at four-yearinstitutions, but 11.7% of the enrollment at two-yearschools. The latter figure is much closer to theirrepresentation in the population at large. These trendsare exacerbated for Latino women. In 1998, NCESreported that 17.1% of Latino women earned aBachelor’s degree compared to 36.1% for non-Hispanic white females.

To the extent that Latinos get involved in IT programsand degrees, and since their most likelypostsecondary destination is the two-year institution,they are likely to be employed at lower levels ofprofessional responsibility. This is illustrated by a recentNCES report (Zucker & Dawson, 2001) looking at 1992earnings data for 1982 high school graduates. Amongall respondents, those who had achieved a Bachelor’sdegree or higher in computer or information scienceranked second in earnings of 19 majors. However, forthose who had achieved an Associate’s degree incomputer and information sciences, their earningsranked ninth of 12 majors. Unfortunately, only 8.3% ofLatinos graduating from high school in 1982 achieved aBachelor’s degree compared to 21.4% for whites.

Even for those Latinos who matriculate at four-yearcolleges and universities, their level of achievement islower than might be expected. This is most reflected ingrades achieved, courses taken, and the extent ofpreparation for higher levels of education. This is, ineffect, an “overprediction” phenomenon (Bowen &Bock, 1998). That is, minorities tend to do less well thanmight be expected from test scores. One result is thata smaller fraction of Latinos go on to graduate school,and into higher levels of IT-related credentials. Thereare very few Latino professors or senior scientists andtechnologists in industry. Therefore, we have reachedthe following conclusions:

• At every level of the kindergarten through graduateschool pipeline, Latinos display a lower level ofattainment (e.g., percent completing college) andachievement (e.g., high school GPA, ACT scores).

• At the postsecondary level, Latinos tend to migrate tolocal community colleges rather than colleges anduniversities away from home.

The Special Role of the Community College. Forseveral reasons, a local community college oftenbecomes the postsecondary institution of choice forthe Latino family. For one, the significantly lower cost fora community college education makes it particularlyappealing. Second, that community colleges are localmakes them more compatible with the stay-at-hometendencies of the Latino family. Third, communitycollege programs--degree-oriented or not--havetended to emphasize practical utility and linkages tojobs.

Community colleges also have organizationalflexibilities that are very appropriate given the nature ofIT industry. They can more easily provide a range ofeducation and training offerings than can otherpostsecondary institutions. These include: two-yeardegree programs; programs focused on transfer to afour-year institution; contract training for individualcompanies; and certificate programs that represent abundle of related coursework around a central ITtheme (e.g., “Global Commerce”).

Given their flexibility, community colleges have oftenbeen more responsive to local and national trends andneeds. The growth of IT jobs has been more prominentoutside of the mainline IT industries, and often aroundcontext-specific needs. Curricula need to be responsiveto this fact. For example, Macomb Community Collegein Michigan has been offering course work on simulationsoftware and applications, but doing it in the context oftheir manufacturing curriculum.

One of the most important issues regarding communitycollege-based education and training is the “portability”of the skills for participants. For example, in addition toproviding contract training for employers, the communitycolleges are also providing a venue for certificationprograms tied to specific vendor products. Companiessuch as Microsoft, Cisco, and Oracle have been particularlyactive. While the immediate outcome for a student is

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greater employability through increased skills, there is adebate about whether such skills are marketable in worksettings with different technology platforms. In effect, anew system of credentials has developed, largely drivenby private interests that may or may not be in balance(Adelman, 2000) with long-term public interests, suchas a mobile, multi-skilled workforce.

A related issue is the movement of community collegedegree recipients (or participants in targeted certificateprograms) into higher levels of education. In a sense,this is a conflict between more generalized skills andthose that are more specific and immediately applicable.According to data from the American Association ofCommunity Colleges (AACC) the production of two-year degrees in computer science is still relatively low.Since this is a highly transferable degree, the implicationsfor IT workforce may be significant. In conclusion:

• Community colleges are a key education and trainingproviders for Latinos for a variety of economic,curricular and location reasons.

• There are lingering issues concerning thetransferability, generality and long-term careerpotential of some community college programs.

• Because of their operating and curricular flexibilities,community colleges may be able to take the lead inproviding a menu of complementary education andtraining programs--some industry-specific, sometechnology or vendor-specific, and others addressingmore general skills and knowledge.

Fixing the Innovation Engine. It would be incorrect,however, to argue that there have not been countlessattempts to address and remedy the problemsdescribed above. In fact, there is a growing researchliterature about educational programs thatdemonstrably work for Latinos, and that span thegamut from classroom teaching strategies to new waysof making parent-school interaction more of apartnership rather than an episode (Fashola , Slavin,Calderon & Duran, 1997; Fashola & Slavin, 1997; Reyes,Scribner & Scribner, 1999). Moreover, as state and localpolicy makers wake up to the fact that a well-educatedLatino population is essential for the future well beingof the society and the economy, we can expect to seeincreasing investments in the development andsharpening of program innovation.

If we are well along the way in understanding whatworks to solve those problems and strengtheneducational delivery systems, why are we not makingfaster progress in closing the gap? The problem is thatthe system for getting innovations into the classroom isnot working as well as it might. Despite what we knowabout the dissemination, adoption, and implementationof new innovations (Rogers & Shoemaker, 1980;Tornatzky & Fleischer, 1990), there seems to be nointegrated system to support the process of change inthe world of education.

Over the last 20 years, a small body of research hasemerged on the problems of translating ideas intoaction, and the findings illustrate three fundamental points.First, innovation implementation is an organizationalchallenge that is by no means unique to schools.Numerous organizations fall prey to the “knowing-doinggap”; they fail to implement the practices that are knownto be most effective. Second, a variety of factors mayinfluence innovation implementation, including culture,knowledge exchange networks, and openness toexperience. Third, the factors that facilitate and impairinnovation implementation occur at different levels: thefederal government, state governments, districts, schools,and teachers. For example, the federal Department ofEducation’s National Diffusion Network program for manyyears disseminated useful educational practices.Similarly, state educational agencies as well as local schooldistricts typically have programs, structures and policiesintended to accelerate the process of improvingeducational attainment.

What is not clear, however, is whether, or where, anintegrated system of innovation actually exists, and howthis might affect the adoption of proven programs,policies, and practices affecting Latino educationalattainment and achievement. Nonetheless, there areseveral well-defined models of how the processes ofinnovation adoption and implementation should work,and perhaps the current systems can be improved.

Two conclusions summarize this section:• A growing number of validated programs increase

educational attainment and achievement for Latinos,and also increase the likelihood of successfullynavigating through the IT pipeline.

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• There is little evidence that schools and schoolsystems pay much attention to this innovationstockpile, and there is an opportunity to create new“innovation systems” to accelerate the use of provenpractices and programs.

Action Opportunities for Technology and the Workforce

The problems and issues described above areimmense, since they involve literally millions of people,thousands of school organizations, and hundreds ofLatino communities across the country. Nonetheless,there are several approaches that the foundation andcorporate communities can pursue to effectivelychange the IT pipeline for Latinos, as follows:

Use Benchmarking to Empirically Identify BestPractices. Benchmarking involves a simple disciplinethat includes: (1) identifying domains of organizationalactivity from which one can derive indicators of, orcontributors to, a robust local economy; (2) gatheringperformance data across a large number of communities,in order to identify those that are exemplary in theirperformance; and (3) identifying “best practices” andpolicies used in those communities that might beemulated by their peers (Tornatzky, 2000).

Launch National Programs to AggressivelyDisseminate Best Practices. As exemplary programsthat meet the IT workforce needs of Latinos areuncovered, the challenge then becomes putting thoseprograms into operation in the nation’s K-12 andpostsecondary institutions. No federal agency doesthis very well, and there is a huge opportunity for aconsortium of prestigious foundations and companiesto take the lead. They will find some allies among theeducational infrastructure (i.e., The Center for Researchon the Education of Students Placed at Risk), andsuch an approach has the potential for nationalimpact. For example, a recent effort (Casson et.al.,1997) documented practices in implementingeducational technologies and disseminated theresultant “cookbook” to over 25,000 schools.

Focus on the Dropout Problem. One of the mostsignificant factors in fixing the IT pipeline is theproblem of students dropping out of school. It also

should be understood that dropping out is both asymptom and a cause. It is a symptom of the lack ofsuccessful experiences in the early grades, and thusan indictment of many features of the educationalexperience for Latinos. For example, many Latinoyoungsters have not been schooled--either formally orexperientially--on the relationship between educationalattainment, computer competencies, and futureremunerative career paths. Nonetheless, a student whohas dropped out is unlikely to return and finishsecondary school, much less college matriculation.

Better Understand the Community College Role.Community colleges are a popular postsecondarydestination for Latinos. They provide an open, accessibleand inexpensive venue in which a variety of IT-relevanteducational experiences are offered or brokered. It is notclear, however, in what ways the community collegeexperience helps or hinders the long term IT career aspirationsof Latinos. This demands research into student careeroutcomes, and benchmarking of exemplary programswhere those outcomes are enhanced.

Develop IT Leadership in Schooling. The essence ofan industry-responsive, nimble approach to IT workforceissues is several fold: (1) understand the industry; (2)understand the technology; (3) understand the changingpatterns of jobs and skill needs; and (4) craft curriculumaccordingly and quickly. There are few individuals ineither K-12 or postsecondary education who have thatmix of talents. Moreover, the instructional staff in thoseinstitutions for the year 2005 is already in place, withmany positions going unfilled.

What are needed are national programs to enhancethe skills and knowledge of educators in ways that arerelevant to the IT workforce pipeline. At the K-12 level,this might involve summer-long IT Academies for teachersand administrators, hosted by distinguished universities,but with a heavy role in curriculum development playedby the IT industry. A central component would focus on“best practices” in enhancing students’ academicperformance and their ability to use computers. At thepostsecondary level, there could be parallel Academiesfocused on community college and college faculty. Again,the focus would be on weaving in the utilization ofcomputation in the context of content courses. IT skillsand applications are becoming pervasive throughoutthe economy, yet this is not widely reflected in thecontent or process of postsecondary education.

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V. Who Owns theAction Agenda?

In the three major sections of this report, over 20 actionopportunities have been identified. No single entity ororganization could hope to address all of those calls tochange. Nonetheless, it is worthwhile to suggest whichentities might “own” which action items towardsimplementation.

IT CompaniesIn a market-based economy, any company has aprimary obligation to pursue its business interests andstrategy. However, a more expansive conception ofbusiness interest would put IT companies in a morecentral role in implementing many of the actionopportunities discussed in this report. For example,many of the educational reform recommendationsherein would in the long run increase the supply of IThuman resources. More generally, IT companies shouldincrease the nature and scope of their partnershipswith educational institutions, at every level of theeducational system. Similarly, through its philanthropicand public interest functions, IT companies could playan important and credible role in community educationand awareness building. Existing and newlyestablished IT companies, both large and small, play aprominent role in the development of Spanish-language websites, reliable translation software, andnew educational hardware and software.

Federal Education Agencies Funding for education is a local and state endeavor;however, there is a role that can be played by federalagencies with an educational mandate, primarily theU.S. Department of Education and the NationalScience Foundation. For example, this report hascalled for a more systematic and aggressive approachto: (1) identifying “best practices” in educationalprograms and the application of educationaltechnology; and (2) disseminating those lessons andfostering local replications. This is a natural and logicalrole for USDOE and NSF, and one that has fallensomewhat by the wayside in recent years. Increasedfunding and new leadership is needed, as does aparticular “best practice” focus on issues of Latinoeducation and IT use.

Other agenda items that might be assumed by theseagencies include a greater emphasis on faculty andstaff development related to IT, fostering thedevelopment and use of standards in using learningtechnology, and developing IT leadership in schoolsettings. Most educational reform efforts are likely toimprove the IT pipeline issues at a general level;however, there are special challenges within the Latinocommunity that need special attention, such as thedropout problem.

Federal IT-Related Agencies. The IT agenda doesnot reside in any single federal agency, but disparatecomponents (e.g., R&D, community planning projects)are scattered across several agencies, or sub-unitswithin those agencies. As suggested in this report,there is a continuing need for IT planning andawareness building in Latino communities. Similarly,there are needs for new applications of educationaltechnologies, Spanish language software and Internetpresence, and continuing monitoring of IT workforceissues.

Higher Education. Colleges and universities haveplayed a historically important role in many of theaction recommendations embedded in this report.They are the producers of teachers and educationalleaders that serve Latino communities. Many areinvolved in the creation of new, novel educationalprograms (“best practices”) and should continue to beinvolved. Unfortunately, not enough people in highereducation are involved in the systematic disseminationof best practices, either related to IT or more generally.A number of colleges and universities are involved incommunity development projects, and should becomeinvolved likewise in the community education anddevelopment activities recommended in this report.

State and Local Education Agencies. Several states,and even more metropolitan areas, have a highconcentration of Latino residents. As such, many of theissues highlighted in this report are part of the dailypolicy agenda for states and local units of government.In fact, most of the action recommendations in thisreport will be implemented at that level.

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Private Foundations. A number of major privatefoundations have a longstanding interest in Latinoissues along with a growing interest in the knowledgeeconomy. Given the flexibility of the foundationcommunity, they could support many of the actionopportunities described here. To the extent that suchinitiatives would seemingly overlap the work of federalagencies (e.g., in the support of innovative new IT-related programs), they can act as a partner of, ormodel for, agency programs. For example, foundationscould support IT leadership development efforts inschools and communities, nurture educational reformefforts that are related to IT and IT workforce issues,and support the greater and more effective use of IT ineducational delivery. Many foundations already pursuea giving agenda in these areas; nonetheless, some ofthe action recommendations in this paper may attracttheir further attention.

Community-Based Organizations. Community-based organizations tend to be very responsive to theneeds of the community they serve, and they oftensupport the more marginalized communities. Moreover,Latinos have demonstrated a willingness to turn toCBOs for technology skills and usage. As such,partnerships that include CBOs are likely to have agreater impact on Latinos and their families.

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VI. Conclusion

The digital divide is only nominally about access to thehardware and software, as opposed to meeting theeducational, cultural, creative and business needs ofLatino users. It is more broadly about the constructionof knowledge, both by individuals and by communities,and the applications of technology in meeting diverseneeds and goals. Network technologies do not solveproblems in and of themselves; however, they are ameans by which those needs and goals can be met.The Internet offers an opportunity to aggregate theinterests of many people separated by geography,increase their social capital by communicating witheach other and sharing information on the way tobuilding a political dialogue about which issues andspokespersons to support, and creating a robustbusiness culture.

Access to network technologies and skills in Latinocommunities is essential, as economic opportunitiesincreasingly require digital literacy. Networkedtechnologies are generally accepted as necessarytools of everyday life, and it is important to respond toconcerns about successfully integrating them intoLatino community life at all age levels. The soonerthese communities are introduced to the culture oftechnology with all the benefits and problems thatcome with it, the sooner technology begins topenetrate into the community and it can be used toeffectuate change.

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