University of Wollongong Thesis Collections

University of Wollongong Thesis Collection

University of Wollongong Year

The social impact of using automatic

identification technologies and

location-based services in national

security

Holly TootellUniversity of Wollongong

Tootell, Holly, The social impact of using automatic identification technologies and location-based services in national security, PhD thesis, School of Information Systems and Technology,University of Wollongong, 2007. http://ro.uow.edu.au/theses/753

This paper is posted at Research Online.

http://ro.uow.edu.au/theses/753

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Chapter 1 Introduction

1.1 Introduction

This thesis is situated in the field of Information Systems (IS), focused in the area of the

social impact of technology. It aims to add to the knowledge about the relationship

between automatic identification (auto-ID) technologies, location-based services (LBS)

and national security initiatives, and specifically the impact these technologies have on

society. Auto-ID and LBS are examples of high-technology solutions that are being

used for national security purposes, favoured because of their advanced information

capabilities. Pervasive location-based identification technology allows movement of

citizens and visitors to be identified more efficiently and with greater precision than has

previously been possible. Their scope for use can range from immigration and visa

control applications through biometric identification on passports, to advanced home-

detention functionality RFID chips for movement tracking. With an increasing pressure

from national security agencies to have a more pervasive, location-aware understanding

of environments this thesis will examine the ‘price’ society pays for this knowledge.

This chapter provides an overview of the thesis. It begins by providing a background to

the research problem then is followed by a description of the research goals and the

methodology that will be used to achieve the goals. The thesis structure and the content

of each chapter are then described.

1.2 Background to the Research

1.2.1 Automatic Identification Technologies

Automatic Identification (auto-ID) technologies are used to identify entities without the

need for direct interaction (Michael and Michael 2004). Prior to auto-ID technologies,

the only way to identify someone or something was through manual techniques which

included fingerprints, tattoos or other markings. Auto-ID technologies have flourished

since the 1960s and the most recognisable technology is the barcode. The barcode is a

means of identifying objects that are registered in a central database. Other auto-ID

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technologies include: magnetic-stripe cards, smart cards and biometric identification.

Examples of their use include financial transaction cards, citizen identification and

supermarket product labels. The growth of auto-ID technologies is related to the

concurrent increases in computer processing power, storage, and networking

capabilities (Michael and Michael 2004; Yoffie 1997).

Some of the types of auto-ID applications that are being used as a response to national

security are identified in Table �1.2 (Abbass and Essam 2006; Michael and Masters

2006).

Table �1.1 Use of Auto-ID Technologies in National Security

Technology Use

Biometric Passports for monitoring visitors to country

Auto-ID Cards Citizen identification Social security/welfare

1.2.2 Location-Based Services

Location-based services (LBS) are services that exploit knowledge about where an

information device is located. The information device can be used to locate living and

non-living entities. LBS provide geographically-oriented data and information services

to users across telecommunication networks (Shiode et al. 2004, p.350). Location can be

represented in a variety of ways and depending on the context LBS can utilise several

techniques for knowing where an information device is geographically located. Global

Positioning Satellites (GPS), Assisted GPS (aGPS), cell identification (Cell ID),

broadband satellite network, Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) and Wireless Local

Area Networks (WLAN) are examples of technologies used for military and civilian

applications described further in Chapter 2 (Kupper 2005, p.5; Rao and Minakakis

2003, p.62; Zeimpekis et al. 2003, p.20).

LBS are used in consumer, commercial and government market segments for many

purposes, including: navigation, personalised marketing material dependent on location

(Rao and Minakakis 2003, p.63; Zeimpekis et al. 2003, p.24). Lopez (2004, p.172)

provides an alternate categorisation of functionality which consists of six categories:

safety services, information services, enterprise services, consumer portal services,

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telematics services and triggered location services. This higher-level categorisation of

functions is useful for discussing the purpose of applications. The ability of LBS for

transmission and determination of location information (either push or pull in nature)

provides an invaluable resource for preventive, protective and responsive situations. A

pull technology requires the user to request the information, where a push service

delivers the information automatically based on the position of the user (Paavilainen

2001). Küpper (2005, p.3) classifies this distinction in style of service as proactive and

reactive. In this instance, it is understood that a reactive LBS is always activated by the

user, and a proactive LBS is not explicitly requested by the user. The other

differentiating factor between the categories is that a reactive service delivers one

location-event per user request. It is implicit in a proactive service that the user location

be tracked permanently (at least for the life of the service request) to be able to deliver

location specific information when location events occur.

In regard to national security, the ability of LBS to transmit and identify location-

specific information provides an invaluable resource for both preventive and reactive

situations. Some of the types of LBS applications that are being used as a response to

national security are identified in Table �1.2 (Abbass and Essam 2006; Michael and

Masters 2006).

Table �1.2 Use of LBS Technologies in National Security

Technology Use

RFID Disaster management; disease outbreaks; and secure access areas

GPS Monitoring emergency response teams; monitoring of public health outbreaks; and mobile stations for emergency response

1.2.3 National Security

Homeland security is a neologism. It was found predominantly in US-based literature

immediately following the events of 11 September 2001, culminating in the creation, by

President Bush, of the Office of Homeland Security (Executive Order 13228 2001).

However, since 2001, the term has been gaining wider global acceptance. National

security is often used interchangeably with homeland security, internal security, border

management and counter terrorism (Relyea 2002, p.213). Homeland security is

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primarily discussed with regard to terrorism and is often linked solely to the United

States. In order to overcome these biases, the term ‘national security’ has been chosen to

encompass the wider meaning of this collective of terms.

For the purposes of this thesis national security encompasses the following

categorisations as defined by Kun (2004, p.30): intelligence gathering and warning;

border and transportation security; domestic counter-terrorism; protection of critical

infrastructure; defending against outside attacks; and emergency preparedness and

response.

National security can be examined by classifying approaches as preventive, protective

or responsive actions. This refers to the distinction between actions that are undertaken

to prevent an incident of interest from occurring, or to protect an interest or to respond

once an incident of interest has occurred. A second aspect worth consideration is to

separate the initiation of the threat: whether is it primarily domestic or international.

Table �1.3 outlines example events, including the dimensions of mode and threat

initiation/location.

Table �1.3 Event Categorisation

Mode Domain Instance Geographic Impact

Intelligence and warning Population, immigration control Domestic/ International

Preventive

Emergency preparedness Research on natural disaster; warning systems Domestic

Critical Infrastructure Protection Creating redundancies Domestic

Border and transportation security

Fleet management; security exclusion zones (air fields) Domestic Protective

Counter-terrorism Intelligence gathering Domestic/ International

Emergency response Natural disaster Domestic/ International

Responsive

Defending outside attack Terrorist activity International

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1.3 Research Goals

The primary goal of this research is to explore the use of auto-ID and LBS in national

security initiatives. The social impact of these technologies will be assessed through

their representation in the media. The findings from the media analysis will assist in

understanding how people’s perceptions of technologies are shaped by the associated

social aspects.

There is a perceived increase in citizens having reduced access to services and

information as well as waiving certain liberties in order for national security initiatives

to be fully implemented (Lyon 2003, p.346). This research will use articles from mass

media to research this claim regarding the use of auto-ID and LBS technologies being

used for national security. The analysis will focus specifically on the values of privacy,

security and liberty. By looking at how these are represented in the media, an

understanding of their influence on the shaping of public sentiment will be established.

In the technology cases, reactions to technology will examine how the auto-ID and LBS

technologies are accepted. The findings will be represented in the PSL Trichotomy in

Chapter 6.

To achieve this aim these secondary objectives will provide the necessary background

information for the PSL Trichotomy to be understood:

1. A review of the literature in the broad field of auto-ID and LBS intersecting

with social implications of technology.

2. Investigation of the social shaping factors of recent national security events,

and auto-ID and LBS technology being used, to examine the impact of the

mass media.

3. The construction of a paradigm for understanding the trichotomy of privacy,

security and liberty in relation to LBS and auto-ID applications being used in

national security.

1.4 Methodology

A qualitative approach is appropriate when a researcher wants to describe, interpret,

verify or evaluate the impact of a particular area of interest (Leedy 2005, p.134). There

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are three underlying paradigms in which qualitative research can take place: positivism,

interpretivism and critical theory. Positivism and interpretivism are the two most

common approaches used by researchers in Information Systems (Orlikowski and

Baroudi 2002), however over the past 20 years there has been a significant body of

work that has been applying critical theory to Information Systems research topics

(Cecez-Kecmanovic 2001; Cecez-Kecmanovic et al. 2002).

The critical approach differs from interpretivist in that it seeks to understand the

workings of the whole phenomena: a critical study in Information Systems cannot look

at technology alone, it must strive to understand it in terms of the industrial, societal and

national context within which it is applied (Myers 1997; Orlikowski and Baroudi 2002).

It is the impact that innovation has had on the population that is most critical to its

success or failure. A critical researcher aims to better understand how societies work to

produce beneficial and detrimental effects, in this case through adoption of location

technologies.

This research will use the Critical Social Theory (CST) of Jurgen Habermas (1979;

1984) to explore reactions to the adoption of LBS for protection of national security.

These reactions provide the foundation for proposing a basis on which to anticipate

future implications of other auto-ID or LBS technology solutions. The primary objective

of CST, and more particularly the application of CST to Information Systems (IS)

research is to discover how many small IT changes add up to a policy that affects the

nature of the society in which we live (Klein and Huynh 2004). Ngwenyama (1991,

p.268) also describes it as a tool used for “improvement of the human condition”. The

change in perception and reaction to privacy issues identified by Strickland (2005,

p.226), Feinberg (2002; 2004) and Meeks (2003) is an aspect of the national security

debate that will be examined through Habermas’ (1984) theory. The research will use

case studies of events of national security significance to examine the use of auto-ID

and LBS. Content analysis of mass coverage will lead the research to identify themes of

acceptance or potential propaganda. The relationship of the research methods is

described in more detail in Chapter 3 (see especially Figure �3.5).

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1.5 Significance of the Research

Research conducted in the area of national security and LBS can be separated into two

categories: technology responses to resolving weaknesses in national security strategies;

and privacy-based research that examines the responses of the public to the impact the

proposed technologies will have on personal privacy.

A number of technology studies have researched the importance of wireless services in

disaster recovery efforts (Balachandran et al. 2004; Malone 2004), particularly the

uptake of commercial network provision as a viable alternative for the small market of

public safety. They have identified that if primary communications infrastructure is

damaged or destroyed, it is the mobile services that are the lifeline. In this instance

though, the demands on the mobile services increase dramatically as they perform an

increased number of functions. They are used to communicate with survivors, locate

victims, coordinate search and rescue teams, and communicate between first responders.

(Chen et al. 2004) identified the area of Intelligence and Security Informatics (ISI) to

describe the field of research aimed at developing advanced information technology

solutions to homeland and national security applications.

Connolly et al. (2003), Chen et al. (2004) and Popp et al. (2004) identify the

significance that location identification and internet content can have in creating

knowledge links for counter-terrorism responses. The use of satellite and radar as a

means of alternative communication in the event of critical infrastructure problems is

identified by Taggart et al. (2003) and Weber et al. (2004) respectively. In each of these

studies, a particular application of the technology is examined, which allows for an in-

depth understanding of the communication system. In the context of disaster planning

though, it does not provide an umbrella view of the technology solutions being used

together.

Strickland and Hunt (2005), through surveying citizens on the use of RFID, found a

significant lack of understanding and distrust regarding privacy, regardless of purpose.

Regan (2004) proposes that perception and reaction to privacy issues of national

identification are stronger in the post-September 11 world, both for and against the

argument for them. Halchin (2002; 2004) has examined the use of government websites

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by terrorist organisations as an aid to planning attacks. From this aspect, control and

management of information is seen as critical to the fight to protect national security.

However a counter argument to this is that by restricting access to online government

information, potential terrorists are prevented from accessing the information, as are

ordinary citizens, who most probably have no ulterior motives (Abbas 2006a). Each of

these studies supports the notion that there has been a change in public perception to

information collection and management for the purpose of national security, however

privacy is not regarded any differently in this age of terrorism (Feinberg 2004; Meeks

2003).

Seifert (2002; 2004) has written about the importance of information storage and

collections in terms of infrastructure management. Related to this is the research of

Raghu et al. (2003) who examines the need for collaborative decision making. This

approach to national security research, although not from a technical or LBS

perspective, is at least beginning to examine the problem holistically.

These studies demonstrate that privacy and national security are being linked in

research; however the scope of technologies examined is broader than the scope of this

thesis. By narrowing the scope of technologies examined and placing the use of those

technologies in specific events, the identifiable trends in social reaction will be

examined and represented in the PSL Trichotomy.

The findings of this research, especially the PSL Trichotomy, allow the privacy,

security and liberty impact to be weighted against the threat the technology poses. In

many instances the adoption of the technologies will not be voluntary but even in these

cases emancipation is still valid. To understand the impact of the technology to a

personal lifeworld situation ensures that a person is able to make informed decisions in

the use of that technology and have the ability to question extended use or non-specified

application.

The ‘war on terror’ has changed the way countries and governments approach the issue

of national security, choosing high technology solutions where possible. It is unlikely,

as identified in Chapter 2, that this change will be anything but permanent. The PSL

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Trichotomy allows the reader to be aware of their environment in this age of national

security.

1.6 Structure of the Thesis

This thesis consists of seven chapters and is illustrated in Figure �1.1. Chapter 1 has

presented a broad overview of the research whole including the background to the

study, the research goals and methodology, and the significance of the study.

Figure �1.1 Thesis Structure

Chapter 2 presents a review of the relevant literature. It first addresses auto-ID and LBS

technologies, providing a brief account of their development before addressing current

applications and future scope. National security is described and the research in this

field is explored from a technology and privacy perspective. The discussion of privacy,

security and liberty creates a context for the development of the PSL Trichotomy, and it

is through this analysis that the second part of Chapter 2 is initiated. The second part of

this chapter provides a detailed historical overview of Critical Social Theory (CST) as

applied to IS research.

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Chapter 3 describes the research methodology that will be used to create the PSL

Trichotomy. It begins with the philosophical underpinnings of the CST approach, which

is used as a basis for the methods applied. Two sets of case studies, informed by content

analysis, are undertaken. Each of these stages is described in detail and the steps

undertaken in each component are presented.

Chapter 4 is based on the events of national security significance outlined earlier in this

chapter. It analyses each event to understand patterns of reactions to the concepts of

privacy, security and liberty. The final part of Chapter 4 compares the responses to each

factor across all events, and from this proposes motivating factors between differences

in event reactions.

Chapter 5 is based on technology use, and utilises popular media accounts of technology

use to examine public reactions. The content analysis is used to identify the key themes

in the texts. The themes are explored and discussed in order to create an understanding

of the interplay of issues.

Chapter 6 presents the PSL Trichotomy based on the outcomes of Chapters 4 and 5.

Following the event and technology findings of the previous two chapters, this chapter

draws the key factors together to link the privacy, security and liberty implications of

LBS and auto-ID technologies to the real world events.

Chapter 7 draws together the key contributions and conclusions of the study, identifies

the limitations of the study and provides suggestions for future research arising from the

study.

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Chapter 2 Literature Review

2.1 Introduction

The primary purpose of a literature review is to provide evidence of relevant research

being conducted in the area of study: auto-ID and location-based services technologies

being used for national security purposes. This includes discussion of technologies

currently being used in the area, and also discussion of technologies being proposed for

national security applications. This review of the literature is used to identify gaps or

weaknesses in the current literature which in turn informs the research question of this

thesis. Firstly the development and role of location technologies is covered in regard to

national security. Secondly, a critical review of the social constructs that relate to the

introduction of the technologies is necessary. This issue is addressed through the social

dimensions of the technology, sometimes thought to be the consequences of its use:

privacy and security. These concepts need to be treated separately but are closely

related. Thirdly, by examining the historical context of national security and looking at

the role of technology being used in national security, gaps in the existing literature will

be able to be identified.

2.2 Background to Automatic Identification and Location-Based Services

The following sections provide a review of auto-ID and LBS technologies. Each section

begins with an overview of the technology and then moves to examine their presence in

the national security arena. The sections have been organised in line with the historical

development of the technology. This progression reflects an increase in precision of

location identification.

Auto-ID technologies are those capable of providing automatic identification where

human intervention is not required (Ames 1990a, b, c; Cohen 1994; Michael et al.

2006b). Auto-ID has traditionally been equivalent with barcodes, used on goods in

stores and cards for financial transactions. The scope of use is now more widespread,

with uses ranging from immigration control systems to pet identification. Auto-ID

technologies have had a mass market presence since the 1960s and their potential for

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detrimental impact on human rights and privacy have been noted since the 1970s

(Michael and Michael 2004, p.434).

The following technologies have been developed over the past 50 years. The drivers for

this technology development have been the move by governments to adopt electronic

systems to replace the use of paper-based methods (such as vouchers, coupons, ration

cards and concession cards) to operate large-scale federal and state programs, in order to

increase efficiency (Michael and Michael 2006a, p.21). Other reasons include greater

social acceptance and affordability of the technology. Each of the following

technologies has made a significant contribution to the area of location-based services,

however it is their convergence that is of interest as discussion moves toward the role of

location-based technologies in relation to national security. Smart cards, biometrics,

RFID, GPS and GIS are technologies that alone or in combination provide information

about the location of a user. Biometric technologies do not track location directly, but

biometric identification on a smart card ensures that every time the smart card is used to

access a building for example, a time and date stamp of that biometric identification and

smart card access is logged. This is able to be pieced together to enable movement

patterns to be established. GPS on the other hand is a real-time location tracker.

This thesis is concerned with the issue of the automatic identification of people through

location determination for national security purposes, in order to understand whether a

trade-off is made for enhanced perception of security, or sacrificed in order to maintain

an illusion of security. Perusco et al.. (2006, p.94) allude to the positives and negatives

of the use of this technology through the categories of user types. The types are

classified as voluntary user, mandatory user and non-user. Table �2.1 describes examples

of these categories.

Table �2.1 Location-Based Services and User Types

Use Type Advantages Disadvantages

Voluntary Ability to opt-out; convenience for service and security and safety benefits. Privacy risk of information access.

Mandatory Security and safety; accountability of actions.

Privacy invasion; false sense of security.

Non-user Privacy and autonomy. Safety and security risk and prejudice for non-adoption.

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2.2.1 Smart cards

A smart card is a credit card-sized plastic card that consists of an integrated circuit or

'chip' which enables the card the ability to store and/or process data. There are two

broad categories of smart cards: memory cards that contain only non-volatile memory

storage components, and perhaps some specific security logic; and microprocessor cards

that contain memory and microprocessor components.

Smart cards emerged from the development of magnetic strip cards. The innovation of

the smart card was devised by Juergen Dethloff of Germany. The first patent, although

restricted to Japan, was taken out by Arimura in 1970. The first international patent was

given to Frenchman Roland Moreno in 1974, who founded the Societé Internationale

pour l’Innovation. This society was established to develop new technologies and extend

its patents world wide (Rankl and Effing 2000; Zoreda and Oton 1994).

Smart cards have been adopted by many industry sectors for a variety of purposes.

Table �2.2 provides an overview of some of the most common applications (Chaum

2000). In addition to these examples, smart cards are commonly used as access cards to

secure areas, as identification cards and as loyalty cards for many different sectors.

Table �2.2 Smart Card Applications

Industry Application

Financial Electronic Purse, Credit/Debit cards and Secure Electronic payments

Transport Electronic Toll collection, public transport fares and Drivers Licence

Communication Mobile Phone accounts and Access to Pay TV

Healthcare Medical Information cards and Government health insurance eligibility

Education Identification, library access, security access

Government Non-repudiation device for voting and Government benefit payments National Identification schemes

Retail Discount/VIP/membership cards

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The technological development of smart cards has advanced the cards to include larger

memory and processing capacity which has increased the potential for their application.

In line with this is a perceived increase in the threat posed by multi-purpose smart cards

in terms of centralisation of data storage. This concern is addressed specifically in

regard to smart card national identification schemes by:

…the simple logic that the higher an ID cards value, the more it will be used. The more an ID card is used, the greater the value placed on it, and consequently, the higher is its value to criminal elements (LSE 2005, p.35).

2.2.2 Biometrics

Biometrics, as a form of identification, have been in use since early fourteenth century

China (Chirillo and Scott 2003, p.2). The earliest recorded uses of biometric

identification include Babylonian kings who used handprints to identify different things

such as engravings as their own (Harris and Yen 2002); and Chinese merchants in the

fourteenth century stamping children’s palm prints and footprints on paper with ink to

be able to distinguish between them (Chirillo and Scott 2003). The recognition of a

fingerprint as a precise means of identification came about in the late 1870s when Sir

William Herschel used them to sign legal documents. Sir Francis Galton (a noted

English scientist) published an accurate and in-depth study of the fingerprinting science

that included an attempt at a system of fingerprint classification to facilitate the

handling of large collections of fingerprints. This system was amended by Sir Edward

Henry, and in 1901, Henry was appointed Assistant Commissioner of Police at New

Scotland Yard and began to introduce his fingerprint system into that institution. The

first British court conviction by fingerprints was obtained in 1902 (Lennard and

Patterson 2004).

A biometric is a “measurable physiological and/or behavioural trait that can be captured

and subsequently compared with another instance at the time of verification” (Ashbourn

1994). It refers to identifying a person based on his or her distinguishing physiological

and/or behavioural characteristics (Jain et al. 2000). Biometric identifiers include digital

fingerprints, retinal scans, hand geometry, facial characteristics, and vocal patterns.

Jain (2000) states that an ideal biometric should be:

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…universal, where each person possesses the characteristic; unique, where no two persons should share the characteristics; permanent, where the characteristic should neither change nor be alterable; and collectable, where the characteristic is readily presentable to a sensor and is easily identifiable.

The public perception of a biometric identification technology is an important

component in the success and adoption of a technique. In addition to this, the technique

must be legally and physically robust, safe to use, and not invade the user’s privacy. An

example of this is a fingerprint scanner, which is often associated with criminal

identification. The self-protection reflex of the eyes means that many people are

uncomfortable with having laser scans on a regular basis and are often fearful of

unfounded claims that regular scanning could be detrimental to their health. To contrast

this, hand geometry scanning and signature verification are mostly regarded as

innocuous (Kim 1995). One of the mistakes often made in the discussions of biometrics

and use of parts of the body for identification is where the act of identification can be

associated with a violation of bodily integrity (van der Ploeg 1999). Overcoming public

perception of the invasiveness of the scan or acquisition of the biometric sample is the

key to success of more pervasive use of these technologies.

From the perspective of civil libertarians, biometric identification has been seen as a

threat to the location privacy of individuals (Davies 1998; Johnson 2004). However the

counter argument recognises that many of the biometric identifiers being requested of a

person are things that they have on show most of the time. There is nothing private

about your face (Branscomb 1994; Scheeres 2005). The same was said of voice and

handwriting by the US Supreme Court. A person’s reasonable expectation of privacy

could not extend to “those physical characteristics that are constantly exposed to the

public”(Woodward Jr 1997, 2001). However, this does not overcome the controversy

related to the legal issues surrounding the storage and usage of biometric identification

(Chandra and Calderon 2005; van der Ploeg 1999).

Table �2.3 outlines the main biometric identification techniques and provides a brief

description of the way they work (Chirillo and Scott 2003; Petersen 2001).

Biometric identification can be used for many purposes. Table �2.4 groups the uses into

three broad categories; forensic, civilian and commercial, and describes typical uses for

these forms of identification (Jain et al. 2000; Petersen 2001; Rood and Hornak 2003).

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Table �2.3 Biometric Identification Summary

Technique Description Accuracy Ease of Use Example Uses

Fingerprints Analysing fingertip patterns High Medium Law Enforcement

Hand Geometry Measuring the shape of the hand Medium High Identification

systems

Iris Visual scans of the coloured portion of a person’s eye Medium Medium Travel

identification

Retina Visual scans of the structures at the back of the eye High Low Entry Access

systems

Voice Assessments of the complex patterns and characteristics unique to each person’s voice

Medium High Computer Access

Face Assessments of the proportions, colours, and individual features that uniquely identify a face

Low High Crowd scanning

Signature Analysing signature dynamics Medium Medium Banking

Table �2.4 Applications for Biometric Identification

Forensic Civilian Commercial

Criminal investigation Corpse identification Parenthood determination Prison security

National ID Driver’s license Welfare disbursement Border crossing Customs and immigration initiatives Protecting critical infrastructure

ATM security Credit card security Cellular phone Access control Ecommerce/ebanking transactions

Biometric identification is extremely useful for restricting access to areas that involve

national security, such as military bases or intelligence centres, and for protecting

critical civilian infrastructure, such as water supplies and power plants (Rood and

Hornak 2003). It must be noted that technology such as this is not a panacea. No

technology solution is absolutely foolproof (Michael and Michael 2006b, p.360).

Some of the biometric identification programs identified in Table �2.4 are mandatory, for

example criminal investigation and prison security. At present, almost all other

programs are voluntary. However, in some of the programs, biometric identification is

used to make the service more attractive to users by providing a faster, or more

enhanced service, but other forms of identification are still permitted (Alterman 2003).

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An example of this is the INSPASS (Immigration and Nationalization Service

Passenger Accelerated Service System) program in the US. It has been operating since

August 1993 as a voluntary system for frequent travellers. It allows passengers to move

through immigration more quickly at the cost of a system that has the potential to create

a vast amount of international transfer of their personal data (Davies 1996; Kim 1995).

This system has grown from 2000 frequent fliers at the outset, to over 100 000 by the

year 2000 (Michael and Michael 2006a).

In large crowd gatherings, facial scanning systems have been used in an attempt to

enhance security. An infamous example of this is the 2001 Super Bowl in Tampa,

Florida where the crowd was covertly videotaped by police and the images compared

with facial scans of convicted criminals (Agre 2001). Scheeres (2005) reported that,

…fans may have resented being … made part of a digital line-up, but Tampa Police say the technology allowed them to pinpoint 19 people with criminal records in a crowd of over 100,000 people. Of course, the Tampa police probably overestimated the current capabilities of the technology and the 10 putative matches may well include false ones.

Van der Ploeg (1999) considers the groups targeted for obligatory biometric

identification disproportionately include criminals, recipients of welfare, or other

benefits, workers, and immigrants. However she classifies an alternate grouping where

biometric identification may typify privilege as well. It may include frequent flyers

who have been assessed as ‘low-risk travellers’, are given the privilege to jump the

queue and avoid thorough controls; those who have higher access privileges to secured

spaces, parts of IT systems or authorisation of high-risk types of financial transactions.

Biometrics have the potential to enhance our current reliance on documents such as

birth certificates, drivers' licences, and passports to establish each person's true identity.

In the future, biometric information may be recorded at birth and incorporated in the

birth certificate, using the child's DNA as the prime indicator of identity. In such a case,

a person's biometric information (which may change with age) may be linked with his

DNA (Rood and Hornak 2003).

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2.2.3 Radio Frequency Identification

Radio Frequency Identification is a technology used for automatic identification. RFID

is a generic term for technologies that use radio waves to automatically identify entities;

either live or inanimate. The objects are identified by information that may include a

unique identifier, or it could be more complex including data such as: manufacturing

history, temperature, or age (Kinsella 2003; Legner and Thiesse 2006).

The first US patent for an active RFID tag is claimed to have been made in 1973 by

Mario W. Cardullo. In the same year, Charles Walton, a Californian entrepreneur,

received a patent for a passive transponder used to unlock a door without a key. He then

licensed the technology to a lock maker (RFID Journal 2005). In recent times, the MIT

Auto-ID Labs have been responsible for research and development into RFID.

RFID systems consist of four main elements: the RFID tags or transponders, RFID

readers, antennas and radio characteristics and a computer network used to connect the

readers. The tag is the basic component of the system. They can be active, which can

have a battery; or passive which means the system is completely powered by the

incoming RF signal. The readers send RF signals to the tags and listens for responses.

The antennas and radios are used to connect the reader and tag so that information can

be transferred. The reader then sends information back to a computer who can use it for

the task at hand (Garfinkel and Holtzman 2006; Kelly and Erickson 2005; Sarma et al.

2003).

RFID has been referred to as the new barcode (Kelly and Erickson 2005; Want 2004).

The advent of barcode technology revolutionised data capture and handling

technologies in the retail industry. RFID has advanced data capture and stock handling

to a new level. One of the main advantages of RFID is overcoming the reliance of

barcodes on line-of-sight data processing. RFID offers more robust and useful scanning

options (Alippi and Vanini 2004; Srivastava 2007). Other advantages discussed by

Michael et al. (2006b) are that RFID is not limited by its size and is not vulnerable to

magnetic fields, or affected by substances such as dirt or paint which may cover the tag.

The beginnings of RFID can be traced back to World War II and the Early Identification

Friend or Foe system that enabled friendly aircraft to respond to a correct signal,

34

protecting them from being shot down (Garfinkel and Holtzman 2006; Rieback et al.

2006). Although research began into RFID in the 1970s, its commercial applications

only began to be realised from the early 1980s onwards, and it became mainstream from

2000 onwards (Jones et al. 2004; Pierce 2004). RFID has been in use for a number of

years for applications like military equipment tracking and large shipping containers,

but the cost drop from $2 per tag to just ten cents has widened the scope for use in

recent times (Atkinson 2004; Pierce 2004; Sarma et al. 2003). Want (2006, p.32)

discusses the price at which the decision to replace a barcode with RFID tag will

become a nonsense. He suggests that the adoption of RFID tags on high cost items will

help to drive the cost down for adoption at all levels.

RFID systems are being used for many item-level tracking applications. The phrase

‘internet of things’ is being used to describe the potential network of information that

could be created by the use of RFID in the following applications (see Table �2.5)

(Alippi and Vanini 2004; Elliot 2003; Floerkemeier and Lampe 2004; Garfinkel et al.

2005; Hsi and Fait 2005; IIE Solutions 2002; Jayakumar and Senthilkumar 2005; Jones

et al. 2004; Juels 2006; Smith 2005b; Swartz 2004; Want 2004).

Table �2.5 Commercial RFID Applications

Application Commercial Examples

Baggage tracking in airports

For airport baggage identification, RFID has eliminated the need for manual sorting and lifting and is claimed to have enhanced passenger security.

Supply chain management and supply chain theft reduction

The clothing giant, Prada, have their New York dressing rooms fitted with display screens that can identify a smart-tagged garment when it is bought into the room. The display suggests other styles and colours of the garment - even going so far as to show how the garment was worn at a Prada fashion show.

Automobiles Remote keyless entry.

Animal tracking Identification and tracking for enhanced livestock management

Highway toll collection Highway toll collection using RFID has allowed drivers the convenience of driving straight through checkpoints without needing small change.

Passport security The inclusion of RFID tags in passports and possibly drivers’ licenses acts as an ‘anti-counterfeiting feature.

Museum exhibits Enhancing interactivity of displays.

Automatic product tamper detection

Product integrity can be monitored from factory to retail location. It might also help locate the source of activity when tampering is detected.

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Application Commercial Examples

Harmful agent detection The use of passive-detector technology could be used on vehicles or security personnel, or in other uses where detection of biological agents are needed.

Since September 11 the threat of terrorism has ensured that the tracking offered by

RFID is a favoured system implemented to alleviate that threat, be it in shipping

containers or passport control. Atkinson (2004) observed that prior to September 11 the

use of RFID was limited to supply chain security and loss prevention, however in the

post-September 11 world, the focus for RFID is ensuring tamper-proof containers due to

terrorism concerns.

The continued development of RFID technologies is regarded by many to have a

significant impact on the way we conduct our day to day life. US Senator Patrick J.

Leahy stated that:

“RFID has tremendous potential for improving productivity and security, but it will also become one of the touchstone privacy issues of our times” (Swartz 2004).

This sentiment was reflected by Rick Duris, from frontline Solutions Magazine, and

recorded by Albrecht and McIntyre (Albrecht and McIntyre 2005):

RFID will have a pervasive impact on every aspect of civilization, much the same way the printing press, the industrial revolution and the Internet and personal computers have transformed society…RFID is a big deal. Its impact will be pervasive, personal and profound. It will be the biggest deal since Edison gave us the light bulb.

The pervasiveness in Duris’ observation is seconded by Borriello (2005, p.36) who

believes that there is an imaginable future where;

Passive RFID tags are in every manufactured object and maybe even in some non-manufactured ones (such as natural resources, animals, and people).

The US Department of Homeland Security is now using RFID technology at US border

checkpoints (Swartz 2004). Visitors entering the US will be issued RFID tags that will

track their comings and goings at border crossings. The technology was tested at border

crossings in Arizona, New York, and Washington state from the end of July through to

spring 2006 (Chabrow 2005). Angell and Kietzmann (2006) puts forward the

hypothetical of RFID cash being the preferred method of transaction in the post-

September 11 environment, where the threat of anonymity could be removed.

36

In emergency response situations, like the 2004 Boxing Day Tsunami and 2005

Hurricane Katrina, RFID tags can, and did, assist in management and location

identification of survivors as they were moved between emergency housing facilities or

graves (Smith 2005b).

Consumer response to RFID is a considerable factor in the future of the technology.

Consumer perception is often linked to perceived risks relating to personal data privacy,

tracking and remote scanning (Hsi and Fait 2005, p.65; Nath et al. 2006, p.24). Eckfeldt

(2005, p.78) puts forward that a clear value proposition to customers is what

distinguishes between a successful and shunned RFID application. This is seconded by

Ohkubo et al. (2005, p.68), who also raises the problem associated with killing an RFID

tag as a privacy protection measure. He suggests that if the tag was ‘killed’, the

consumer would not be able to take advantage of “future emerging services that would

rely on the millions of RFID tags likely to be dispersed throughout the consumer

environment”. A survey by Metro Group, investigating consumer’s major privacy fears

relating to RFID found that:

Regardless of privacy-enhancing technology employed, consumers feel helpless toward the RFID environment, viewing the network as ultimately more powerful than they can ever be (Gunther and Spiekermann 2005, p.74).

The research director of the MIT Auto ID Lab, Daniel Engels, reminds consumers that

the use of RFID as a long range tracking device for consumer behaviour is still a long

way off (Alfonsi 2004).

2.2.4 The Global Positioning System

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite-based navigation system. It is used

by both military and civilian users. GPS allows for precise location determination

however accuracy is different for civilian and military applications. The location is

determined based on the distance a user is away from the available satellites. The

effectiveness and accuracy of GPS can be affected by weather conditions, mountains,

buildings and other terrain (El-Rabbany 2002, p.1; Michael and Masters 2006;

Oderwald and Boucher 1997, p.2). The most significant drawbacks of the technology

for civilian applications are regarded as low availability/coverage in high-rise urban

settings, no system integrity and no guarantee of services performance in a shared

37

military/civilian environment (The Royal Academy of Engineering 2004). Getting

(1993) believes GPS to be “…the most significant development for safe and efficient

navigation and surveillance of air and spacecraft since the introduction of radio

navigation 50 years ago".

GPS was developed by the US Department of Defense in 1973 (El-Rabbany 2002;

Lachow 1995). The forerunner to GPS was called TRANSIT, a system used by the US

Navy submarine fleet in the 1960s. The TRANSIT model was not suited to the proposed

expansion, and so a new system was developed. The US Department of Defense was the

sole developer and financial supporter of the new system (Lachow 1995). Part of the

initial planning of the technology was that it would be made available to both military

and civilian use. Not long after its introduction, civilian use was extended to include

transnational citizens as well (Lachow 1995). More recent attempts at creating similar

satellite positioning systems include GLONASS (Global Orbiting Navigation Satellite

System) by the Russian Federation and the GNCC (Guidance, Navigation, Control and

Communication) by the European Union.

GPS essentially consists of a constellation of 24 satellites (21 and 3 spares) that provide

worldwide coverage by their placement in orbital planes (Grejner-Brzezinska 2004,

p71). Systems such as Globalstar (who offer voice and data services) use 40 satellites

(Globalstar 2007). The other components of the system include five unmanned control

stations to monitor the orbit of the satellites and user receivers. The location

determination provided by GPS works by timing how long it takes a radio signal to get

to earth. This is done by the receiver generating codes that are identical to those being

transmitted by the satellites. The positioning is calculated by determining how far the

receiver’s own codes need to be shifted to match those of the satellites. By multiplying

by the speed of light, the receiver’s distance to the satellites is determined (Bretz 2000,

p.8; El-Rabbany 2002; Lachow 1995; Schindler 2003). Location information can be

calculated to as close as 15 metres since selective availability (SA) was turned off. SA

prevented civilian users from receiving the same accuracy as military users. The new

civilian signals, announced in 1999 will “greatly enhance the accuracy, reliability and

robustness of civilian GPS receivers, resulting in significantly improved system

capabilities” (Han and Rizos 1999).

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GPS has been used for over two decades. In that time the range of uses has expanded

enormously as the cost of receivers has become less. Areas of applications are outlined

in Table �2.6 (El-Rabbany 2002, p.129-150; ESRI 2007).

Table �2.6 Commercial Applications of GPS

Application Commercial Example

Mapping Asset management for utility companies and airborne topographic mapping.

Resource Management

Forestry and natural resources: fire prevention, harvesting, aerial spraying.

Farming Harvest yield monitoring, chemical applications control and property management.

Civil Engineering Road construction, earth moving and equipment tracking.

Mining Assistance with drilling, vehicle tracking and surveying.

Surveying For both land and marine seismic surveying.

Navigation In-vehicle street directory systems.

Transit Mass transport: position determination, fleet management and timetabling.

Retail Delivery fleet monitoring and dispatch assistance.

Designed primarily as a military tool, GPS is used to facilitate accurate location

awareness. This can be applied to command and control of forces and targeting of

weapons. Geographical Information Systems (GIS) are systems used to create and

manage spatial information. GPS has the ability to identify events that happen in large,

hard to monitor areas like borders, harbours or military bases (Friedrick 2003). For

security agencies, there is the ability to more accurately manage resources and access

privileges once an incident has been identified.

2.3 Social Dimensions of Technology

With regard to technology, security and privacy are often used interchangeably. To

ensure privacy of information, security is required; and vice versa, without privacy

safeguards in place, security could be compromised. The following sections detail the

concepts of privacy and security as they can be experienced by individuals. Other

related concepts including surveillance and liberty are also addressed. These concepts

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are relevant to discussions of the information society, and the power that exists within

that framework, which are addressed in the final section. The importance of addressing

these aspects in relation to technology is discussed at length by Ellul (1965, p.90), who

reminds us that the consequences of a technology are not necessarily of technical

significance, but can be of social or organisational consequence.

2.3.1 Privacy

Privacy is a concept that has eluded a single, clear definition. McLean (1995) likens

privacy to the concepts of liberty and freedom: each a concept unable to be easily

defined. To define privacy is to limit its scope (Day 1985; Schoeman 1992). Many

cultures do not have a single word for the concept the English language knows as

‘private’ or ‘privacy’; this reflects on the complexity of the concept. Day (1985)

dedicated an entire thesis to the definition of privacy across cultures and languages and

found some five hundred definitions. However, for the purposes of this work, a working

understanding is necessary.

Privacy has been recognised as a concept that has evolved with the progress of society,

changing to suit the demands of the current times (Gotleib and Borodin 1973; Rule et al.

1980). Warren and Brandeis (1890) first wrote of the right of privacy in 1890, asserting

that privacy was the right to be left alone. Clarke (1997) prefers not to assume privacy is

a right: as a right implies an intrinsic and absolute standard, something not always

applicable to privacy. Recognising privacy as an interest that an individual sustains

allows for a more flexible definition that suits the application of privacy in both the

offline and online environment: a description suited to the purposes of this work.

The recognition of the right to privacy is deeply rooted in history and can be identified

in the Bible, in traditional Jewish law and in classical Greek and ancient Chinese

societies (Jones et al. 2004).

Privacy and surveillance, although being distinctly separate concepts, continue to be

linked together through popular media including fiction and films. This reinforces a

perceived public concept of them being one in the same. Popular movies that show this

include: Rear Window (Hitchcock 1954), Blowup (Antonioni 1966), The Conversation

(Coppola 1974), The Osterman Weekend (Peckinpah 1983), Sneakers (Robinson 1992),

40

Lost Highway (Lynch 1997), Gattaca (Niccol 1997), The End of Violence (Wenders

1997), Enemy of the State (Scott 1998), The Truman Show (Weir 1998), Antitrust

(Howitt 2001), Panic Room (Fincher 2002), Minority Report (Spielberg 2002),

Collateral (Mann 2004), Cache (Haneke 2005), The Good Shepherd (De Niro 2006),

The Departed (Scorsese 2006) and Déjà vu (Washington 2006). In the literary world,

George Orwell’s Nineteen Eighty Four (1949) is an archetypical expression of what life

would be like in a totalitarian state where privacy did not exist.

The telescreen received and transmitted simultaneously. Any sound that Winston made, above the level of a very low whisper would be picked up by it; moreover, so long as he remained within the field of vision which the metal plaque commanded, he could be seen as well as heard. There was of course no way of knowing whether you were being watched at any given moment (Orwell 1949).

2.3.2 Surveillance

Surveillance has been considered to be an important concept over a long period of time;

it derives from the French Revolution at the end of the 18th Century. Wigan and Clarke

(2006) define three functions for surveillance when it is utilised as a security safeguard:

“to anticipate a violation... to detect a violation... or to assist in the identification of the

person responsible for a violation or in the authentication of an assertion as to the

identity of the culprit”.

In the recent past surveillance has risen to a higher level of interest. This can be

attributed to the increase in database systems collecting information about us (Garfinkel

2000) or it can be likened to the concepts of ‘dataveillance’ or ‘panoptic sort’ described

by Clarke (1997) and Gandy (1993) accordingly. Both of these terms relate to the ability

of collections of information to be equated with power. The increase in technological

capability over the past few decades has seen an increase in the potential of machines

and systems to collect information and then data mine. The transition to an online

economy, or at the very least, online commerce, has created a whole new pool of

information to be collected, tracked and stored. Clarke (1997) and Gandy (1993)

recognised that collection of data was occurring well before the online world came into

existence.

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The introduction of online communications, and more particularly electronic commerce,

has resulted in a changing attitude to control of privacy. Privacy in the online

environment can be considered differently to a ‘traditional’ notion of privacy. Privacy in

the online arena is mostly concerned with the protection of information. The term

‘information privacy’ has been defined by Clarke (1997) to be an interest held by

individuals regarding the control, and handling of data about themselves. Gandy (1993)

supports this theme in his notion of ‘informational privacy’ based on Westin’s (Westin

1967) work as the “claim of individuals… to determine for themselves... the extent

information about them is communicated to others”.

2.3.2.1 Data Surveillance

Data surveillance, or dataveillance as defined by Clarke (1988), is the:

…systematic use of personal data systems in the investigation or monitoring of the actions or communications of one or more persons.

It describes the surveillance practices facilitated by the collection and storage of

extensive quantities of personal data. The notion of data surveillance is supported by

Flaherty (1989) who classifies the practice of data surveillance within the broader

notion of surveillance as the “supervision, observation or oversight of individuals

behaviour through the use of personal data” (Davies 1996, p.248). The use of the term

data surveillance is quite narrow, however it is very similar to a number of more

specific terms outlined below: Langford (2000, p.73) has likened the concept of data

surveillance to the practices of data matching, data monitoring and data recording.

Bennett (1996) describes the concept of data surveillance as computer matching.

Lyon (2002, p.353) attributes the pervasiveness of data surveillance to the resulting

convergence of information technology structures, the Internet and the vast amounts of

data which both are able to provide. Barr (1994) believes that the concept of the

information society has contributed to the increase in potential of data surveillance.

Clarke (1988) believes that the application of information technology has been a factor

in the increasing trend towards surveillance technologies and their pervasive use in the

surveillance of individuals through the use of personal data. In contrast to these theories

based on data surveillance being an entirely new concept, Langford (2000, p.74)

believes that the Internet is inextricably linked to and is responsible for the exacerbation

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of data surveillance techniques and suggests that it has not facilitated, but merely

enhanced previously existing techniques.

As Langford (2000) suggests, the concept of surveillance techniques, such as

dataveillance, cannot only be attributed to the Internet and other information technology

trends, as much contemporary literature tends to suggest. This form of surveillance has

been used extensively within paper-based and localised data systems. Subsequently, the

Internet and similar trends have not created this new form of surveillance, but merely

facilitated the growth of such by utilising existing techniques by providing access to

more information and technology for exploitation (Lyon 2002, p.346). This has been

recognised by the Office of the Federal Privacy Commissioner in understanding that the

internet has only contributed to the “proliferation of uses of personal information”

(OFPC 2006) rather than initiating such dataveillance practices. An extension to the

notion of dataveillance has been proposed by M.G. Michael (Michael et al. 2006a):

überveillance. This term describes a level of surveillance that goes beyond the scope of

24/7 surveillance. M.G. Michael presents the issues for concern as “misinformation,

misinterpretation, and information manipulation.”

2.3.3 Security

Security can be used to describe many different issues but in the context of this research

it is about protection (Acharya 2002). The relationship between security and privacy is

often blurred, Starner (2001, p.57) distinguishes between them in the following excerpt:

Security involves the protection of information from unauthorized users; privacy is the individual’s right to control the collection and use of personal information.

This is particularly of interest in the context of national security technology innovations

such as national ID and terrorism prevention measures (Michael and Michael 2004).

Security as a personal pursuit is being free from threat to personal safety. The security

in this instance is a perception or ‘feeling’ experienced by an individual which means it

is likely to be experienced differently for each person. In terms of the preceding sections

and Starner’s (2001) definition given above, security needs to be considered as

technology systems that create information are developed. In relation to the auto-ID and

location-based technologies focused on in this work, the potential for privacy invasion

43

to occur is high, which is why the need to be aware of security implications is

necessary.

A recurrent theme in technology implication discussions is the prospect of a trade-off

between privacy and security. This will be discussed further in Section �2.5.3. Snow

(2004, p.156) defines security as a variable dependent on two issues: factors that

threaten the things we value and our interpretation of the environment. In this definition,

it is clear that security, if placed on a continuum, could have infinite variation

depending on personal interpretations of these factors.

2.3.4 Information and Power

Defining the new world, after the decline of the industrial society has produced a

number of definitions and explanations. The three terms which have been described by

the authors listed in Table �2.7 are the post-industrial society, the information society and

the network society.

Table �2.7 Significant Previous Research in Defining the Information Society

Name Authors

Post-Industrial Society (Bell 1974; Beniger 1986; Drucker 1993; Kumar 1978; Masuda 1981; Touraine 1974)

Information Society (Barr 1994; David 1998; Dordick and Wang 1993; Lyon 1988; Masuda 1981, 1990; May 2000, 2002; Robins and Webster 1999; Roszak 1986; Webster 2006)

Network Society (Castells 1996a, b, 1997; Castells and Himenan 2002)

These terms, although coming from different perspectives, all consider the centrality of

information in our society to be of great significance. The role of knowledge or

information has been seen to shape employment trends, economies, and social structures

(Rothkopf 1998). It describes a time where information has value as a traded

commodity (Dowding 1996, p.62). A key aspect of the centrality of information is the

power it brings. Toffler (1980), in The Third Wave, acknowledges that the questioning

of power came about during the Second Wave (industrialisation), when feudal structures

where power was self-evident, started to become obsolete. His perspective on the Third

Wave (information society) is that there will be “fantastic opportunities for social and

44

political renovation” which will again redefine our notion of power (Toffler 1980, p.84).

McLuhan (2003, p.279) supports this notion:

As automation takes hold, it becomes obvious that information is the crucial commodity, and that solid products are merely incidental to information movement.

Lyon (1994) is more concerned with relationship between surveillance and power, and

suggests that in surveillance, in some situations, enables as well as constrains. The

power associated with surveillance is an opportunity for members of society to reclaim

some degree of control of their lives. This power is realised by being aware of the

pervasiveness of technologies that are either chosen or thrust upon them. Dowding

(1996, p.5) frames this idea in the definition of two concepts: outcome power and social

power (Table �2.8).

Table �2.8 Dowding's Power Definitions

Power Definition

Outcome power The ability of an actor to bring about or help to bring about outcomes.

Social Power The ability of an actor deliberately to change the inventive structure of another actor or actors to bring about or help to bring about outcomes.

This key distinction between these definitions is found in the word ‘deliberately’.

Without the deliberate nature of action, the two would be the same. In the context of

national security, the actors that are being considered in this research are the media, the

public, governments and technology providers. Further discussion of social and

outcome power will form part of the findings of this research.

2.4 National Security and Technology

The historical experience of a country and the lessons learned from those experiences

are significant contributors to their current approach to the issue of national security.

The following sections provide background information about Australia, the United

Kingdom and the United States in terms of national security experiences.

45

2.4.1 Australia

Australia has had little exposure to terrorist events on home soil. The geographic

isolation of Australia afforded some protection, however Hill argues that although our

geography has not changed, the world around Australia has. This means that the

geographic isolation is no longer a reliable protector (Hill 2004). The bombing of the

Sydney Hilton in 1978 was Australia’s first real experience of international terrorism

(Hancock 2002). Table �2.9 lists other terrorist events that have taken place in Australia

(ASIO 2002).

Table �2.9 Example Terrorist Events in Australia 1977 - 2007

Year Event

1978 Sydney Hilton Hotel bombing. Delegates to the Commonwealth Heads of Government Regional Meeting were staying. Three people were killed and six others severely injured.

1980 The Justice Commandos of the Armenian Genocide murdered the Turkish Consul-General in Sydney and his bodyguard.

1982 The Israeli Consulate-General and the Hakoah Club in Sydney were bombed.

1986 The Turkish Consulate-General in Melbourne was bombed, killing one of the bombers.

1992 Several Mujahideen e-Khalq supporters vandalised the Iranian Embassy in Canberra and assaulted embassy officials.

1995 The honorary French Consulate in Perth was set on fire in protest against France's decision to resume nuclear testing in the Pacific.

2.4.2 United Kingdom

The development of counter terrorism legislation in the United Kingdom had come

about in light of the Irish Republican Army terrorist activities in London. Prior to this,

the impact of World War II had manifested itself in legislative over-reactions, stretching

the bounds of the courts to protect the country from further intrusion. Table �2.10 details

significant terrorist events in the United Kingdom since 1979. There are many more

events that could be included on this list, which indicates that the United Kingdom has

had to learn to cope with terrorist events in much more tangible terms than Australia.

The frequency of attacks intimated in Table �2.10 has created a structure of coping

mechanisms that have been driven by both government and the citizens.

46

Table �2.10 Example Terrorist Events in the United Kingdom 1979 - 2007

Year Event

1979 Shadow Northern Ireland Secretary Airey Neave was killed when a car bomb, planted by the Irish National Liberation Army, exploded under his car as he drove out of the Palace of Westminster car park.

1980 A six-man terrorist team attacked held the Iranian Embassy under siege for six days until the hostages were rescued by a raid by the SAS.

1982 Eleven members of the Household Cavalry and the Royal Green Jackets were killed in the IRA bombings of Hyde Park and Regents Park.

1982 A group called the Animal Rights Militia sent a letter bomb to Margaret Thatcher at 10 Downing Street. The device exploded injuring one person.

1983 Harrods was bombed by the IRA. Six people, including three police officers, were killed and people were 90 wounded during Christmas shopping at the West London department store.

1984 Brighton hotel bombing, 5 killed and several injured in an attempt by the IRA to kill Margaret Thatcher.

1987 11 killed by an IRA bomb which went off during Remembrance Sunday commemorations in Enniskillen, Northern Ireland.

1988 Pan Am Flight 103 (Lockerbie) blown up by a bomb in a suitcase while in flight over Scotland after taking off from Heathrow. 270 were killed.

1989 Eleven Royal Marines bandsmen were killed and 22 injured when their base in Kent was bombed by the IRA.

1990 An IRA bomb was detonated at the London Stock Exchange causing damage to the building.

1990 Ian Gow MP was killed by a car bomb planted by the IRA while at his home in Sussex.

1991 The IRA launched a mortar shell into the back garden of 10 Downing Street.

1992 The IRA plant three fire bombs in Shrewsbury, Shropshire. No one was injured.

1992 The IRA exploded two bombs in central Manchester, injuring 65 people.

1993 The IRA attack Warrington. The first attack did not cause any casualties, but the second attack killed two children and injured many other people.

1996 The IRA bombs the South Quay station, killing two people.

1996 The IRA detonated a 1500kg bomb in Manchester which destroyed a shopping centre and injured 206 people.

1998 The Real IRA bombed Omagh, Northern Ireland. 29 people were killed and 220 were injured.

2001 A car bomb exploded outside the BBC's main news centre in London.

2001 The Real IRA detonated a bomb in a London postal sorting office.

2001 The last IRA bomb, as of February 2007, on mainland Britain explodes in Ealing, West London, injuring seven people.

2005 London bombings on the Underground and buses were conducted by four separate suicide bombers, killing 56 people and injuring 700.

2007 The 2007 United Kingdom letter bombs.

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2.4.3 United States

The United States has considered itself a secure country for the most part of its history.

This is a significant factor in understanding the reaction to the events of September 11.

Snow (2004, p.72) regards three main factors contributing to this view: a lack of a sense

of history, geographical isolation and their Anglo-Saxon heritage. The lack of history is

in comparison to longer established European and Asian counterparts. The cultural

fragmentation of American history also contributes to this idea of no common history:

adding to this is the idea that America was the ‘land of the free’, taking in settlers

fleeing from less harmonious experiences.

Geographical isolation has created a notion of the country being untouchable (Snow

2004, p.74). This has created cultural difficulties in coping with the results of the

Vietnam War. Anglo-Saxon heritage is regarded as one of the main contributors to the

establishment of the guarantee of individual rights and liberties.

The events listed in Table �2.11 indicate that most terrorist activity prior to September 11

was internal conflict. The way of dealing with this style of attack was insufficient

preparation for the scale of disaster on September 11. Goldstone (2005, p.167) clearly

describes this difficulty:

The United States has traditionally been perceived as the leader of the free and democratic world. That perception has become tarnished in the days since 9/11. This country has sought to lead by hint of its power alone.

Table �2.11 Example Terrorist Events in the United States 1977 - 2007

Year Event

1977 About a dozen Hanafi Muslims took over the city hall, the B'nai B'rith building, and the Islamic Center, in Washington, D.C. They held more than 130 hostages until the next day.

1977 Puerto Rican nationalist organisation, FALN, explode two bombs in New York City buildings housing Defense Department security personnel, killing one.

1979 FALN exploded a bomb outside of the Shubert Theatre in Chicago, injuring five people.

1979 Members of the Ku Klux Klan and the American Nazi Party fire on a protest in Greensboro, North Carolina, killing five.

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Year Event

1980 Statue of Liberty is bombed by suspected Croatian terrorists seeking independence for Croatia from Yugoslavia.

1980 An Iranian exile and critic of Ayatollah Khomeni, was shot in his Maryland home.

1981 Ku Klux Klan random lynching.

1982 The Turkish Consul-General in Los Angeles is killed by members of the Justice Commandos Against Armenian Genocide (JCAAG).

1982 Turkish Honorary Consul Orhan Gunduz was assassinated in his car in Massachusetts by the JCAAG.

1983 The Armed Resistance Unit bombed the US Capitol in response to the US invasion of Grenada.

1984 First incident of bioterrorism in the United States. The Rajneeshee cult spreads salmonella in salad bars at 10 restaurants. 751 people were sickened.

1990 The head of Israel's Koch party and founder of the American vigilante group the Jewish Defense League was assassinated in New York.

1993 First World Trade Center bombing killed six and injured 1,000.

1994 Rashid Baz, a Lebanese national opens fire on a van carrying members of the Lubavitch Hasidic sect of Jews, killing one and wounding several others.

1994 Two doctors were shot outside of an abortion facility in Pensacola.

1995 Oklahoma City bombing. A truck bomb shattered the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in downtown Oklahoma City, killing 168 people.

1996 Centennial Olympic Park bombing occurred in Atlanta, Georgia, during the Atlanta Olympics. One person was killed and 111 injured.

1996-2001

The Animal Liberation Front engages in arson attacks against meat-processing plants, lumber companies, a high-tension power line, and a ski center.

1997 An armed man opened fire on tourists at an observation deck atop the Empire State Building as an attack against the "enemies of Palestine".

1998 A gunman storms the United States Capitol and fatally wounds two United States Capitol Police officers.

2001 World Trade Centre and Pentagon are attacked.

2001 Letters tainted with anthrax kill five across the United States.

2006 One woman was killed and five women were wounded in a shooting motivated by religious discontent.

2.4.4 National or Homeland Security

The specific notion of security in relation to protecting a country from threat has been

known variously as homeland security and national security. The concept has been

49

linked closely with military developments at points in time, and at others, has referred to

a much broader spectrum of protective initiatives designed to ensure peace is

maintained and the stability of government and society. ‘Homeland security’ has been

predominantly found in US-based literature following the events of 11 September 2001.

Since then the term has been gaining wider global acceptance. National security is often

used interchangeably with homeland security, internal security, border management and

counter terrorism (Relyea 2002). In the literature, homeland security is often linked to

terrorism. This limits the scope of the discussion, which enables the introduction of the

term national security to be a more encompassing phrase to describe the current state of

affairs. For the purposes of this thesis national security encompasses the following

categorisations as defined by Kun (2004): intelligence gathering and warning; border

and transportation security; domestic counter-terrorism; protection of critical

infrastructure; defending against outside attacks; and emergency preparedness and

response.

The rhetoric since September 11 has focused on the idea of the homeland and the need

for it to be protected and kept free from attack. The language of government and media

coverage has encouraged the development of the theme of war on terror. This creates

bias in the coverage of homeland awareness.

2.4.5 Sweeping Changes in the Name of National Security

The recent focus on national security has renewed interest in technologies with the

potential to be used for security measures. A technology that has experienced this

refreshed approach is biometric imaging. Prior to September 11, it was discussed in

primarily defensive terms, as public interest focused on the more sinister potential of the

technology, and not the improved security potential it could offer. In the immediate

period following the attacks, airports announced urgent implementation of scanning

programs, and governments undertook expedited reviews of biometrics-based security

systems.

The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency has initiated a project called Human

ID at a Distance which aims to “develop biometric technologies… that can be deployed

to identify a known terrorist before he closes on his target” (Alterman 2003). The US

50

Department of Defense (DoD) is supporting research into the application of biometrics,

establishing the Biometrics Fusion Centre in Bridgeport, West Virginia. The centre is to

help evaluate, implement, and integrate biometric technologies for DoD organisations.

The US DoD has adopted a smart card (with an embedded chip) as the standard method

of identifying its employees and controlling access to its sites. The DoD plans to add

biometric information to the card within the next year (Alterman 2003).

The ability of biometric systems to grant authorised users access to privileged

information and protected devices, while denying the same access to others, means that

they can assist with the protection of military facilities, airports, industrial plants,

offices, retail stores, personal residences, and recreational areas. Rood and Hornak

(2003) have questioned whether this form of identification and management of person

access would have prevented the events of September 11.

2.4.5.1 Legislative Changes

The events of September 11 were a turning point for legislative changes. Although the

US, UK and Australia had counter terror measures in place, many changes were made in

the period since September 11 (Goldstone 2005; Northouse 2006). Some of the changes

have met with much criticism from civil rights groups as they are seen to stretch the

limits of allowable actions.

The United States Congress passed the following Acts which enhanced the reach of

biometric identification of citizens and aliens:

• the PATRIOT Act – several measures to improve the government’s ability to

detect foreign threats operating in the United States. Wire taps surveillance

and subpoenas.

• the Aviation and Transport Security Act

• Enhanced Border Security and Visa Entry Reform Act

These were privy to an extraordinarily fast track through to becoming legislation which

was noted by many civil libertarians. This fast track came in the presence of warnings

prior to September 11 that the US Department of Defense did not have concrete plans in

place to address emerging threats (Michael and Masters 2006).

51

The change in this approach has had follow-on effects to other countries. Australia and

UK have border control law updates, and more dangerously, it is being used as a ruse to

justify other far greater repressive actions (Goldstone 2005, p.165). The technology

impact can be seen in the biometric passport system implemented in Indonesia,

considered to be the world’s most comprehensive and decentralised (Poessl 2006); the

implementation of BioPass in Singapore, which claims to have enhanced security

features to prevent tampering (Yeo 2006) and, Thailand has started issuing citizens with

a Java-based multi-application smart card, used primarily for security purposes in the

initial deployment (Bergman 2005).

2.5 The Contribution of this Research

2.5.1 Understanding the ‘Lifeworld’

The idea of lifeworld can be understood as a world view being created from what has

happened in the past. It is a way of people, both individually and as a society, creating a

means of understanding and interpreting the present. Society, as proposed by Habermas,

draws together three main components: the lifeworld, steering media and systems.

Lifeworld is made up of culture, society and personality, to guide attitudes, behaviour

and action. Systems in this definition are expressions of the lifeworld and are held

together through steering media. The lifeworld also represents the background

environment in which people operate, which is culturally grounded in terms of practices

and attitudes.

Throughout this research the concept of the lifeworld will be challenged for deeper

understanding throughout the case studies of media reports. The creation of public

sentiment through steering media has a huge impact on how the public creates a

working knowledge of technology.

2.5.2 Liberty

Liberty, as defined in the Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy, is of concern in almost all

constitutions. It associates the value of liberty with autonomy, and as dependent upon

the nature of the social context rather than on individual rights ("liberty" 1996). Liberty

is also understood as

52

…the right or power to do as one pleases …right, power, opportunity, permission …freedom from control by fate or necessity …a right, privilege, or immunity, enjoyed by prescription or grant …setting aside of rules or convention ("liberty n." 2004).

It is this list of expected freedoms that some fear is being threatened in the post-

September 11 world. Increasing technology pervasiveness is a threat to being free, or

doing as one pleases. At extremes, it is taking away the power of choice. The adoption

of auto-ID and location-based technologies in a mandatory scheme will challenge this

definition of liberty. There is certainly a need to balance effective law enforcement

initiatives in the threat of terrorism, but commentators are pleading for it to be done

with respect for civil liberties (Goldstone 2005; Luban 2005; Northouse 2006).

Liberty is inextricably bound together with the human rights movement which is

bringing privacy and security issues to the fore. From the research examined, the

concept of liberty encompasses the notion of civil liberties. Civil liberties, although an

essential part of our society, are often taken for granted where there is no direct threat.

Goldstone (2005, p.159) suggests that when society is free of security threats, civil

liberties are rarely in danger, but in times of war there is a real danger of overreacting.

His comments are particular to the United States in this work, but hold true in a wider

realm. Luban continues this theme, distinguishing between times of danger and peace.

He draws the concepts of security and liberty together through an inevitable trade-off.

…and the only important question then becomes where to draw the line. How much liberty should be sacrificed in the name of security (Luban 2005, p.242).

2.5.3 Paying a Price

Throughout the research on existing studies, there is a consistent theme of citizens

needing to waive certain liberties or have reduced access to services in order for

national security initiatives to be fully implemented. This is particularly noticeable in

the privacy-based studies. The concept of this can be summarised as the figurative price

that the average citizen is ‘paying’ for this increased level of national security.

However, the concept goes back much earlier and in consideration of many more issues

than the rapid advancement of technologies. Over time, identifying the price that is

being paid for advancement is a difficult task, and it is harder still to measure. Winner

53

frames this observation in terms of consumer product developments and makes the

comment that:

They have gotten used to having the benefits of technological conveniences without expecting to pay the costs. Of course, if anyone had bothered to notice, it should have been obvious that a price for “progress” was being paid all along. It was often a very subtle price, a barely recognizable price, but a real one nevertheless (Winner 1986, p.171).

In Winner’s research it is suggested that when people want something to happen, they

will find ways to justify the costs that need to be paid. It seems inevitable in this model

that it is only when the changes occurring through the payment of costs have gone too

far that people are able to step back to look objectively at the impact those decisions

have had on their life. The pervasive impact of technologies on daily life is questioned

only when certain boundaries are challenged. Winner (1986, p.50) proposes the issues

in Table �2.12 as costs that are significant enough to consider limiting the use or

development of a technology.

Table �2.12 Factors that May Limit Development of a Technology

Reasons significant enough to consider limiting the development of a technology

1. Its application threatens public health or safety 2. Its use threatens to exhaust some vital resource 3. It degrades the quality of the environment (air, land, and water) 4. It threatens natural species and wilderness areas that ought to be preserved 5. Its application causes social stresses and strains of an exaggerated kind

Ng-Kruelle et al. (2002) established the concept of ‘Price of Convenience’ as a means

for understanding what a consumer is willing to give up of their privacy in order to gain

a factor of convenience. This study examined the use of mobile devices. This research

has established a direction in technology studies to look beyond the benefits of the tool

itself and instead evaluate the impact it can have on the end user. Ng-Kruelle et al.

(2002, p.4) discuss the concept of the “price” in the context of mobile commerce

applications and the consumer. The phrase under consideration here is the ‘Price of

Convenience’:

At an individual level, any potential “consumer” must always balance costs (giving up for personal information such as location and driving speed) against benefits (such as navigation support).

54

Technological determinism holds that technology has the ability to shape our lives.

Perusco et al. (2006) put forward that the social setting in which the technology emerges

is as important as the technology itself. Winner (1986, p.51) believes this position can

be countered when there is a clear form and limits on the idea of what a society should

be. In terms of lifeworld, there is a linking of technology acceptance and shaping of

social evolution. A society wishing to structure and direct its forward progress must be

aware of the implications of technology in terms of costs and benefits. Without this

knowledge, there is the presupposed position of the technology driving social change

and not vice versa. Winner (1986, p.68) quotes Marcuse for the joining of the concept of

freedom to technical progress of the advancement of science. The position he takes is

that at present, the structures around the development of technology are not supportive

of inclusion of lifeworld response. They are rarely designed as technologies of

liberation.

Michael and Michael pose the same question of balance in terms of the attempt to make

the world safer through the use of surveillance cameras and the equipping of children

with tracking devices. The consideration here again is whether privacy and freedom are

being sacrificed, but they note that:

…more and more people are willing to pay this price as heinous crimes become common events in a society that should know better (Michael and Michael 2004, p.441).

This society is being shaped through many influences particularly in this era of ‘real and

present danger’ of terrorism and biological, nuclear, chemical and radiological threat.

The plea in the article is that these and other implications should be considered in the

development stages of technology innovation, not after they are already in place, unable

to be changed easily.

Louie and Eckhartsberg (2006, p.70) dispute that a trade-off takes place or even needs

to take place. Using the example of data mining they suggest that there are at least five

choices that can be made during the process that make a trade-off unnecessary. The

weakness here is that these choices rely on individual reasoning looking beyond the self,

to the wider implications. Voluntary codes of practice are put forward as an example

where this level of decision making has failed, and their fear is that the same will

happen in the context of data mining and invasion of liberties.

55

Westin (2006, p.19) proposes two models from which governments and the wider public

are operating (see Table �2.13). These are recurrent themes, discussed also in Perusco et

al. (2006), and are the focus of Chapter 6.

Table �2.13 Westin's Security-First and Liberty-First Models

Security First Position Liberty First Position

If we do not modify some of our traditional constitutional norms limiting government powers, we will not be able to fight terrorism, function as a reasonably safe society and enjoy our liberties.

If we reduce our liberties by granting the government sweeping and uncontrolled investigative and surveillance powers, we will weaken the constitutional system that has made our nation great.

Westin (2006, p.20) believes there are five factors shaping public views in regard to the

security versus liberty dichotomy: perceptions of the current terrorist threat and the

likelihood of further attacks; perceptions of how well the government is dealing with the

threats thus far and the methods being used; perceptions of how government antiterrorist

programs are affecting valued civil liberties; underlying orientations toward general

security and liberty issues; and basic orientations on political issues in general – which

may be shaped by political philosophy, party identification, and demographic factors.

Luban (2005) builds from this consideration framework to personalise the issue more

strongly. He strongly supports the notion that a trade-off is taking place and asks what

“you” are willing to sacrifice in order to have “minute increments in security”. Luban

believes that if the trade-off question is always asked in terms of personal rights,

answers may be significantly different to when the questions remain a vague societal

generality. He challenges the use of September 11 as the measuring stick by which

trade-off questions should be asked:

…we would be willing to sacrifice a lot of liberty to prevent September 11…what sacrifice of our rights would we be willing to undergo to reduce the already-small probability of another September 11 by a factor of, say, one in ten? (Luban 2005, p.243).

Northhouse (2006, p.5) and Wran (2006) support these notions, prompting us to

consider the role of technology in understanding the trade-off concerns, and also

recognising the impact and increasing pervasiveness of government in control of

personal information.

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2.6 Conclusion

This chapter set out to review the literature relevant to this thesis so that gaps in the

research area could be identified. Based on the review conducted above, several

important conclusions about this area of research can be made. It was stated at the

beginning of this chapter that location-based services and auto-ID technologies were

being used for national security purposes and that their use has a social impact. By

examining the technologies currently being used in the area, and also technologies being

proposed for national security applications, it was shown that much of the research is

happening in technology silos. There is little research drawing together the technologies

in order to understand the impact they have when used collectively for national security

purposes.

This chapter also established an understanding of the social dimensions of the

technology which can sometimes be regarded as consequences of its use. The impact of

these technologies on privacy is often discussed from a negative perspective. Although

the concepts of privacy, security and liberty intersect to a degree, their interplay with

regard to technology use in for national security purposes has been skewed toward the

impact of terrorism. The literature on privacy and technology is dominated by works

that focus on a threatening impact. This is contrasted with the security literature which

proposes technology to be a fix for security concerns. The concept of liberty is

manifold, and in the context of technology and national security is seemingly an

emotional and tending toward biased patriotism.

Through the investigation of these issues, it was proposed that there are two main

approaches: security before liberty, or liberty before security. Through the exploration

of these issues, this research, using the methodology described in the following chapter,

will further explore these opposed positions.

57

Chapter 3 Research Method

3.1 Introduction

A review of the relevant literature identified a gap in existing research where auto-ID

and LBS technologies, being used for national security, have no means of being

evaluated by society as to their impact on privacy and security. Along with these issues,

it was identified that liberty is considered integral to the debate. The proposed Privacy,

Security and Liberty (PSL) Trichotomy (Chapter 6) draws together the technological

and social aspects within the national security domain to present a holistic

understanding of the factors that shape social consciousness of technology acceptance.

The aim of this chapter is to describe the philosophical and methodological

underpinning of the chosen research.

A research methodology describes the steps that will be taken in order to achieve the

research goals. It consists of a combination of processes, methods and tools that are

chosen by a researcher, and informed by theory, to conduct the particular study

(Nunamaker et al. 1991, p.91). The first step in establishing the methodology is

identifying a research framework to provide direction and justification of the research.

This research is situated in the qualitative paradigm, and is concerned with a social

impact enquiry which affords a higher degree of fluidity in formalisation of research

structure when compared to a quantitative study. This chapter then provides discussion

of the qualitative paradigm and a consideration of the philosophical perspectives of

positivism, interpretive and critical approaches to research. This section closes with a

comparison of interpretive and critical perspectives to highlight the interlinking of these

approaches. Section �3.4 presents the specific framework from within which this

research will be situated. The selection of the method is discussed in Section �3.5 and

specific tools for data collection and analysis are described in Section �3.7.

58

3.2 Research Goals

The primary aim of this research is to create an understanding of the relationship

between auto-ID and LBS technologies and national security in order to understand how

privacy, security and liberty are affected by the implementation of national security

measures. To achieve this aim these secondary objectives will provide the necessary

background information for the PSL Trichotomy to be understood:

1. A review of the literature in the broad field of auto-ID and LBS intersecting

with social implications of technology.

2. Investigation of the social shaping factors of recent national security events,

and auto-ID and LBS technology being used, to examine the impact of the

mass media.

3. The construction of a paradigm for understanding the trichotomy of privacy,

security and liberty in relation to LBS and auto-ID applications being used in

national security.

3.3 Research Framework

It is the underlying notion of this research that technology must be examined in light of

the society within which it is being used. The importance of social impact in this

research is informed by the researcher’s history and personal values. D’Cruz (2001)

cites Riessman (1993) in describing the impact this has on the research design and the

objectivity of the research. Social enquiry is, by its nature, subjective. The primary goal

of this research is to develop a way of understanding societal reaction to technologies

used in the national security area. It is necessary for this research to involve social

biases that include bringing to the fore diametrically opposed views of technology.

59

Figure �3.1 Framework Dimensions

Figure �3.1 illustrates a framework to guide work in qualitative research in order to

frame the research question (Higgs 2001, p.61). The four perspectives: personal frame

of reference, philosophical, methodological and theoretical framework; create an

interplay that allows the complexity of the topic to evolve throughout the enquiry. The

importance of this interplay is acknowledged by many IS researchers who have

identified the increasing breadth of IS research as it expands to impact legal issues

(O'Donnell and Henriksen 2002), including intellectual property rights, privacy issues

(Clarke 2000), management (Myers and Young 1997; Orlikowski and Baroudi 2002)

and sociology (Adam 2002).

By situating this research using these frameworks, the following discussion will

elaborate on the philosophical perspective and research paradigm. This informs the

research approach which is used to determine the research methods for data collection

and data analysis. A synopsis of this process is illustrated in Figure �3.2. In this figure,

the process of the research is combined with the fundamental conceptual underpinnings

in order for its purpose to be clearly understood.

60

Figure �3.2 Thesis Structure

3.3.1 Qualitative Paradigm

Qualitative research stems from social sciences where social and cultural contexts of

research problems are examined (Creswell 1994; Myers and Avison 2002). The

qualitative approach to research in IS has gained acceptance over the past 20 years. The

qualitative approach has sought to understand the social phenomena associated with the

implementation of Information Systems through research that looks beyond scientific

rigor and measurement. Regardless of epistemology used, the qualitative approach

focuses on phenomena that occur in natural settings and in all their complexity (Leedy

2005). A qualitative approach does not attempt to simplify a problem in order to

understand it; instead multiple perspectives are often examined to try to understand the

problem more completely. It allows the rigorous examination of processes and

meanings within documents in the context of the social and cultural background

(Creswell 1994). The philosophical perspective of qualitative research extends its

influence to the selection of both underlying assumptions (epistemology) and research

methods. These in turn then inform subsequent choices of data collection and analysis.

Qualitative research permits greater explanation and understanding of social phenomena

61

than quantitative research can (Putney and Green 1999). The research objectives of this

work do not fit the ‘cause and effect’ model that often accompanies a quantitative

approach (Cavana et al. 2001). In an IS setting, the qualitative approach allows social

inquiry to take place in the context in which it happens and from the perspective of

those that the technology affects (Myers 1997). It is important to note that qualitative is

not synonymous with the interpretivist approach (Trauth 2001); qualitative research

may be interpretive based upon the philosophical assumptions of the researcher, which

for this research are grounded in the critical school of thought (discussed in Section

�3.3.2.3) as highlighted in Figure �3.3.

�����������

����� �

���������� �������������� ����� ��

������� ��������������

Figure �3.3 Underlying Philosophical Assumptions for Qualitative Research

The distinction between qualitative and quantitative, and the subsequent discussion of

philosophical perspectives, is separate from the research methods discussion in Section

�3.3.2. The reason for this distinction is that research methods can be approached from

any of the philosophical perspectives, having an impact on the interpretation of results

and the justification of method (Myers and Avison 2002; Orlikowski and Baroudi 2002;

Trauth 2001). See for example positivist case study research (Yin 1994), interpretive

(Walsham 1993) or critical (Richardson and Robinson 2007; VanWynsberghe and Khan

2007).

62

3.3.2 Philosophical Perspectives

There are three underlying philosophical perspectives in which qualitative research can

take place: positivist, interpretive and critical (Orlikowski and Baroudi 2002) as

illustrated in Figure �3.3. Based on the work of Chua (1986) and adopted by Myers

(2002), this split of approaches to qualitative research in IS gives this research a

framework on which to position its adoption of a research method. Positivist and

interpretive research are the two most common approaches used by researchers in

Information Systems (Orlikowski and Baroudi 2002), however over the past 20 years

there has been a significant body of work that has been applying a critical approach to

IS research topics (Cecez-Kecmanovic 2001; Cecez-Kecmanovic et al. 2002).

3.3.2.1 Positivist

The positivist approach to research is founded in the natural sciences and is often

associated with empirical research. The positivist approach in IS research works within

an objective reality, with measurable properties (Myers and Avison 2002; Orlikowski

and Baroudi 2002). Structured instruments are often used which are designed to test

theory by making inferences about a phenomenon from the sample to a stated

population (Orlikowski and Baroudi 2002). The positivist approach has most strongly

been applied in North American IS research as evidenced by acceptance in relevant

journals and conferences (Chen and Hirschheim 2004).

The application of this approach to IS research is argued to be unsuitable because

although IS is an applied discipline, it does not have an established body of theory to

draw from and often needs to “co-opt a theory from a 'reference discipline' such as

organisational behaviour, management accounting or computer science” (Clarke 2000).

3.3.2.2 Interpretive

Interpretive IS research takes the position of the researcher working to provide a

meaning to phenomena through examining the context and the information influences

(Myers and Avison 2002; Orlikowski and Baroudi 2002). This approach has been well

documented by Walsham (1993) and Klein and Myers (1999). Clarke (2000) recognises

that interpretivists are often researching situations where the objects of study are

63

influenced by many factors, and are extremely difficult to isolate and control in

experimental laboratory settings.

3.3.2.3 Critical

Critical studies are designed to uncover contradictions within social systems in order

that people may be able to overturn the status quo (Orlikowski and Baroudi 2002).

Walsham (2005) believes that critical research hinges on the researcher having a

personal motivation, being focused on something that is wrong with the world, rather

than what is right. Cezec-Kecmanovic (2001) affirms that the critical approach to IS

research was developed as a reaction to the dominance of positivist research in the field.

The critical research approach is deemed essential by Doolin (1998) because of the

necessity of understanding the role of technology within a broader social and political

context. Where interpretive researchers seek to maintain the status quo (Myers 1997;

Walsham 2005), critical researchers seek to emancipate subjects in order to improve the

human condition (Ngwenyama 1991). A critical researcher aims to better understand

how societies work to produce beneficial and detrimental effects, in this case through

adoption of location applications. The researcher then looks for ways to mitigate or

eliminate the damaging effects (in this research of the location applications in national

security) (Fairclough 2003). Critical researchers use knowledge that is grounded in

social and political practices. Historical analysis of a phenomena is used to identify

long-held associations (Orlikowski and Baroudi 2002). McGrath (2005, p.85) states

that “[f]or more than 30 years, critical research in information systems (IS) has

challenged the assumption that technology innovation is inherently desirable and hence

to the benefit of all.” Stahl (2004) raises the issue of ethical consideration in regard to

critical IS research, which is not addressed by any of his contemporaries. The inclusion

of ethical relevance in critical research is deemed important by Stahl because of the

personal frameworks and motivations that are drawn in to the analysis by the researcher.

3.3.3 The Intersection of Critical and Interpretive Approaches

By bringing to light restrictive conditions of the status quo, IS research can be

considered critical. Pozzebon (2003) argues that there can be an overlap between the

critical and interpretive perspective. He even goes so far as to say that they need to be

64

blended in order for the field of IS research to truly evolve into its own area of research.

Walsham (2005) supports this view as he describes the way in which critical work can

be carried out, however he does distinguish critical research on the following set of

variables: researcher motivation, choice of research focus, theory selection and the

active engagement with exemplifying the value of critical IS research (Walsham 2005,

p.116). However these motivators may still not clearly distinguish between a critical and

interpretive approach (Pozzebon 2003).

The critical approach differs from interpretivist in that it seeks to understand the

workings of the whole phenomena: a critical study in Information Systems cannot look

at technology alone, it must strive to understand it in terms of the industrial, societal and

national context within which it is applied (Orlikowski and Baroudi 2002). It is the

impact that innovation has had on the population that is most critical to its success or

failure.

Critical research is defined simply by Schultze (2000) as research that causes the reader

to “pause and think about a specific situation, by provoking them to answer

questions…” Within critical research is the ability for the researcher themselves to

become visible in the discussion of the findings (Kincheloe and McLaren 2000; Trauth

2001). Cezec-Kemanovic (2001) refers to this as reflexivity, which ties in the comments

of Kincheloe and McLaren (2000) who regard critical researchers as researchers who

are clear about declaring their interests and “baggage” at the research outset to reduce

confusion. Given critical research requires a personal motivation to exist, it makes sense

that those driving reasons would need to be voiced to give substance and direction to the

work that is undertaken. This is distinctly different to the positivist approach, where

objectivity is maintained absolutely. In the interpretive approach, the researcher will

have a voice, but not as obvious as when being examined through the critical lens.

Pozzebon (2003) cites the work of Golden-Biddle and Locke (1993) and Walsham and

Sahay (1999) as examples of this approach. In a critical approach there is no “truth” that

needs to be found. Instead, the critical discussions look to uncover any of the multiple

interpretations that may exist about an issue (Cecez-Kecmanovic 2001; Trauth 2001).

Mingers (2003; 1997) is an advocate of a multi-method approach to research in IS in

order to more completely examine and understand the complex phenomenon of the

65

application of IS in society. This idea is reflected by both Clarke (2000) and Mingers

(2001) who acknowledge that IS research draws on a wide range of disciplines in order

to understand the broader development of information systems in the context of human

communication.

Mingers (2001) argues that it is possible to detach methods from a paradigm and use

them critically and knowledgeably, and also acknowledges that as we move to examine

social aspects of phenomenon, there is an implied shift toward introducing a critical

element to the work.

3.4 Critical Social Theory in Information Systems Research

Pozzebon (2003) suggests that critical IS research may simply be the challenging of

assumptions inherent in the current situation through critical reflection, regardless of the

theoretical framework taken. Habermas, who belongs to the Frankfurt School of critical

theory, believes that the lifeworld can be understood as being shaped by existing social

and historical contexts (Brooke 2002, p.49). Habermas’ theory is intent on effecting

radical change through understanding distortions of communications (Cukier et al.

2004). Critical Social Theory (CST) looks to the outside world and examines opinions

that appear in the ‘public sphere’, defined by Fairclough (2003) as the connection

between social systems and the domain of everyday living (“lifeworld”), where people

deliberate on matters of social and political concerns. Lifeworld is a term used by

Habermas (1984) to refer to a common world of experience. Cecez-Kecmanovic (2001)

describes it as the ‘taken-for-granted’ universe of daily social activities of members.

CST implies that the researcher has an agenda and is setting out to examine the

‘lifeworld’ to come to understand the meaning of things. Cezec-Kemanovic (2001)

believes the role of critical social IS to be where

…they aim to discover and expose attempts to design and (mis)use IS to deceive, manipulate, exploit, dominate and disempower people.

Figure �3.4 as represented in Mingers and Brockelsby (1997) is grounded in Habermas’

theories and suggests three worlds that make up the real life situations one experiences.

The material world is an objective reality, but observations and descriptions of it are

dependent upon the social and personal worlds.

66

Figure �3.4 Three Dimensions of Problem Situations

The personal world is subjective and unique to the individual subject. You can only

attempt to appreciate interpretations of others. The social world is regarded as a shared

intersubjectivity in that we can experience common events but will interpret them on a

personal level. This introduces a layer of complexity that is inherent in critical social

interpretation of phenomena (Mingers 1992).

3.5 The Importance of Media

The role of the media in contemporary society is significant. McLuhan (2003, p.286), in

his 1964 treatise, Understanding Media, considered the individualistic role of the press

as dedicated to “shaping and revealing group attitudes”. Habermas agrees with this and

through the critical school of thought that his research is situated in considers the effects

of mass media to be a danger to liberty or individual choice (Poster 1995, p.3). The idea

that information is a source of power in the information age leads Marshall and

Kingsbury (1996) and McLuhan (2003) to believe that the role of the media can be seen

as a reflection of what the public needs to hear and what they want to hear. McLuhan’s

central message is that the power is in the medium, and not in the message.

67

The choice of newspapers as a medium for assessing public sentiment is supported by

Gouldner (1976) who proposed a number of reasons of why they enhance public

rationality. Firstly, the information they provide enables the reader to view issues from a

wider cosmopolitan view, adding perspective that is outside of any local shaping

factors. Mills (2002, p.76) argues that the mass media not only gives us information, but

they “guide our very experience”. In this instance, the individual no longer reacts to an

event according to their own values, but takes on the perspective presented in the media

as their own, never questioning the validity of this perspective. Wilkins and Patterson

(1991, p.2) examine the response in media with regard to science and risk and have

found that:

The news media play a special role in developing of the public’s perceptions of risk because media serve as a principal link between the technical assessments of experts and the psychological assessments of laypersons.

The following table (Table �3.1) from Marshall and Kingsbury (1996, p.43) categorises

the types of news-making that are present in the media.

Table �3.1 News Content in the Mass Media

News Making Description

Informational Sports results, weather, stock market quotations and a range of other more or less routine day-to-day material.

Event-driven The hard core of media content. Events which actually occur and which are reported in a relatively straight-forward way.

Mediated Reporting and commentary which can be viewed as mediated by the presumed economic interests of media owners.

Managed These are ‘created’ news events, whether for commercial, political or governmental interests.

Media-coloured News treatments through which events are magnified, distorted or sometimes even invented; moral panics.

Media-dominated Coverage leading to those mega-events in which complex multiple realities are created (i.e. War of the Worlds).

It is interesting to note this classification in respect to national security events. The

event-driven, managed and media-coloured descriptions are the categories most relevant

to the coverage of national security events. These categories will be used in later

chapters to frame understanding of the media analysis.

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3.6 Methodology

Methodology is used to connect theoretical frameworks with the collection and

interpretation of source materials (Alvesson and Deetz 2000). Critical research does not

have a defined set of research methods to choose from (Boudreau 1997; Ngwenyama

1991). Instead, it often borrows methods from interpretive research (Pozzebon 2003)

choosing tools that are determined to fit well with the specified objectives of the study.

This is seen as a weakness by Lyytinen (Lyytinen 1992; Lyytinen and Klein 1985) and

Klein and Myers (1999), however Cezec-Kemanovic (2001) recognises that this

situation is not restricted to the domain of IS research. The following section provides

arguments for the selection of the case study approach and details the data collection

and analysis components that allow information to be retrieved from the case study

design. The appropriateness of the chosen method then becomes dependent upon the

theoretical framework being applied. Figure �3.5, adapted from Titscher et al. (2000,

p.51), Cecez-Kecmanovic (2001, p.150) and Broadbent (1991, p.3) illustrates how the

components of the research are linked together.

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69

3.6.1 Cases

Case studies are defined by Creswell (1994) as a single entity or phenomenon bounded

by time and activity. The phenomenon or entity can include processes, events, persons

or object of interest to the researcher (Leedy 2005). The case study can be used in many

circumstances where the restriction of only one approach is untenable. Van der Blonk

(2003) proposes four approaches to case study writing: analytical chronology,

interpretive theoretical case, diagnostic case reports and cross-case analysis. In this

research the closest definition from these is the interpretive theoretical case where

narrative is interpreted and linked to emerging conceptual and theoretical ideas that are

derived from the case and tied to the literature (Pettigrew 1990). Case studies are used

when multifaceted issues are to be considered in all their complexity (van der Blonk

2003).

Case study research is the most common qualitative method used in IS (Myers and

Avison 2002; Orlikowski and Baroudi 2002). The case study has been defined by Yin

(1994) as an inquiry that “investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real life

context”. An advantage of the case study approach is that a phenomenon can be looked

at “in depth and at close range” (Tuckman 1988). Case studies are suggested as an

approach when the focus of the study is to understand the how and why of a phenomena

of IT within the organisational context (Lubbe 2003). There are limitations to the case

study methodology, one of which is that they have the potential risk of providing a very

limited analysis of the particular case. This limitation can be overcome by careful

planning. Yin (1994, p.xiii) states that “[t]he case study has long been stereotyped as a

weak sibling among social science methods.” The response to this criticism is to ensure

integrity of data by including sources that accurately argue both sides of each issue,

avoiding bias or overt subjectivity. Van der Blonk (2003) contends that there are various

ways to design and conduct case studies, but more importantly identifies that the data

gathering and analysis can also vary. In this research a census approach has been taken,

where all information able to be gathered for a period has been used. There is no

filtering of information in the initial collection stage.

70

Case studies can be used to structure the chronology of events (van der Blonk 2003), in

this case looking for trends in public reaction to the selected events. The justification

for multiple case studies found in Yin (1994, p.45) is that:

The evidence from multiple cases is often considered more compelling, and the overall study is therefore regarded as being more robust.

3.6.2 Content Analysis

Content analysis is a research method used for gathering and analysing the content of

text. It has gained momentum as a research method through the rapid expansion of mass

communication, both mass media and international politics (Titscher et al. 2000).

Content may include words, phrases, sentences, paragraphs, pictures, symbols, or ideas

(O'Connor 2004). Content analysis is useful for making inferences by objectively and

systematically recognising particular characteristics of messages, and it does not need to

be limited to textual analysis according to Holsti (1969). It can include other media such

as video, posters and actions of people. Weber (1990) considers content analysis a

useful technique that enables a researcher to describe the purpose or focus of groups or

institutions. Using this method a researcher can make inferences, which may be

corroborated by other research techniques. Although the method has the potential of

providing biased results through coding or reader preconception, it has been suggested

that using the relational/semantic analysis approach is useful for identifying concepts

within a set of texts and the relationships that exist between those concepts. This then

creates meaning as a product of those relationships (Palmquist et al. 1997). Analysis of

newspaper headlines is an established method for studying issues, especially when the

researcher is concerned with uncovering trends and perception of social implications

(Martin 1995; Zamoon and Curley 2006).

The details of the content analysis method adopted for the event-based and technology-

based cases are discussed Section �3.7.1 and Section �3.7.2 respectively.

3.6.2.1 Disadvantages of Content Analysis

One of the documented disadvantages of media content analysis is the issue of gate

keeping. This concept refers to:

71

…the process by which selections are made in media work, especially decisions whether or not to admit a particular news report to pass through the gates of a news medium into the news channels (McQuail 2000, p.276).

The articles selected for the content analysis in this thesis have been through a process

of gate keeping. This takes place on multiple levels: from the journalists who made

decisions about what angle to present a story from, to the newspaper sub-editors and

editors who are able to include or exclude stories for publication. This issue must be

kept in mind throughout the analysis; however it is one of the ideas inherent in

Habermas’ communicative action theory. Through the theory, the power relations of

participants in the media and information exchange must be balanced against personal

lifeworld views that shape individual reactions to supplied information. Where the

subjectivity of the researcher is a factor in the research design, personal bias in the

interpretation of texts is entwined with all aspects of the project (Denzin and Lincoln

1994).

3.7 Case Study Design

The research design has two sets of case studies illustrated in Figure �3.6. The first,

represented by red circles, is focused on events of national security significance, and the

second set, represented by yellow areas, is on technology use in response to national

security events. The case studies are being used to investigate trends in public reaction

to events of national security. The technology case studies are primarily interested in

identifying key themes of concern surrounding the proposal or adoption of new

location-based technologies in an effort to reduce the threat of national security

breaches. The following sections describe in more detail the data collection and analysis

of these studies.

72

Figure �3.6 Case Study Design

3.7.1 Event Case Studies

The case studies of events are undertaken to investigate whether there are trends in

media coverage that can shape public consciousness throughout incidents of national

security. The events selected for this part of the case studies were chosen to represent

the breadth of issues covered by the notion of national security. Of the seven events,

four are terrorist attacks. The selection of events is listed in Table �3.2.

Table �3.2 National Security Events

Date Event Naming Convention

11 September 2001 New York Terrorist attack September 11

12 October 2002 Bali Nightclub attack Bali Bombing

1 January 2003 SARS Outbreak SARS

9 September 2004 Jakarta Australian Embassy attack Jakarta Bombing

7 July 2005 London Mass Transport attack London Bombing

29 August 2005 Hurricane Katrina US Hurricane Katrina

26 December 2005 Tsunami SE Asia Boxing Day Tsunami

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3.7.2 Technology Case Studies

The second set of case studies is focused on the use of technology in areas of national

security application. The cases selected for this include:

• RFID Passports

• E911 for Emergency Services

• Mobile communications for commercial application

These technology cases are of interest as they first came to levels of significant

awareness after September 11. These technologies have been further planned or

deployed over the events listed in the previous section.

Through analysis of media coverage of these technologies, reactions are identified with

the intent of highlighting public sentiment towards the technologies. The media

coverage also illustrates biases that exist in the promotion or suppression of the

technologies.

3.7.3 Data Collection

The collection of data in both the Event Cases and Technology Cases followed the same

system. This is illustrated in Figure �3.7. In the context of each set of data collection, the

key terms were identified and appropriate databases were selected. After the searches

were conducted, the data was filtered, either to remove duplicate reports, or to filter the

terms that were used in the content analysis for determining the key themes.

Figure �3.7 Data Collection Process

3.7.3.1 Data Collection in the Event Cases

There are two sets of data collected for the event cases content analysis. Both sets

include public media content regarding each national security event. The first collection

of data is collected in three-month intervals, from the date of the event up until 12

months following the event, illustrated in Table �3.3. The articles were selected from the

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Factiva database, which includes Dow Jones and Reuters newswires and publications,

and television news sources. The volume of articles accessible through Factiva rendered

it unworkable to conduct a daily analysis (Tootell 2006). In order to establish a view of

reaction over a length of time it was necessary to limit collection to a series of three-

monthly intervals.

Table �3.3 Event-Based Cases Headline Collection Timeframe

Event Date 0-3 months 3-6 months 6-9 months 9-12 months

September 11 11/09/2001 11/09/2001 – 11/12/2001

12/12/2001-12/03/2002

13/03/2002-13/06/2002

14/06/2002 – 14/09/2002

Bali Bombing 12/10/2002 12/10/2002 – 12/1/2003

13/01/2003 – 13/04/2003

14/04/2003 – 14/07/2003

15/07/2003 – 15/010/2003

SARS 01/01/2003 01/01/2003 – 01/04/2003

02/04/2003 – 02/07/2003

03/07/2003 – 03/10/2003

04/10/2003 – 04/01/2003

Jakarta Bombing 09/09/2004 09/09/2004 – 09/12/2004

10/12/2004 – 10/03/2005

11/03/2005 – 11/06/2005

12/06/2005 – 12/09/2005

Boxing Day Tsunami 26/12/2004 26/12/2004 –

26/03/2005 27/03/2005 – 27/06/2005

28/06/2005– 28/09/2005

29/09/2005– 29/12/2005

London Bombing 07/07/2005 07/07/2005 – 07/10/2005

08/10/2005 – 08/01/2006

09/01/2006 – 09/04/2006

10/04/2006 – 10/07/2006

Hurricane Katrina 29/08/2005 29/08/2005 – 29/11/2005

30/11/2005 – 28/02/2006

01/03/2006 – 01/06/2006

02/06/2006 – 31/08/2006

A second level of data collection involved collecting media reports from three week-

long time periods: the week of the event, six months after the event and 12 months after

the event as illustrated in Table �3.4. The newspaper articles were selected from Factiva

database, using high circulation papers from Australia, US and the United Kingdom.

The papers included: The Australian, The Daily Telegraph (AUS), The Sydney Morning

Herald, The New York Times, USA Today, The Wall Street Journal, The Daily

Telegraph (UK), The Times (UK) and The Guardian.

Table �3.4 Event-Based Cases Article Analysis

Event Date Week 6 months 12 months

September 11 11/09/2001 11/09/2001 – 18/09/2001

13/03/2002-20/03/2002

11/09/2002-18/09/2002

Bali Bombing 12/10/2002 12/10/2002 – 19/10/2002

14/04/2003 – 21/04/2003

12/10/2002 – 19/10/2002

SARS 01/01/2003 01/01/2003 – 08/01/2003

03/07/2003 – 10/07/2003

01/01/2004 – 08/01/2004

Jakarta 09/09/2004 09/09/2004 – 16/09/2004

11/03/2005 – 18/03/2005

09/09/2005 – 16/09/2005

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Event Date Week 6 months 12 months

Boxing Day Tsunami 26/12/2004 26/12/2004 –

01/01/2005 28/06/2005– 04/06/2005

26/12/2005 – 01/01/2006

London Bombing 07/07/2005 07/07/2005 – 15/07/2005

09/01/2006 – 16/01/2006

07/07/2006 – 15/07/2006

Hurricane Katrina 29/08/2005 29/08/2005 – 05/09/2005

01/03/2006 – 08/03/2006

29/08/2006 – 05/09/2006

3.7.4 Data Collection in the Technology Cases

Articles have been selected from Proquest5000 database for each selected technology.

Proquest5000 is an international, multidisciplinary database that incorporates a wide

variety of sources including academic journals, newspapers, newswires and industry

publications. The selection of the articles was based on the key words being present in

the title and/or abstract. To be able to investigate the polarity of opposition and support

of these technologies, a number of advocate websites and technology vendor websites

were also visited. These are noted in the relevant sections.

3.8 Data Analysis

This research uses Leximancer software to perform the content analysis. Leximancer

provides both automatic concept analysis and also customised analysis by using seeded

concept classifiers or through refining a set of automatically generated concepts (Smith

2005a). Leximancer is able to automatically analyse documents to create a learned

vocabulary of terms that can then be edited by the user. To perform this analysis,

Leximancer draws on several disciplines: Corpus and Computational Linguistics

(including Bayesian theory) for the correlation of target words, Machine Learning for

the development of the thesaurus based on initial seed words, Complex Networks

Theory for the cluster map, solid-state Physics, content analysis and information

science. Unlike previous statistical text analysis techniques, Leximancer extends and

reworks traditional approaches to perform two stages of

…non-linear machine learning to provide a statistical means of extracting semantic patterns from text (Leximancer Pty Ltd 2006).

The main output from Leximancer is the map, as illustrated in Figure �3.8. The map is

used to display five sources of information:

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• The main concepts discussed in the document set

• The relative frequency of each concept (the brightness of the concept)

• How often concepts co-occur within the text (brightness of links between

concepts)

• The centrality of each concept (the nearness of concepts)

• The similarity in contexts in which the concepts occur – thematic groups

(Smith 2005a).

Figure �3.8 Example Output from Leximancer

Other output from Leximancer includes the thesaurus which can provide information on

the contributing words to a particular concept. A Ranked Concepts list provides

statistical information in support of the map that is created. It provides access to the

relevant passages within the analysed texts.

3.8.1 Interpreting the Results for this Research

The primary focus of this content analysis is to study the public perception as one of the

factors shaping the lifeworld. These issues will be compared with the findings from the

technology case studies to look for similarities or other driving forces in forming public

opinion. The analysis of the headline counts is presented in a graphical format with

descriptive analysis of the identified trends. Each of the factors is represented in the

same graph to allow for comparison of the awareness of each factor. The results of the

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content analysis are presented as Leximancer maps. The themes and concepts identified

in this level of analysis are discussed with reference to the extracts from the articles that

support the definition of the lifeworld perspective.

3.9 Conclusion

The objective of Chapter 3 was to describe a research methodology that will be used to

achieve the research goals: to investigate recent national security events to establish the

social context in which the technology is being used, to examine reactions to the

implementation of LBS and auto-ID technologies in national security situations and to

develop the PSL Trichotomy. The first step in defining a research methodology is to

situate it within a research framework. In this instance, Higgs’ (2001) encompassing

framework, drawing together all layers of design, was used to illustrate the reliance of

each layer of design on the other. This research is situated in the qualitative domain,

applying a critical social philosophy to the inquiry into the use of LBS and auto-ID

technologies in national security situations. The framework and supporting evidence

shows that although there is no prescribed method or set of tools for conducting IS

research using this approach, a fluid combination of case approach and content analysis

will serve to uncover the relationships between the variables expressed in the research

goals.

The thesis will now proceed with the Event-based case investigation in Chapter 4,

followed in Chapter 5 by the Technology-centric cases. The case study protocol will be

described in these chapters. The results from these chapters combine for the formation

of the PSL Trichotomy in Chapter 6.

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Chapter 4 Event-Based Cases: National Security, Health Epidemic and Natural Disaster

4.1 Introduction

Chapter 3 described the research methodology that will be used in the collection and

analysis of the event-based cases. The purpose of this chapter is to present the cases as

illustrated in Table �4.1 in order to investigate the impact these events have had on the

public understanding and awareness of privacy, security and liberty. These cases are

concerned with events of national security significance that have occurred since 11

September 2001. Each case begins with a description of the background to set the

context of the event and its impact. The content analysis addresses the relationship

between the event and the lifeworld shapers: privacy, security, and liberty. Terrorism

has also been included as a factor as the majority of cases involved a terrorist event. The

second level of analysis explores the key themes identified in the collections of media

reports. The last section of the chapter draws together the findings across the cases. By

interpreting the findings through the lens of Critical Social Theory (CST), the lifeworld

impact issues are extracted for further discussion in Chapter 6.

4.1.1 Justification of Study Selection

Terrorism is an issue that has been high in public consciousness since the September 11

attacks. One of the peculiarities of researching in this area is that subject selection is

dependent upon the work of terrorists, and selection for inclusion is based on how

‘successful’ the effort was, measured by the impact of the event in terms of casualties.

The terrorist events selected for the study were chosen because of their focus on western

targets. In each of the four cases one of the aims was to devastate westerners, either on

home soil, or symbolic western tourist locations. The relationship between Australia and

each of the attacks is also of significance. Government and social ties to the United

States and United Kingdom are strong and the proximity and popularity of Bali with

tourists has created a regional relationship between Indonesia and Australia. Australia

has been fortunate that it has not, to date, suffered a large scale terrorist attack on home

79

soil. However, Australia has experienced losing its people in the events that have been

selected.

The inclusion of the two natural disasters and the health epidemic is to broaden the

focus of national security events. The scale of the disasters in terms of human casualties

and infrastructure damage were the primary reason behind their selection.

September 11 redefined the current view on terror. This is due to the combination of the

symbolism of the target, ‘the most powerful nation in the world’, the shock element of

the method of attack and massive impact of the event in terms of numbers of people

affected (Michael and Masters 2006). The term ‘9-11’ has become synonymous with

terrorism. It is a term that implies the beginning of the current phase of legal and

technology adoption changes that are taking place. The Bali nightclub bombings were a

strong reminder that Australia, although geographically remote, was not immune to the

impact of terrorism. The number of Australian lives lost, especially at a time so close to

the first anniversary of September 11, meant that sensitivity to terrorism was very high.

The following attack on the Australian Embassy in Jakarta reinforced the feeling of

vulnerability in Indonesia. The London Underground attack is the fourth terrorism event

that is considered in this chapter. The severity of the attack and casualty count was

again instrumental in its selection.

The three other events forming part of this analysis include the Boxing Day Tsunami,

Hurricane Katrina and the SARS epidemic. The first two are categorised as natural

disasters and third as a health epidemic. In terms of national security, it is important that

these events are considered, for although they impact in different ways, they have

resulted in the need for different types of responses. The cases selected are summarised

in Table �4.1 which shows: the sequence of cases, a brief label used to refer to the case, a

short description of the event and the number of casualties of the event.

Table �4.1 List of Event-Based Cases

Event Label Date Event Description Casualties

September 11 11/9/2001 World Trade Centre & Pentagon attack 2,996

Bali Bombing 12/10/2002 Bali Nightclub attack 202

SARS 2003 SARS Outbreak 774

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Event Label Date Event Description Casualties

Jakarta Bombing 9/9/2004 Jakarta Australian Embassy attack 11

Boxing Day Tsunami 26/12/2004 Tsunami SE Asia 229,866

London Bombing 7/7/2005 London Mass Transport attack 56

Hurricane Katrina 29/8/2005 Hurricane Katrina US 1,836

4.2 Data Collection

The data used in this chapter comprises news articles retrieved from the Factiva

database. The selected articles retrieved were published within specific time periods

from the date of the event. This investigation is looking for influencing factors

contributing to the definition of lifeworld. The quarterly intervals from the date of the

event until the first anniversary provide the necessary breadth to see how reactions are

changing and/or being shaped by the collection of numeric counts of headlines related

to the search issues. The selection of headlines was considered sufficient for this part of

the study. Previous studies (Bauer and Bauer 1960; Marshall 1979; Martin 1995;

McQuail 1979) have shown that headlines are specifically designed to attract the

attention of readers, and so are suitable to use as an indicator of shaping opinions. The

first segment of data collection is described in Table �4.2.

Table �4.2 Data Collection Periods for Quarterly Headline Analysis.

Event Date 0-3 months 3-6 months 6-9 months 9-12 months

September 11 11/09/2001 11/09/2001 – 11/12/2001

12/12/2001-12/03/2002

13/03/2002-13/06/2002

14/06/2002 – 14/09/2002

Bali Bombing 12/10/2002 12/10/2002 – 12/01/2003

13/01/2003 – 13/04/2003

14/04/2003 – 14/07/2003

15/07/2003 – 15/10/2003

SARS 01/01/2003 01/01/2003 – 01/04/2003

02/04/2003 – 02/07/2003

03/07/2003 – 03/10/2003

04/10/2003 – 04/01/2003

Jakarta Bombing 09/09/2004 09/09/2004 – 09/12/2004

10/12/2004 – 10/03/2005

11/03/2005 – 11/06/2005

12/06/2005 – 12/09/2005

Boxing Day Tsunami 26/12/2004 26/12/2004 –

26/03/2005 27/03/2005 – 27/06/2005

28/06/2005– 28/09/2005

29/09/2005– 29/12/2005

London Bombing 07/07/2005 07/07/2005 – 07/10/2005

08/10/2005 – 08/01/2006

09/01/2006 – 09/04/2006

10/04/2006 – 10/07/2006

Hurricane Katrina 29/08/2005 29/08/2005 –

29/11/2005 30/11/2005 – 28/02/2006

01/03/2006 – 01/06/2006

02/06/2006 – 31/08/2006

The second phase of data collection involved collecting full-text articles from three time

periods for each event. The use of Factiva database impacted on the volume of

81

collection of articles (Tootell 2006). Upon consultation with Factiva representatives, the

time periods specified in Table �4.3 allowed this research to obtain a collection of

articles. These time periods allowed trends over time to be investigated, and it also met

with the restrictions placed on the use of the database. The newspaper articles were

constrained to high circulation papers from Australia, the United States of America and

the United Kingdom. The papers included: The Australian, The Daily Telegraph (AUS),

The Sydney Morning Herald, The New York Times, USA Today, The Wall Street

Journal, The Daily Telegraph (UK), The Times (UK) and The Guardian.

Table �4.3 Event-Based Cases Content Analysis Timeframe

Event Date Week 6 months 12 months

September 11 11/09/2001 11/09/2001 – 18/09/2001

13/03/2002 – 20/03/2002

11/09/2002 – 18/09/2002

Bali Bombing 12/10/2002 12/10/2002 – 19/10/2002

14/04/2003 – 21/04/2003

12/10/2002 – 19/10/2002

SARS 01/01/2003 01/01/2003 – 08/01/2003

03/07/2003 – 10/07/2003

01/01/2004 – 08/01/2004

Jakarta Bombing 09/09/2004 09/09/2004 – 16/09/2004

11/03/2005 – 18/03/2005

09/09/2005 – 16/09/2005

Boxing Day Tsunami 26/12/2004 26/12/2004 – 01/01/2005

28/06/2005– 04/06/2005

26/12/2005 – 01/01/2006

London Bombing 07/07/2005 07/07/2005 – 15/07/2005

09/01/2006 – 16/01/2006

07/07/2006 – 15/07/2006

Hurricane Katrina 29/08/2005 29/08/2005 – 05/09/2005

01/03/2006 – 08/03/2006

29/08/2006 – 05/09/2006

The search terms used to collect the information are shown in Table �4.4. The truncation

was used at the end of the word to allow all variations to be searched. For each event,

four searches were performed to collect data from each of the focus areas: security,

terroris(m)(ist), privacy and liberty.

Table �4.4: Factiva Search Terms

Event Search term (event) Search Focus

September 11 (Sept* 11)

Bali Bombing (Bali bomb*)

Jakarta Bombing (Jakarta bomb*)

London Bombing (London bomb*)

SARS (syndrome same SARS)

Boxing Day Tsunami (Tsunami)

(event) and (security) (event) and (terroris*) (event) and (privacy) (event) and (liberty)

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Event Search term (event) Search Focus

Hurricane Katrina (Hurricane Katrina)

Figure �4.1 illustrates the general process that was performed to collect the data for the

Event Cases. After the terms for searching were defined, the time frame for each event

was determined, along with the newspaper titles. Each event was then searched using

the modifiers. The results were then filtered and sorted for processing by Leximancer.

Figure �4.1 Event-Based Case Data Collection Process

Table 4.5 includes the number of articles collected for the first stage of descriptive

analysis.

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Table �4.5 Event-Based Cases Summary Results

SEARCH TERM 0 to 3 3 to 6 6 to 9 9 to 12 All dates

(Sept* 11) 325 868 158 918 113 933 128 147 1 510 060

(Bali bomb*) 20 090 4 199 5 492 8 067 62 417

(syndrome same SARS) 3 523 46 277 9 037 4 839 81 894

(Jakarta bomb*) 1 210 29 20 28 2 795

(Tsunami) 127 250 28 415 18 875 20 081 239 655

(London bomb*) 25 126 3 327 1 665 503 33 831

(Hurricane Katrina) 154 463 38 589 21 235 0 215 662

PRIVACY

(Sept* 11) and (privacy) 3 604 1 867 1 567 1 588 21 508

(Bali bomb*) and (privacy) 62 10 23 23 251

(syndrome same SARS) and (privacy) 18 173 33 21 319

(Jakarta bomb*) and (privacy) 8 0 0 0 12

(Tsunami) and (privacy) 643 227 137 152 1 596

(London bomb*) and (privacy) 490 54 54 45 629

(Hurricane Katrina) and (privacy) 1 049 493 433 261 1 818

LIBERTY

(Sept* 11) and (liberty) 6 866 3 179 2 509 3 730 36 257

(Bali bomb*) and (liberty) 91 24 20 43 381

(syndrome same SARS) and (liberty) 12 117 30 8 234

(Jakarta bomb*) and (privacy) 1 1 0 0 11

(Tsunami) and (liberty) 800 177 140 164 1 846

(London bomb*) and (liberty) 550 102 82 43 751

(Hurricane Katrina) and (liberty) 1 323 602 493 309 2 244

SECURITY

(Sept* 11) and (security) 84 151 41 534 32 114 34 993 425 285

(Bali bomb*) and (security) 6 934 1 424 1 734 2 680 20 817

(syndrome same SARS) and (security) 236 3 032 800 512 6 244

(Jakarta bomb*) and (security) 594 8 9 5 1 203

(Tsunami) and (security) 11 891 3 983 3 137 2 514 26 300

(London bomb*) and (security) 9 254 1 016 463 951 11 816

(Hurricane Katrina) and (security) 21 921 8 419 6 954 4 736 35 099

TERRORISM

(Sept* 11) and (terroris*) 212 257 88 064 59 826 62 169 765 928

(Bali bomb*) and (terroris*) 11 744 2 276 3 243 5 144 37 360

(syndrome same SARS) and (terroris*) 219 2 795 807 510 5 810

(Jakarta bomb*) and (terroris*) 701 14 9 16 1 560

(Tsunami) and (terroris*) 6 936 2 445 2 391 2 486 17 199

(London bomb*) and (terroris*) 15 374 1 815 794 1 373 19 408

(Hurricane Katrina) and (terroris*) 10 590 4 172 2 889 2 289 16 695

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4.3 September 11, 2001

The September 11 terrorist attacks consisted of a series of coordinated terrorist suicide

attacks by Islamic extremists on the United States on 11 September 2001. Nineteen al-

Qaeda terrorists hijacked four commercial passenger jet airliners. Two of the airliners

(United Airlines Flight 175 and American Airlines Flight 11) were crashed into each

tower of the World Trade Centre in New York City. A third airliner (American Airlines

Flight 77) was crashed into the Pentagon in Arlington County, Virginia. The final

airliner (United Airlines Flight 93) crashed into a field in Shanksville, Pennsylvania

after passengers and flight crew attempted to take control of the plane from the

hijackers. The death toll of this attack includes 19 hijackers, 2973 people and 24

missing and presumed dead (National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the

United States 2004).

4.3.1 Trends in Media Coverage

The initial impact of September 11 was understandably focused on the issue of

terrorism, illustrated in Figure 4.2. In the immediate aftermath, the severity and surprise

of the attack dominated media focus as this unexpected new form of terrorism was

realised. Second to this is the issue of security, be it in the form of homeland, national or

generic reference to the concept. The strong focus of these two issues indicates that the

greatest initial effect was at a societal level. Terrorists had attacked the world’s symbol

of democracy, and in grappling with that, the impact of a terrorist attack and its

implications for all aspects of security were foremost in the public consciousness. The

more personal values of privacy and liberty were, in comparison, hardly acknowledged.

As the time from the event progresses, from three months on, the focus between the four

issues of terrorism, security, privacy and liberty stabilises. Terrorism is still the

strongest focus, which given the unexpected nature of the attack and its impact is

understandable. At the 9-12 month mark, the issue of security climbs slightly. The

increased focus on this issue reflects a stabilising in response to the event, where

motivation is shifting away from revenge to the strong need for acceptance and a way to

move forward. Throughout the 12 month period, the issues of privacy and liberty

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remain steady, however at relatively insignificant percentages in comparison to the

focus on terrorism.

In Figure �4.3, the same data has been used, but the graph depicts the percentage change

in proportion of the total articles collected for each time period. The proportional drop

in interest in terrorism is similar to the increase in security and there is negligible

change in privacy and liberty.

4.3.2 What the Newspapers Were Reporting

The following section looks in more detail at the key themes identified in the collected

data. Figure �4.4 represents the key ideas in the media reports of the week of the event.

The primary themes identified in the content analysis are attack and towers. These

themes are representative of the raw reactions to the event. Many of the media reports at

this time were looking at the mechanics of the event, and then factual accounting of

times and events within the day. The topic of a ‘culture of fear’ is present, as is the

threat to liberty, and all things linked to American and Western civilization. There is

also recognition of a growing rhetoric of war and propaganda. Revenge is spoken of in

terms of overcoming the threat to liberty and democracy. These reflect the use of a

language of war, and align closely with the shift in political thinking caused by

September 11 (which was discussed more detail in Chapter 2). It should be noted that

privacy does not feature as one of the concepts identified in the initial reaction.

The theme of fear was quickly integrated into the reports about the event (as evidenced

in Table �4.6 by playing on the surreal feelings surrounding the unexpected method of

attack.

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Figure �4.2 September 11 Headlines Figure �4.3 September 11 Proportion of Articles Figure �4.4 September 11 Week of Event Figure �4.5 September 11 Six Months After Event Figure �4.6 September 11 One Year After Event

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Table �4.6 Excerpts from September 11 – Week of Event

Newspaper Text

As President Bush attempts to pull together his international alliance to make war against persons unknown, it is certain that the terrorist attacks on New York and Washington have already united America and the Western world in one telling sense. They have globalised the culture of fear (Hume 2001).

The impact of the terrorist attacks on public consciousness has been even greater because it is connecting with an already entrenched culture of fear. After years in which some have seemed to find it hard to distinguish reality from the sci-fi conspiracies of the X-Files (motto: "Trust no one"), President Bush's declaration that Western civilisation itself is threatened by an as-yet faceless alien force will resonate all the more powerfully among millions who have watched the dreadful drama unfolding (Hume 2001).

The US war machine is gearing itself up rapidly in the wake of the devastating terrorist attacks of September 11. The talk is of a war on terrorism, and countries around the world are being asked to sign up to the new campaign. While the rhetoric is understandable, military planners need a more sharply focused mission (Garden 2001).

But in the last week, New Yorkers' affection for Mr Giuliani seems to have grown in direct proportion to their level of fear and uncertainty about everything else. His tough talk and strong-arm tactics may have seemed out of proportion when applied to, say, jaywalkers, but his resolve has been enthusiastically received by people recovering from a terrorist attack (Steinhauer 2001).

Nothing is harder for democracies than eternal vigilance and constraints on cherished liberties. Tolerance is small for high casualties in unconventional military operations. President Bush called this yesterday the first war of the 21st century; but support can leech rapidly away from wars that cannot securely be said to be over - as wars against terrorism by definition cannot be (Times Newspaper 2001b).

But even as a hint of normalcy crept back into the altered rhythms of New York City, a grim reality began to take hold 2 days after the worst terrorist attack in US history -- a realization that this tragedy might never fade, there might never be closure, the most swaggering of cities is forever changed (Jones and Leinwand 2001).

Somehow you know a terrorist attack when you hear it and we are in the middle of one. The knowledge is writ on every frightened face whirling past, considering escape routes (Summers 2001).

At once, this terrorist outrage was identified by Americans as an attack on freedom and democracy. Elsewhere, such language would seem grandiloquent and vainglorious; in American public culture it is exactly appropriate (Clark 2001).

In the aftermath of the co-ordinated terrorist attacks on New York and Washington, the talk is of retribution. The attacks, unprecedented in scale and mainly directed at civilians, brought horrors beyond description. They are compared by Americans with Pearl Harbour, for their treachery and surprise, or with the Oklahoma bombing, for the bewilderment caused by the impossibility of knowing immediately who was responsible (SMH 2001).

Hundreds of thousands of workers in government buildings and prominent office towers streamed home early today, deserting downtowns large and small across the country in an orderly but fearful precaution against further terrorist attacks. At the same time, military bases were on the highest level of alert everywhere, and several governors prepared to mobilize state national guards (Firestone 2001).

As the nation assays the horrific human and physical losses of yesterday's brutally efficient

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Newspaper Text

terrorist attacks, it must also begin the urgent work of determining how an open and democratic society can better defend itself against a threat that conventional armies and weapons cannot defeat (Editorial Desk 2001).

The American dream itself was the target of yesterday's co-ordinated and deadly terrorist attacks on the most potent symbols of Western political, commercial and military power. But it was more than that; it was an attack on civilised liberal society, designed to force all countries that could conceivably be targets to become, in self-defence, high security states. Very few events, however dramatic, change the political landscape (Times Newspaper 2001a).

The following data is from the six month anniversary of the event. There is a distinctly

different feel to the sentiments being expressed. Figure �4.5 shows the major themes of

US and life which reflect the stage of the recovery. There is still a strong focus on war

and weapons. The events of September 11 and the War on Terror have become

synonymous. Although there is evidence that separates the two events, the

overwhelming feeling is that the two belong together: they are intrinsically linked. The

concept of security is present in both Figure �4.4 and Figure �4.5. In Figure �4.4, security is

connected to the attacks. In Figure �4.5 it is aligned with more personal terms: people,

life, New York. This reflects the shift in understanding from the time of event where

security was an immediate consideration in terms of infrastructure, to personal security.

The evidence in the content of the media coverage points towards a need for

justification and revenge for the attacks. There is significant debate on the morality of

the decision to invade Iraq and the consequences it might have on the global stage.

There is recognition that the government initiatives may well be out of alignment with

the personal lifeworld experience. The urgency with which the government is focused

on avenging the attack on home soil is not matched with the same urgency of public

sentiment. From the excerpts in Table �4.7 there is a balancing act being played out in

order to establish priority in the public consciousness. It would seem that although there

is momentum to create the justified notion of the War on Terror, there is an opposing

trend calling for clarity of purpose and really understanding the significance of such an

action.

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Table �4.7 Excerpts from September 11 – Six Months After Event

Newspaper Text

The morality of a pre-emptive attack. Until now, America's unquestioned justification has been that we are responding to the worst terrorist assault in modern history. But the administration has not offered any evidence that Saddam was implicated in the Sept 11 attacks (Shapiro 2002).

Even worse would be the impact on other nations that possess, or are close to developing, weapons of mass destruction. As Jessica Mathews, president of the Carnegie Endowment, pointed out in The Washington Post last week, the most immediate effect of a US attack on Iraq would be to justify the possession of nuclear weapons to other countries around the world as a deterrent against future unprovoked attacks from America. Iran would certainly accelerate its nuclear programme and all factions in that divided country would doubtless unite around a patriotic attempt to acquire the atom bomb (Kaletsky 2002).

Any US-led attack on Iraq, North Korea or Iran could prove disastrous because many developing countries will interpret the attacks as an assault on the age-old concept of sovereignty - in particular, demonstrating US lack of respect for it (Johnston 2002).

But if the administration is at war, it is less than clear that the American people feel themselves to be fully engaged. Anxious, yes, but as mobilised as the administration seems to want them to be - probably not. Political violence came to America in a terrible way six months ago, and there are often reminders that it could return, such as the recent issuing of a new system of alert codes supposed to measure the danger of terrorist attack (Woollacott 2002b).

About 70 per cent of New Yorkers believe there will be another terrorist attack on their city, according to recent surveys. The same surveys show a distinct lack of faith in the ability of the US intelligence services to head off any such attacks. The calamity at the World Trade Centre destroyed America's reflexive sense of security and replaced it with a new vulnerability (Riley 2002).

The shock, panic and confusion which gripped the world six months ago may have diminished, but the big questions raised by the Twin Towers attack and America's response to it are all still worryingly open (Woollacott 2002a).

If America is to protect itself from further attacks, it needs a completely different approach. But, no, the generals think it needs more of the same (Gittens 2002).

The third series of data explored in Figure �4.6 is the one year anniversary of the event.

As in the six month data, there is a continued focus on the war, balanced with the

remembrance of the attacks. The evidence from the media reports reflects an increasing

move towards acceptance and self-awareness. The heat of the government rhetoric on

war has cooled somewhat, and provided the people with a place for a more balanced

perspective of their lifeworld to be both understood and lived.

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Table �4.8 Excerpts from September 11 – One Year After Event

Newspaper Text

September 11 also forced Americans to look beyond their borders. For the first time, many people realised their country was hated (Johnston and Beech 2002).

''No matter how painful, America understands its obligations to its citizens, and the citizens of the world,'' he said. ''America has been, is and always will be willing to do its duty -- to sacrifice even its own blood so that people everywhere can live as individuals, responsible for their own destinies” (Cardwell 2002).

Commentators on this side of the Atlantic who earnestly explain how an "international coalition" could be assembled may be missing the point: Americans no longer see themselves as the policeman of other people's laws; America polices America's law. To get international applause would gratify Washington. To seek international permission, however, would not (Paris 2002).

Big or small, private or public, the memories rippled across America, bringing back the hurt of a year ago for some people while also nurturing the hope and optimism that were born after the attacks. If Americans have made it this far without becoming undone, the thinking went, why expect less now? (Murphy 2002)

"We will not allow any terrorist or tyrant to threaten civilisation with weapons of mass murder. Now and in the future Americans will live as free people, not in fear and never at the mercy of any foreign plot or power" (Beach and Johnston 2002).

Patriotic signs and American flags still abound but in a quieter way than they did in September. People again go about their daily lives as they did before, but during my visits home I perceive an edginess, a sense of vulnerability, and a deep apprehension about the wisdom of an attack on Iraq. At the same time I also perceive a renewed sense of unity in the American people - a unity that will be strikingly evident as all Americans mark this day, one year ago (Whitworth and Doran 2002).

But if the attacks changed how Americans feel, many made a deliberate, stubborn and occasionally courageous decision not to change how they behave. Like the people on the Brooklyn Bridge, they believe that living normally is the best revenge (Hampson 2002).

Three in four Americans say they've continued to live their daily lives as they did before the attacks, according to the poll taken Sept. 2-4. And more than half of those people say they stuck to their previous routines not because they were unaffected by the attacks but because they did not want to be intimidated (Hampson 2002).

''It is true that Americans are still afraid,'' he said, ''but I believe the fundamental objective of the terrorists is to get you to do things and they want people to be afraid that it will happen again and, while I am not accusing the president, I think we have overreacted and drawn too big a fear against this enemy'' (Tyler 2002).

I might add that I don't think America needs to be reminded that we are at war. However, this announcement is a reminder that there are people around the world who would do us harm. And our response is to continue to be America, but to be alert, to be vigilant (New York Times Company 2002).

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4.4 Bali Bombing

The 2002 Bali Bombing occurred on 12 October 2002 in the tourist district of Kuta,

Bali. It was the highest fatality terrorist attack in the history on Indonesia with 202

people killed. Of those, 164 were foreign nationals, including 88 Australians. Another

209 people were injured. The attack was made with two bombs: a backpack-mounted

device carried by a suicide bomber and a large car bomb, both detonated near popular

Kuta nightclubs. A third, smaller bomb was detonated outside the United States

consulate in Denpasar (Australian Federal Police 2006).

4.4.1 Trends in Media Coverage

The Bali Bombings, occurring so close to the first anniversary of the September 11

attacks, stirred up public emotion and reaction to terrorism to a very high level, as

indicated by the 0-3 month data (shown in Figure 4.7). Again, terrorism and security

were the highest focus issues of media. Of interest in the Bali bombing data is the

change in the reaction pattern over time. There is a much steeper decline in the

awareness of terrorism and security to the 3-6 month mark, and then a steady increase

over time of the focus on security and terrorism. The recovery time from the event was

quicker than for September 11, and the increase in focus over the time periods in

terrorism and security indicates that the issues rose in importance once the initial

emotional reaction was dulled.

The issues of privacy and liberty are negligible in comparison to security and terrorism.

This suggests two positions: firstly that we by nature are more interested in conflict than

peace, or secondly, that by not being represented in the same way, privacy and security

cannot be contemplated at the same time. The focus throughout this event and the

following 12 months indicates in terms of lifeworld focus that social consciousness is

still centred on the impact of the event, rather than implementation changes that could

assist in coping with similar future events.

The proportion of headlines illustrated in Figure �4.8 show static interest with regard to

terrorism and security, and negligible interest in privacy and liberty.

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4.4.2 What the Newspapers are Reporting

Figure �4.9 represents the key ideas occurring in the media reports of the week of the

event. The primary themes identified in the content analysis are Bali and life. The focus

on Bali is event-driven, with most of the surrounding attention given to the attacks and

talk of terrorism. The issue of life in this terrorist event is of significance because of the

area targeted: a popular western holiday town where families choose to holiday, a

vibrant tourist destination. The primary reaction from the media collected is aligned

with the reaction to September 11 in that most early reporting is focused solely on the

mechanics of the attack and then the victims. There is little detail regarding reflection of

the attack. Table �4.9 includes some of the excerpts from the media reports that outline

the government responses to the attacks and the prevailing sentiment at the time.

Through the examples given in Figure �4.10 it can be seen that parallels are being drawn

between this event and what happened on September 11. There is a sense of

despondency that these attacks will be a burden humanity will need to live with,

particularly young people, given the location of this attack. A second theme emerging is

that of righteousness, in the sense that western notions of liberty and democracy are the

true way and attempts to thwart them come from a people who are to be despised.

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Figure �4.7 Bali Bombing Headlines Figure �4.8 Bali Bombing Proportion of Articles Figure �4.9 Bali Bombing Week of Event Figure �4.10 Bali Bombing Six Months After Event Figure �4.11 Bali Bombing One Year After Event

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Table �4.9 Excerpts from Bali Bombing – Week of Event

Newspaper Text

But the nightclub bombing in Bali, ship attack in Yemen, shootings in Kuwait and terrorist arrests in Portland, Oregon and Buffalo, New York, all demonstrate that much remains to be done to defeat terrorism. Attacking Iraq would foolishly divert resources and attention from this fight (Bandow 2002).

But since the terrorist attack last Saturday, the young travellers who gather here from around the world have begun to carry the weight of the world in their backpacks (Mydans 2002).

On the evidence so far, it would be hard to escape the conclusion that the attack was, indeed, symbolic: it was aimed at Westerners (perhaps, but by no means certainly, Australians in particular), presumably because we represent a set of liberal, secular values despised by the terrorists (Mackay 2002).

The perpetrators of the Bali massacre have given a powerful message that they can strike anywhere, any time. In recent weeks an al-Qaeda directive has urged attacks on Western economic targets. Car bombs are now one of the preferred weapons for terrorists (D'Hage 2002).

Last weekend's bombing of a nightclub in Bali highlights uncomfortable truths about the random nature of terrorism and the vulnerability of tourists as potential targets. Some believe that Bali has been particularly popular since the September 11 attack on New York because it was seen as a peaceful Hindu island, albeit part of a larger Muslim archipelago state (Balmer 2002).

September 11 was an extraordinary act of barbarism, but the Bali bomb shows that it was not an isolated act of terrorism. Balancing an awareness of threat against the need to live a "normal" life is a challenge in societies far beyond those technically vulnerable to extremist attack (Times Newspaper 2002).

Speaking the day after the worst terrorism episode since the September 11, 2001 attacks on New York and Washington, Indonesian President Megawati Sukarnoputri declared that "terrorism is a real danger and potential threat to national security" - an admission the US and neighbouring countries had sought in vain from Jakarta for most of this year (Greenlees 2002).

The destruction of the Sari Club, and a large part of the adjoining nightclub district, has shattered any illusions Australians may have had of their immunity to the heightened tensions of the post-September 11 international environment. There was also a potent message in the simultaneous explosion at the nearby US consulate. The attacks appear linked to the war on terrorism, albeit in a form which is not easily understood or addressed (John Fairfax Holdings 2002).

It is the first time terrorists have directly targeted Australians since the September 11 attacks in the United States and it could be the nation's greatest loss of life in a single day since World War II. Seven Australians were last night confirmed dead (McDougall 2002).

Mr Howard said that the attack was a "clear act of terrorism" but there was no clear evidence to suggest that Australia was being made a target because of its support of the Bush Administration. "Whether or not there is a particular anti-Australian component in this I can't tell, but Kuta Beach, which is frequented by a lot of Australians, is also frequented by other westerners," he said. "I can only say again that the war against terrorism must go on with unrelenting vigour and with an unconditional commitment" (Maynard 2002).

"Retreat from the war against terrorism will not purchase for the retreaters immunity against the attacks of terrorists," the Prime Minister told Parliament (Heinzmann et al. 2002).

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The six month snapshot of lifeworld forces (Figure �4.10) shows a theme of Bali and

people. Although war and Iraq are still high in public awareness, there is a strong

connection with the people and the impact those people can have going forward.

The theme of moving forward is recognised in the excerpts of Table �4.10. There is

evidence of the relationship between Australia and Indonesia being strengthened

because of this event. However, there is also a wariness of Australia’s relationship with

the US and the impact that could have on local relations. There is a bond between

Indonesia and Australia as they work through the aftermath of the attacks.

Table �4.10 Excerpts from Bali Bombing – Six Months After Event

Newspaper Text

Indonesia is not the same as it was in October. Even its relationship with Australia has changed (Moore 2003).

Security is the area where Australia and Indonesia have worked most closely since Bali with police praised for the success of their joint investigation in tracking the bombers (Moore 2003).

In a speech to Indonesian and Australian businessmen this week, Mr Ritchie described the relationship between the two countries after Bali as "as good as it's been for many years" (Moore 2003).

The Australian Government's warnings to citizens to still avoid travel to Indonesia remain a source of severe irritation to the Indonesian Government. It argues these warnings unfairly blacken Indonesia's reputation as a safe place to visit given the success in arresting Bali terrorists (Moore 2003).

The one year anniversary of the Bali Bombings reflects a sense of acceptance of the

events and the due process that followed. Figure �4.11 highlights the focus on the event

and the victims of the event. Mubarok, one of the accused perpetrators is there as a

result of the court case that was occurring. The reports of the one year anniversary as

presented in Table �4.11 reflect the same sense of acceptance, that justice had been done,

and that it was time to move forward.

Table �4.11 Excerpts from Bali Bombing – One Year After Event

Newspaper Text

He said the court also had to consider justice for the victims and the families, for the widows left behind and for the children robbed of parents (Wockner 2003).

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Newspaper Text

Australia's week of remembering its bombing victims ended with prayers from survivors and grieving families, the release of doves and the unveiling of a permanent memorial in Canberra yesterday (Hodgson 2003).

4.5 Jakarta Bombing

The bombing of the Australian embassy in Jakarta took place on 9 September 2004 in

Jakarta, Indonesia. At 10:30am local time, a car bomb exploded outside the Australian

embassy and killed 11 people including the suicide bomber. Over 140 others were

wounded, mainly by the broken glass from the blast. None of the Australian embassy

workers were killed, but embassy guard, Anton Sujarwo, and four Indonesian policemen

were killed (Moore and Rompies 2004).

4.5.1 Trends in Media Coverage

The Jakarta bombing was a much smaller terrorist attack compared to September 11 and

the Bali bombing. Because of this, the newspaper reaction is noticeably different to the

previous two events (see Figure �4.12). At the initial 3 months of the attack, again,

terrorism and security are the two most reported issues. The graph shows that these

plummet to negligible percentages in the following six months, with only a slight upturn

in the final period. Without the same magnitude of disaster as the two previously

analysed attacks, the public awareness through media indicates that although there was

high impact of this event at the time of it, there was a swift recovery, without it having

to exist as a long term issue in the media, and therefore as a shaping factor in the

lifeworld building. The minor awareness of liberty and privacy is consistent with the

previous terror events.

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Figure �4.12 Jakarta Bombing Headlines Figure �4.13 Jakarta Bombing Proportion of Articles Figure �4.14 Jakarta Bombing Week of Event Figure �4.15 Jakarta Bombing Six Months After Event Figure �4.16 Jakarta Bombing One Year After Event

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4.5.2 What the Newspapers are Reporting

The Jakarta bombing, given the significantly fewer casualties, did not have the same

level of emotional impact as the previous events. The two main themes identified in the

media reports were about the attack and Manny, a young girl injured in the attack, who

lost her mother. The reporting and significance of the attack is reflected by the focus on

the event and the people involved in the event as shown in Figure �4.14.

Looking deeper into the reporting of the Jakarta bombing there is a much more

analytical reaction than any of the previous events. The excerpts in Table �4.12 show

recognition of the political impact the event could have on upcoming elections, and of

the relationship between Indonesia and Australia. At the same time, there is a focus on

retribution of the attackers and the masterminds of the attack, but it is without the

emotion and wild scaremongering that accompanied September 11. There is a much

more determined stance being taken in this attack that implies a more judicial approach

regarding the attackers as criminals rather than brandishing them as terrorists.

Table �4.12 Excerpts from Jakarta Bombing – Week of Event

Newspaper Text

It may seem cynical to rush to analyse the effect of the bombing deaths on the Australian election and what it means for John Howard and Mark Latham but it is both real and inescapable. It will affect the way our leaders behave and how voters' think. It will shift the emphasis from economic management to national security (Shanahan 2004).

While we should be relieved no Australians were killed or wounded in yesterday's Jakarta terror attack, we should be united in horror that at least eight innocent Indonesians died and about 100 were hurt. It is essential that the people of Jakarta understand we respect, and share, their grief. This attack demonstrates the absolute contempt the mindless murderers responsible for the bombing have for all human life (News Ltd 2004b).

It must be a forlorn one. It is essential that the response from the people of Indonesia and Australia is consistent and adamant. The bombers must be caught and punished to the fullest possible severity of Indonesian law (News Ltd 2004b).

The bombing in Jakarta yesterday was timed and placed to wreak maximum havoc. It was detonated at the centre point of multiple converging fissures - in the midst of election campaigns in both countries, and along the fault line of relations between Australia and Indonesia (Hartcher 2004).

In Australia, the bombing is likely to reinforce old stereotypes about Indonesia. In popular Australian imagery it has become an "arc of instability", a "cauldron of violence", where political unrest, communal conflict and terrorist outrages are common (Aspinall 2004).

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Newspaper Text

He insisted that it would be wrong to suggest that the bombing made an attack within Australia more likely. However, he cautioned that "Australians can take nothing for granted" (Johnston and Gardiner 2004).

Now the two men who claim to be her father -- Australian David Norman and Italian Manuel Musu -- face a terrible task: how to tell her that last Thursday's suicide bomb attack on the Australian embassy in Jakarta, which left five-year-old Manny critically injured, also killed her mother, Maria Eva Kumalawati (Wilson 2004).

The six month analysis of media regarding the Jakarta bombing (Figure �4.15) reveals a

similar reaction to the Bali Bombing, that emotion and anger toward the event is

controlled and of little consequence to maintaining a sense of normality. The role of the

police is significant in that it reinforces the notion of the justice system in action to

recover some sense of control over events that cannot be controlled. The role of the

police is also considered in Table �4.13, as the excerpts show a heightened awareness of

forewarning and need for accurate and increased awareness of intelligence.

Table �4.13 Excerpts from Jakarta Bombing – Six Months After Event

Newspaper Text

Just days after the conviction of Islamic cleric Abu Bakar Bashir for his role in the Bali attacks sparked fears of a retaliatory terror strike, the US warned of a "possible bomb threat" at the centre over the next three days (AP and AFP 2005).

The warning came a day after the US embassy in Kuala Lumpur received intelligence of a security threat in the Malaysian capital (AP and AFP 2005).

The one year anniversary reflects a different side of the whole process and leads to the

trial of one of the accused attackers. The concept of terrorism appears more strongly in

the one year anniversary data than it has in the previous sections. As the trial

progressed, interest in the terrorist connections was reignited, as were the facts of the

case and the issue of suicide attacks. The excerpts in Table �4.14 reflect the same

findings as the themes.

Table �4.14 Excerpts from Jakarta Bombing – One Year After Event

Newspaper Text

One of the militants behind the bombing of the Australian embassy in Jakarta a year ago today has been sentenced to seven years in prison, in a seemingly lenient verdict that took into account his youth and inexperience (Powell 2005b).

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Newspaper Text

None of Rois's relatives appeared to be in court yesterday, nor any of the injured bombing victims, but an Australian embassy official sat quietly taking notes (Powell 2005a).

At the commemoration of the first anniversary of the embassy attack last weekend, Australian ambassador David Ritchie assisted policeman Asep Wahyudi, who had been expected to die of his injuries, as he laid a wreath. And Manny Musu, the grievously injured six-year-old Australian girl who captured the heart of our nation, is doing miraculously well in Italy. The courage and humanity of such people is another affront to the inhuman ideology of men such as Rois and Hasan (News Ltd 2005b).

4.6 London Bombing

The bombings in London on 7 July 2005 consisted of a series of blasts affecting the

London public transport system during the morning peak hour. Three bombs were

detonated on three Underground trains. A fourth bomb was detonated almost an hour

later on a bus in Tavistock Square. The bombings claimed the lives of 52 commuters

and the four suicide bombers. The bombs caused massive disruption to the city transport

system, as well as mobile telecommunications infrastructure (Intelligence and Security

Committee 2006).

4.6.1 Trends in Media Coverage

The terrorist attack in London shows a slightly different pattern of response and

awareness to the issues of terrorism, security, liberty and privacy when compared to the

previous three. Initially, terrorism is still of greatest focus, followed by security,

however a difference in this instance is that liberty and privacy are recognised as being

issues of concern (see Figure 4.17). The recovery time and subsequent refocus of media

is apparent from the 3-6 month mark. The percentage drop is the greatest across the

previous terrorist events and with this is a much more even alignment of security and

terrorism as well as continued interest in privacy and liberty that then only tapers off in

the last quarter.

There is a drop in awareness of terrorism and security between the 3-6 and 9-12 month

markers. This symbolises a different response pattern when compared to September 11.

The ongoing focus on the issues indicates a more measured response, where emotional

extremes in reaction are tempered with a more determined effort to move forward. The

biggest indicator of this in terms of shaping the lifeworld is the decline in significance

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of the terrorism component. By focusing on security, rather than issues that cannot be

predicted or expected, attention can be given to preventive and responsive issues.

4.6.2 What the Newspapers are Reporting

The initial thematic analysis of the week of the London Bombing is illustrated in Figure

�4.19 to revolve entirely around the concept of the bomb. Encircled by this theme are the

major contributors to the event. The impact this event had on the people and public

transport system of London is significant. The other main grouping is the focus on the

attack itself with bomb and the terrorist necessary components of it.

The telling of the events, as illustrated in Table �4.15, is representative of the overall

reaction. The sentiment in the excerpts recognises the emotional toll of the event, but is

very resolute in its desire to move forward. The descriptions of the events use non-

emotive language, enabling social consciousness to move forward without hesitation.

The choice of writers to avoid sensationalising the event has meant that facts could be

documented in conjunction with the social impact of the event, but still be in control of

reactions. There is commentary throughout the excerpts that compares the reaction to

the London Bombing attack to September 11. This commentary draws out that sense of

calmness and acceptance that gives balance to the shaping of lifeworld experiences after

such a tragic event.

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Figure �4.17 London Bombing Headlines Figure �4.18 London Bombing Proportion of Articles Figure �4.19 London Bombing Week of Event Figure �4.20 London Bombing Six Months After Event Figure �4.21 London Bombing Year After Event

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Table �4.15 Excerpts from London Bombing – Week of Event

Newspaper Text

The terror bombings in London were designed to kill and maim and instil fear. The cowardly attacks were directed at innocent civilians and to achieve maximum disruption (Staff 2005).

The explosions on London's underground rail network instilled new fear with each successive blast in the tunnels that were bomb shelters for Londoners besieged during the dark days of the Blitz as Hitler sent the Luftwaffe and the flying bombs that destroyed much of the great city (Staff 2005).

After the days of loss and bewilderment that followed the rush-hour bombs, London has found a focal point for its grief, anger and determination (O'Neill 2005).

But, in truth, if you plant bombs on London's notoriously overcrowded underground you must, surely, be trying to kill as many people as you can. Commentators also spent a bit of time deciphering Tony Blair's initial, televised post-bombing statement from Gleneagles. Many adjectives were used to describe his demeanour: Churchillian, resolved, reassuring, emotional and so on (Simper 2005).

Terrorist attacks, as these divergent responses suggest, do not occur in a political vacuum. With recent polls showing a dip in public support for the way Mr Bush is handling the war in Iraq -- and to a lesser extent, the war on terror -- and Congress returning Monday from a weeklong recess, the bombings in London are sure to have ripple effects for politicians on this side of the Atlantic (Stolberg 2005).

There were jitters everywhere, and the beginning of regular security alerts that would close train and subway stations and Birmingham city center. But there was also a determination to carry on, as there had been in the long years when the Irish Republican Army regularly attacked London, planting bombs on buses, in stores and in office buildings (Lyall 2005).

Britain stood united last night in defiance of the bomb attacks which killed at least 52 people and left 700 injured as the reality of the War on Terror came to London (Baldwin 2005).

The six month snapshot of the reaction to London events (Figure �4.20) reinforces the

notions presented in the previous paragraph. The focus here is clearly on the affect this

event has had on the people, and as the excerpt represents (Table �4.16), a healing and

closure on the event taking place.

Table �4.16 Excerpts from London Bombing – Six Months After Event

Newspaper Text

London: The two police officers who shot dead a Brazilian on a train after mistaking him for a suicide bomber have been cleared in an internal report of any wrongdoing (News Ltd 2006).

The trend of composure and healing is continued in the first anniversary data (Figure

�4.21). The central themes are London and family. There is more reference to the events

again, which is expected as the anniversary remembrances take place. There is no

reference to war or continued violence. This is in contrast to the previous terror events.

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As the excerpts in Table �4.17 are examined, there is a sense of contemplation and

acceptance of some change that has taken place, but through it all is the notion that life

has continued post-terrorist attack. Necessary functions have been approved and

implemented, but the basic way of living has been kept in tact.

Table �4.17 Excerpts from London Bombing – One Year After Event

Newspaper Text

How London carried on: When four bombs exploded in London a year ago today, for a moment it seemed as if life would never be the same again. But what's really changed? The city quickly got back to normal; the government didn't get the support it wanted for its clampdown on terror suspects; our multiracial society is still thriving (Freedland 2006).

One year on from the London bombings and terrorism continues to be played out like the sick, lethal tit-for-tat game it is. Islamic fundamentalists taunt us with fresh claims that last year's suicide attacks on the British capital were nothing compared with what is to come, while our leaders reassure us that they are winning the battle -- with proof in the recent killing of Abu Musab al-Zarqawi (Freedland 2006).

Mrs Jowell said: "One year ago London suffered a terrible atrocity, an evil attack on our city and on our way of life. We all remember what happened that day. And we will never forget” (Pook 2006).

4.7 SARS

On 16 November 2002 an outbreak of what was believed to be severe acute respiratory

syndrome (SARS) began in the Guangdong province of China, which borders on Hong

Kong. The People's Republic of China (PRC) notified the World Health Organisation

(WHO) about this outbreak on 10 February 2003 reporting 305 cases including 5 deaths.

Reporting of the numbers of people affected was unreliable during the epidemic, driven

by government edict. International criticism pressured change to this approach in April

2003 after which more accurate and timely information was released (World Health

Organisation 2002).

4.7.1 Trends in Media Coverage

The SARS outbreak is completely different to all other cases examined in this section. It

is different because it was not a single impact event. There was no defining date on

which it happened. The data collected in this section is from the date of first awareness

and reporting for a period of 12 months (Figure �4.22). SARS was a disease outbreak

that was not a result of a terrorist attack or influence, and yet the issue of terrorism is

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still clearly found associated with security throughout the period of investigation. The

peak of awareness in media focus for SARS occurred at the 3-6 month mark. It is clear

at this stage that the issue of security was of greatest significance, tying in with this is

the understanding of the impact of SARS should it be spread globally. Privacy and

liberty are noticeable components of the media coverage of SARS. A driving factor

behind this is that SARS was not inflicted by an outside operator, as in the terrorist

events, but it had a much more personal impact given that the public had some modicum

of control over their exposure to the risk. The personal focus of privacy and liberty,

from a lifeworld perspective, show that social consciousness was aware of the potential

impacts of this disease, and those changes to normal daily life could be understood in

this trade-off model.

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Figure �4.22 SARS Outbreak Headlines Figure �4.23 SARS Outbreak Proportion of Articles Figure �4.24 SARS Outbreak Week of Event Figure �4.25 SARS Outbreak Six Months After Event Figure �4.26 SARS Outbreak One Year After Event

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4.7.2 What the Newspapers are Reporting

The initial reaction to the SARS outbreak was concerned exclusively with the health

impact it had in the immediate regions affected (Figure �4.24). The concern for security

at this stage of the outbreak was not primary, however in Table �4.18 the potential of the

global threat was declared.

Table �4.18 Excerpts from SARS Outbreak – Week of Event

Newspaper Text

The scramble to stem the spread of SARS is casting light on response efforts abroad. China's Ministry of Health in mid-February announced the occurrence in Guangdong province of 305 cases of "atypical pneumonia" and said a third of the cases were health-care workers (Pottinger et al. 2003).

SARS was declared a global threat this week by the World Health Organisation, with the disease blamed for 11 deaths and reports of up to 500 cases, mainly in China, Vietnam, Hong Kong and Singapore (Smith and Robotham 2003).

The concept of a disease outbreak features in the six month analysis, coinciding with

more known cases being identified and traced back to common routes. The impact on an

outbreak on global travel and the identification of a possible treatment were central to

the media. The other cluster identified in Figure �4.25 is the patients and their symptoms.

At this stage the cases and subsequent deaths were impacting on the reporting, making

the threat more real than in the first period examined above.

Table �4.19 contains excerpts that allude to the enormity of the threat posed by SARS,

along with recognition that the easing of the threat will have significant economic

benefits. There is an increase in the number of travellers being quarantined with

suspected SARS, although few have any distinct combination of symptoms. The

epidemic did create a fear that raised its presence again with the onset of colder months.

The acknowledgement of the economic impact of SARS was discussed in light of the

negative effect it could have should a worst-case scenario occur. The alternate position

noted to this was the potential for a positive economic impact should the worse-case

scenario not eventuate. The economic impact was strongly referenced to tourism and

travel revenue.

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Table �4.19 Excerpts from SARS Outbreak – Six Months After Event

Newspaper Text

Twenty-five people who came into contact with the researcher were quarantined at home although none has SARS symptoms (Guardian 2003).

SARS, a newly discovered disease believed to have infected people starting late last year, still looms as a fearsome threat. During the epidemic that stretched from last November until June, the disease killed 916 of the 8,422 people it afflicted, mostly in Asia and Canada. Anxiety among public- health officials now is rising as cold weather returns to the Northern Hemisphere and with it the seasonal surge in respiratory illnesses (Cherney et al. 2003).

The spring scare over severe acute respiratory syndrome, or SARS, has faded. Big travel discounts are expected to result in a stampede to visit Beijing, Shanghai and Hong Kong. It's already starting (Woodyard 2003).

The final data for the SARS outbreak was collected from the one year anniversary of the

first cases. It shows a simple reflection (Figure �4.26) on where the epidemic completed

its cycle. The recognition of the impact of the outbreak in economic terms was again

discussed in the media (Table �4.20) in a positive way. Examples given were in the food

industry for better and safer supplies. The negative impacts acknowledged included the

downturn in corporate travel and the subsequent losses in the travel industry itself.

Table �4.20 Excerpts from SARS Outbreak – One Year After Initial Event

Newspaper Text

Japan’s Ito-Yokado, Asia's biggest retailer, plans to move into the supermarket business in China in a joint venture with the Beijing Wangfujing Department Store Group. Large chains do not generally handle fresh food sales in China, where groceries are sold at local markets, but the outbreak of SARS last year has increased consumer appetite for food grown and shipped with better hygiene controls (News Ltd 2004a).

September 11, the threat of subsequent terrorist attacks and the SARS epidemic reduced significantly the number of corporates willing to send their employees overseas. Yet confidence is returning and some pundits are predicting a record year for business travel (Crowshaw 2004).

US airlines have yet to fully recover from both the terrorist attacks of Sept. 11, 2001, and last year's SARS outbreak. The industry halved its losses last year, losing $5 billion, but still must spend about $3 billion a year on security measures (Davis 2004).

4.8 Boxing Day Tsunami

An earthquake occurred off the west coast of Sumatra, Indonesia early in the morning of

26 December 2004. It is known in the scientific community as the Sumatra-Andaman

earthquake. The disaster is known in Asia and in the international media as the Asian

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Tsunami, and also called the Boxing Day Tsunami in Australia, Canada, New Zealand

and the United Kingdom, as it took place on Boxing Day.

This earthquake triggered a series of destructive tsunamis that affected coastal

communities across South and Southeast Asia, including parts of Indonesia, Sri Lanka,

India and Thailand. The exact death toll of this event is unlikely to ever be finalised but

a compiled list of known victims include 186 983 dead and 42 883 missing. This is one

of the deadliest and largest scale catastrophes in modern history (AusAID 2005; Pearce

and Holmes 2005).

4.8.1 Trends in Media Coverage

The focus of the terms searched excluded issues like disaster and natural disaster, which

would have detailed another level of interest in this case. However, the reflections on

the impact of security, privacy and liberty are still of great significance. The global

impact, along with the massive scale of this event raised much concern in relation to

security, and many different facets. The distribution of disaster across so many

locations, and more importantly, so many remote locations meant that initial rescue and

response efforts were greatly impacted. The ability of some of the disaster sites to cope

with what had happened is reflected in the focus on security throughout the time period

studied. Terrorism was still in the realm of media awareness during the media coverage

of this disaster. Privacy and liberty are of significance in this event and were

contributors in the recovery period, where victim identification and recovery of bodies

was being debated. The ongoing heightened awareness of security in lifeworld influence

can be recognised as a factor concerned with preventive action. There were many

increased security measures proposed during the recovery period from the Boxing Day

Tsunami, focused on minimising the chance of such a disaster recurring.

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Figure �4.27 Boxing Day Tsunami Headlines Figure �4.28 Boxing Day Tsunami Proportion of Articles Figure �4.29 Boxing Day Tsunami Week of Event Figure �4.30 Boxing Day Tsunami Six Months After Event Figure �4.31 Boxing Day Tsunami One Year After Event

111

4.8.2 What the Newspapers are Reporting

The concepts identified in Figure �4.29 show that the main media attention centred on

the impact and loss associated with the Tsunami. The death toll was one of the

overwhelming factors in this natural disaster. The extent of the devastation, as

evidenced by the death toll played a significant role in the shaping of the lifeworld

experience of this event. This is supported in the Table �4.21 excerpts that make specific

reference to the enormity of scale of this disaster. There is a feeling of fear in the

excerpts which can be attributed to the perceived difficulties in managing a disaster on

this scale. The excerpts also relate of the lack of comprehension of the full impact only

a week into the disaster. Initial aid estimates for example needed to be drastically

revised as more evidence came to light.

Table �4.21 Excerpts from Boxing Day Tsunami – Week of Event

Newspaper Text

The scale of the disaster unleashed by an enormous undersea earthquake in the Indian Ocean became apparent yesterday when the death toll from the tsunami climbed to more than 23,700 and aid agencies warned that disease could now hit stricken communities across south-east Asia (Aglionby et al. 2004).

It is already emerging as the world's worst modern humanitarian disaster and the tsunami was the fifth largest recorded this century (Beveridge 2004).

The tsunami is possibly the worst natural disaster ever. For every person killed, there are many families fighting for survival (Times Newspaper 2004).

As the immense proportions of the tsunami disaster slowly emerged, hour by hour and day by day, so has Australia's official response been drastically revised (Walters 2005).

Initial Australian Government assessment of casualties from the tsunami on Monday remained cautious as agencies, led by DFAT, grappled to assess the extent of the disaster (Walters 2005).

Six months after the event the focus has moved to provision of aid and the recovery

process. Both Figure �4.30 and Table �4.22 highlight the desperate need for financial

assistance to overcome the poverty of the regions affected. Table �4.22 particularly

brings out the enormous global monetary assistance that resulted from the devastation.

This generosity is a reflection on the severity and widespread damage of the Tsunami.

At 6 months it has truly been recognised as a turning point in global cooperation.

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Table �4.22 Excerpts from Boxing Day Tsunami – Six Months After Event

Newspaper Text

Following the 2004 Boxing Day tsunami and the March earthquake, Australia forces provided humanitarian relief effort to Indonesia. The tsunami relief effort was Operation Sumatra Assist. The earthquake relief was known as Operation Sumatra Assist phase two (Lennon 2005).

Australia's five major aid agencies said an audit of the first three months of tsunami aid showed the initial spending had been slow, but it was more important for the money to be spent properly (McNicoll 2005).

Australians can be a generous people, as demonstrated by the popular response to the Boxing Day tsunami and far-sighted government actions in East Timor and Solomon Islands. But on the question of foreign aid we could do a lot better. Even including Canberra's package of aid and loans to Indonesia earlier this year, Australia is contributing only 28c out of every $100 of our national income, which is less than half the internationally reaffirmed target of 70c per $100 (Fullilove and McKibben 2005).

A policy adviser to the that campaign, Garth Luke, says the public response to the Boxing Day tsunami and growing support for the anti-poverty cause, especially in Europe, has energised the campaign in Australia. "I also think years of frustration about the lack of change have encouraged people to work together," he says (Wade 2005b).

Rageh Omaar (above), the correspondent who became famous for his reporting during the invasion of Iraq, returns to the regions most affected by the Boxing Day tsunami that killed 300,000 people. "Each time I have reported from conflicts around the world," he says, "I had been able to understand what had happened, and even who had been responsible. But the tsunami tragedy left the world not just shocked, but confused and bewildered" (Chater 2005).

Add to that almost $US5billion of private donations to aid organisations by individuals, companies, foundations and religious groups, and the tsunami resulted in the biggest display of generosity following any natural disaster in history (McNicoll 2005).

The renaissance started with the devastating Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami on Boxing Day 2004. This event touched Australians so deeply that donations are still trickling in to help the victims. Tsunami giving to Australian aid agencies has reached $330 million, about 85 per cent of all overseas aid donations in 2003 (Wade 2005a).

The global outpouring for tsunami victims set the scene for a series of events that have put foreign aid firmly back in the spotlight (Wade 2005b).

The anniversary of the Boxing Day Tsunami was marked by the media as a time of

reflection. There is a balance between devastation and hope presented in the excerpts in

Table �4.23, which in lifeworld forming has kept a very even perspective on the event.

Figure �4.31 is similar to Figure �4.30 in that the events are identified as the main

contributors, with no outstanding issues present.

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Table �4.23 Excerpts from Boxing Day Tsunami – One Year After Event

Newspaper Text

"At the moment, they (hotels) do not even have a map or instructions to tell the guests what to do in a tsunami," Smith Thammasaroj said yesterday, a day after thousands of people gathered on beaches to mourn the dead from last year's Boxing Day tragedy (News Ltd 2005c).

Banda Aceh’s three cracked and scarred churches overflowed with hundreds of worshippers yesterday, celebrating with hope and sadness their first Christmas since last year's Boxing Day tsunami (Forbes 2005).

Reflecting on the year gone by in his weekly political column, the Prime Minister said despite the misery and grief after the Boxing Day catastrophe, Australians had been "at their absolute best" (Karvelas 2005).

A year ago, we were not so much stunned as awed, as the scale of the tsunami disaster dawned on us over a week or more. But as awed as we were, along with compassionate people and governments everywhere, we were not slow to respond. The tsunami elicited a record $17.6 billion in charitable donations worldwide (News Ltd 2005a).

A cheering aspect of this story is how quickly many of the lessons have been learnt and acted upon. Tests are now being carried out on a tsunami early warning system for the Indian Ocean that will be completed next year. And two weeks ago, the UN set up a $500 million emergency fund that should allow it to respond immediately and flexibly to disasters, and to smooth out imbalances between donations to different crises (Times Newspaper 2005).

4.9 Hurricane Katrina

Hurricane Katrina hit the north-central Gulf Coast of the United States on 29 August

2005. It had formed over the Bahamas on 23 August 2005 and crossed southern Florida

as a moderate Category 1 hurricane, but then gained strength in the Gulf of Mexico to

become one of the strongest hurricanes on record. It was one of the deadliest hurricanes

in American history. The towns devastated by Katrina included: the city of New

Orleans, Louisiana and coastal Mississippi. The storm surge that accompanied the

hurricane caused catastrophic damage to these towns and many more. Subsequent

flooding and wind damage caused massive damage. The estimated impact of Hurricane

Katrina includes 1836 people dead and over $US81 billion in damage (Select Bipartisan

Committee to Investigate the Preparation for and Response to Hurricane Katrina 2006).

4.9.1 Trends in Media Coverage

Of most significant interest in the coverage of Hurricane Katrina is the issue of security.

On US home soil, this was the first massive event since September 11 and was an

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opportunity for the learning of September 11 to be put in to practice. The issue of

security encompasses homeland/national security but in this event so much focuses on

personal security. As the event progressed, the complete devastation of the event

resulted in a long recovery period that contributed significantly to the lifeworld

development of the event. Personal security and the disintegration of social norms may

contribute to the raised awareness of terrorism as a continued threat in this environment.

Liberty and privacy were of concern on many levels. Personal liberty and the freedom

to live free from disease and immediate threat were tested in the weeks and months

following the event, becoming an issue of public awareness and debate.

After the events of September 11 and the preparation put in to prevention and response

initiatives, the impact of Hurricane Katrina was felt a lot more strongly due to the

perceived failure of some of these initiatives. To further speculate, if Hurricane Katrina

had occurred in a United States of America, which had not suffered the events of

September 11, would it have even rated a mention in the media? Aside from the initial

reports of another natural disaster, the deficiencies in the emergency response may not

have mattered as much, or persisted as news stories for as long as they actually did. The

failings in emergency response, which appeared to be so keenly felt, were focused on

security. The problems associated with emergency and governmental response to the

situation did little to allay fears associated with the ability of those services to cope in

the event of another terrorist attack.

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Figure �4.32 Hurricane Katrina Headlines Figure �4.33 Hurricane Katrina Proportion of Articles Figure �4.34 Hurricane Katrina Week of Event Figure �4.35 Hurricane Katrina Six Months After Event Figure �4.36 Hurricane Katrina One Year After Event

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4.9.2 What the Newspapers are Reporting

Many parallels were drawn between September 11 and Hurricane Katrina in the media

coverage. The main themes drawn out in the media were the response time for help to

arrive, and the descent into anarchy. The assistance response was often contrasted with

September 11, reminding people that although the country had been caught off-guard,

systems were in place for America to be prepared should an event of similar magnitude

happen again. The civilian impact of Hurricane Katrina affected many of the poor of the

city. The excerpts in Table �4.24 illustrate the focus on the degeneration of the

population into lawlessness and basic survival instinct.

Table �4.24 Excerpts from Hurricane Katrina – Week of Event

Newspaper Text

''It seems like the inverse of the 9/11 phenomena, where there was an unprecedented outpouring of support for New York, a city that people loved to hate,'' he said. ''Before this happened, New Orleans was a place that people truly loved. People reporting and watching the news ought to be careful thinking that they can define New Orleans based on the actions of a few people (Carr 2005).

It seems extraordinary that a city in a country of such prosperity could degenerate into such squalor, and that a city in a country famed for its strong civic bonds could collapse so fast into anarchy. There is an obvious explanation, of course: the hurricane ensured the departure of most of those disposed to obey the law, who heeded the order to evacuate. Those who remained contained a large proportion of villains, and a larger proportion of victims - people too poor to move (Daily Telegraph UK 2005).

The president's declaration that ''I don't think anyone anticipated the breach of the levees'' has instantly achieved the notoriety of Condoleezza Rice's ''I don't think anybody could have predicted that these people would take an airplane and slam it into the World Trade Center.'' The administration’s complete obliviousness to the possibilities for energy failures, food and water deprivation, and civil disorder in a major city under siege needs only the Donald Rumsfeld punch line of ''Stuff happens'' for a coup de grace. How about shared sacrifice, so that this time we might get the job done right? (Rich 2005).

In an unsettling echo of the scenes in New Orleans, teams of police marksmen with automatic weapons had to secure several city blocks near the largest shelter, which has 5,000 people (Goddard 2005).

Experts also listed other crucial errors made before Hurricane Katrina hit and expressed bafflement over how the most anticipated natural disaster in US history brought such a slow and chaotic response. Despite dozens of plans and models over decades predicting a big hurricane hit, including one last year that predicted 10ft to 15ft of water in New Orleans and the evacuation of one million people, local, state and federal officials have been overwhelmed by the disaster (Reid 2005).

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Newspaper Text

But, to be fair, the local leaders have been more victims than authors of their state's misfortunes. The response of the main organisation responsible for handling the disaster, the Federal Emergency Management Agency, has been widely viewed as inadequate. Katrina was an important test for the agency, its first since it was incorporated into the vast bureaucracy of the Homeland Security Department, and it has not done well (Baker 2005).

The media reports six months after the hurricane (Table �4.25) are concentrated on the

recovery process and how the local population is reclaiming its community. There is

anger directed at the federal authorities regarding the impact of their response in the first

instance. This identified flaws in the structure of emergency response regarding

jurisdictional boundaries. Reflection by authors on the return to normality highlights

how issues such as transportation have been affected, and will have an ongoing impact

on the residents. There is an implied acceptance of the fact that the recovery from the

hurricane will be long, and will continue to impact the residents of New Orleans long

after the initial repairs have taken place.

Table �4.25 Excerpts from Hurricane Katrina – Six Months After Event

Newspaper Text

Vital public services are functioning selectively, which has a tremendous effect on what type of people can return. Before the storm, more than a quarter of residents relied on city bus lines; with only 10 percent of the fleet now in service, returnees need to have cars to get to jobs and shopping (Katz et al. 2006).

For the first time since New Orleans began holding Mardi Gras parades 150 years ago, the city government is planning to aggressively solicit corporate sponsorship to cover the costs of police overtime, street cleaning and other city services that make Mardi Gras possible, as well as help pay for a national advertising campaign. Within the next few days, New Orleans officials are expected to seek formal proposals from possible sponsors, and the winner could be chosen as soon as a week later (Dade 2005).

''We need to keep working to get our national surrogates to explain the facts -- that the federal response was anemic and had been shortchanged by budget cuts and avoiding responsibilities like protecting Louisiana levees and wetlands,'' Mr Kopplin wrote in one e-mail message a week after the storm hit (Lipton 2006).

The struggle with Washington and questions of who was in charge -- the state or federal government -- emerge frequently in the correspondence. It is also clear that Democrats in Washington recognized that the federal response to the storm provided an opportunity to win some political points (Lipton 2006).

The one year anniversary stirred up a lot of dissatisfaction with the government (Table

�4.26). There is repeated sentiment of separation of the people from the government.

Anger is directed toward the Bush administration regarding the “image” of America

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projected after September 11 and the ‘war on terror’, compared with the country unable

to help its own in a time of need.

Table �4.26 Excerpts from Hurricane Katrina – One Year After Event

Newspaper Text

Only twice did reality intrude on this meticulously constructed and carefully choreographed image: first after the terrorist attacks of September 11, and then almost exactly four years later, following Hurricane Katrina. Those two events represent the zenith and the nadir of Bush's presidency. In the wake of September 11, 69% of Americans believed he was a president who "cared about people like them", and 75% thought he was "a strong and decisive leader" (Younge 2006).

Bush called it a breakdown of "all levels" of government, and he acknowledged his administration was slow to address the disaster that left at least 1,740 dead and displaced tens of thousands of people (Jackson 2006).

Twelve months on, the people of New Orleans are asking who he meant by "we". Federal money has yet to reach the streets. Not long after the Jackson Square speech, the president pulled the plug on a congressional reconstruction bill aimed at buying up flood-damaged properties, consolidating them, and selling them to developers to redesign the city (Borger 2006).

There seems, in fact, to be no intellect being applied to New Orleans. On the one hand, there is the federal government failing to put passionate words into concerted action, and, on the other, there is Ray Nagin, the city's mayor, who seems to have no notion of civic planning whatsoever. This is a man who appears to spend his entire time forging slogans to throw at racists, while himself failing the most basic requirements of his office - to serve the people of New Orleans (O'Hagan 2006).

Poor New Orleans. An act of God is one thing, but the inaction of government is another. George W. Bush stood amidst the rubble one afternoon 12 months ago and said the people would once again have their city back (O'Hagan 2006).

The causes and the solutions for these two tragedies couldn't be more different. But they raise the same two central questions: how can America use its superpower status, at home and abroad, to make the world a safer, better place for ordinary working people; and what form of collective intuitive malaise convinced a majority of Americans - albeit a slender one - to check their guts and then choose this man? (Younge 2006).

4.10 Conclusion

The purpose of this chapter was to describe the media coverage of seven events of

national security significance occurring since 11 September 2001. Each event was

described to place it in geographic perspective, and also in terms of casualties. The first

phase of the media analysis identified trends in the themes of privacy, liberty, security

and terrorism across the first twelve months of the event, collected in three-month

intervals. The second level of analysis explored the key themes identified in media

reports.

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By using media coverage as the input for this chapter, a basis for understanding public

reaction and perception of these events has been provided. In all events there have been

noticeable trends in attitude toward various components of the event when looked at

over a period of twelve months. This can be considered a maturity progression in terms

of lifeworld shaping, and it is from here that Chapter 5 looks deeper in to the location-

technologies used at some of these events to gauge reactions to these technologies.

The framing of these findings as lifeworld emancipatory discoveries will be discussed

further in Chapter 6 as the impact of this media coverage is explored.

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Chapter 5 Technology Cases: RFID, E911 and Mobile Alerting

5.1 Introduction

The purpose of this chapter is to explore the coverage of three technologies being used

for national security applications. This research has determined that the concepts of

terrorism, security, privacy and liberty are factors that can be shaped by the media in

respect to events of national security significance. This chapter examines three

technologies being used for terrorism response, natural disasters and epidemics. The

technologies chosen are related to one or more of the events researched in Chapter 4, as

illustrated by Figure �5.1. Location-based technologies fulfil an important role in

emergency management. Emergency management involves looking at the entire

spectrum of emergency needs including prevention, protection and response. In

Australia, Emergency Management Australia (EMA) is the government body

responsible for emergency management. It is situated in the federal Attorney-General’s

Department (EMA 2006). In the US, the equivalent body is known as the Federal

Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), and is part of the Department of Homeland

Security. The common objective of emergency management bodies such as this is to

provide a comprehensive strategy to reduce the loss of life and property and protect the

respective country from all hazards, including natural disasters, acts of terrorism, and

other man-made disasters, by coordinating with all agencies in an emergency

management system of preparedness, protection, response, recovery, and mitigation

(FEMA 2007).

Through the analysis presented in this chapter, the attitudes towards three of these

technologies will be explored. The technologies that have been chosen include: RFID

passports (ePassports), the United States-based E911 service and mobile alerting in

emergency situations.

121

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Figure �5.1 Relationship Between the Event and Technology Cases

5.2 Data Collection

The data used in this chapter is derived from articles retrieved from a number of online

databases. All of the databases listed in Table �5.1 are international, multidisciplinary

databases that incorporate a wide variety of sources including academic journals,

newspapers, newswires and industry publications. This variety of sources ensured that

the technicalities of the concepts which are not often covered in mainstream media

would be included.

Table �5.1 Research Databases

Database Website

Proquest5000 http://proquest.umi.com

ACM Digital Library http://portal.acm.org

IEEE Explore http://ieeexplore.ieee.org

Factiva http://global.factiva.com

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Each of these databases was searched for articles relating to the deployment of each of

the three technologies using the relevant terms shown in Table �5.2. Articles relating to

the financial status of the company were included in many of the searches because of

the impact that one or more national security events have had on the developer or

technology partners behind the deployment.

Table �5.2 Technology Search Terms

Technology Search term

RFID passports (RFID passports) or (epassport)

E911 (E911)

Mobile alerting (emergency alert) and (SARS)

(SMS or mobile or cell) and (emergency or alert)

The relationship between the search terms and databases is illustrated in Figure �5.2. The

data collection process was described in Section �3.7.3. The search terms needed to be

defined for each technology. RFID passports and ePassports and E911 returned useful

and accurate information. The collection of data for the mobile alerting required more

alternatives due to the imprecise nature of the terms. By using these variations, accurate

information was retrieved.

Figure �5.2 Technology-Case Data Collection Process

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5.3 ePassport for National Security

The US Department of Homeland Security has pushed for a worldwide standard for

enhanced machine readable passports since September 11. A part of this initiative is the

proposal to include RFID chips in all passports. One of the key problems with the

inclusion of an RFID chip is that the passport holder will be “continuously broadcasting

their name, nationality, age, address and whatever else is on the RFID chip” Schneier

(2004). Any receiving device would be able to read the data. Proponents of the

technology claim it is the most suitable technology for the task, in preference to a

contact smart card, because of advantages including faster processing at customs checks

and increasing the difficulty of forging or altering the document. Other countries

promoting this approach include Australia and the UK, who have been encouraged by

the US initiative to have compatible and conforming systems.

5.3.1 Data Analysis

The key issues discovered through the content analysis are shown graphically in Figure

�5.3 and described in Table �5.3.

Figure �5.3 ePassport Content Analysis Map

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Table �5.3 ePassport Themes

Concept Discussion themes

technology Considers the impact of the RFID chips, from their potential to impact on the public and achieve security.

data The collection of information and the potential of tracking, and identification through the use of RFID chips.

risk This theme represents the context (war and terrorist) within which this technology solution has been offered.

privacy Privacy is of particular interest in respect to government use of information.

systems This theme represents the players in this technology: business, people, and world.

chips RFID-enabled passports will have a chip. In this context the idea of personal application, digital technology, and the ability to read the data are a focus.

The primary theme identified through the content analysis was technology. In many of

the articles, the potential of the ePassport technology is identified and is followed by

discussion of the risks it poses (Leach 2004; Ledlow 2005). Neumann and Weinstein

(2006) identify this issue in a more general context, and in a much less negative light

than Leach (2004) and Ledlow (2005). The potential of the technology, described by

Leach (2004) was to “create a more secure travel document”. In light of this though are

the opinions of those who see a potential mismatch in agenda between government,

businesses and the public. Michael and Michael (2006b, p.361) address this theme

noting that the influence of media and government policy have significant sway on

public opinion.

The interplay between these actors (government, business and the public) is picked up

in the observation that:

Consumer privacy groups have grown in strength this year almost as fast as radio frequency identification technology deployments at businesses and governments (Albrecht 2005).

Glover (2005) is steadfast in his position on the technologies being combined at the risk

of obliteration of “traditional ideas of personal privacy”. This theme ties closely to

surveillance of individuals. Hoversten (2004), Amoore and Goede (2005) and Archer

and Salazar (2005) consider the issue of surveillance through the RFID technology

being used to track consumer behaviour. With a tone of resignation, the authors believe

125

that it will become an accepted part of life because of the pervasive requirements of the

technology in its application. They also note that the practice of surveillance is enabled

and made easier through the development of RFID technology. It must be noted that

many still argue that RFID is not a tracking technology. Passive tags cannot be used to

track, but active tags can be used for tracking purposes (O'Connor 2006).

The impact of RFID technology is being closely monitored through privacy advocacy

groups (Albrecht and McIntyre 2005; Tebo 2006) who are encouraging the development

and safeguard of legislation to protect consumers. Albrecht (2005) takes a strong

position arguing that the current technology-centric attitudes are creating a problem for

future generations in being able to define and subsequently defend the notion of privacy.

What is apparent in this content analysis is that the dominant attitudes in terms of risk to

privacy are negative. Technology-positive attitudes are overshadowed. In the post-

September 11 climate, although there is unease for security on both a personal and a

national level, the impact of proposed measures to address these security concerns is

being given serious consideration.

What scares me is you have people developing RFID technology, spending hundred of millions of dollars, who are looking at the rest of us and saying, risk, there's no risk. As a result they're not taking any precautions to protect us down the road. Our children's and grandchildren's generation will look back and history will judge us based us on how we handle this threat (Albrecht 2005).

It is clear from the data that privacy and security of information is paramount. In the US

experience, the perceived premature deployment of RFID technology resulted in an

overwhelming 98.5% of 2335 survey participants responding negatively to the idea

(Hoffman 2006). Of these, 2019 respondents listed security and privacy as their top

concern. The flow-on effect of this is that the government has had to validate the

privacy and security concerns of civil libertarians and security experts, who claim that

the government is ill-prepared to deal with the issues raised by the technology

(Gonsalves 2005; Rockwell 2006). Sullivan (2005) is also concerned by the issue of

premature deployment of the RFID technology because technology developers are

ignoring the risks and are not incorporating sufficient concern for future impacts of the

technology.

Further to the technology-based concerns is the issue of ‘skimming’ from distances

greater than first thought possible, which presents another privacy concern (Lipton

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2005). The technology perspective also raises concern regarding the heavy reliance by

governments on increasingly sophisticated technology solutions (Amoore and De Goede

2005).

Arguments raised by civil libertarians often tend toward extremist or worst-case

scenarios which directly contribute to the perception of risk and fear. The American

Civil Liberties Union suggests that RFID readers could be used by terrorists to identify

US citizens as they walk down the street (Gardner 2005). Albrecht (2005) is quite

pessimistic in stating that:

RFID could put us and our information at the mercy of global corporations and government bureaucracies and strip away the last shreds of privacy we have left.

From a national security perspective, there is strong evidence to support the swing

towards more control and power in border control. Kliment (2006) puts forward that

“the US has tried to use technology to balance the competing claims of border security,

individual privacy and international commerce”. McHale (2005), Biba (2005) and

Loftus et al. (2006) bring to light the perceived dichotomy between privacy and

security.

McHale (2005) quotes vice president of Civitas Group, Rick Gordon, as claiming that

“it is possible to control the borders thoroughly through technology, but political

considerations such as the right to privacy can get in the way”. Biba (2005) weighs up

the benefits of faster and more secure border entry, but at the cost of personal privacy.

Soppera and Burbridge (2005) and Loftus et al. (2006) report the necessity of dealing

with privacy and security concerns at the outset of the technology deployment to

“reduce the costs of dealing with these later”.

Table �5.4 ePassport Ranked List of Concepts

Concept Absolute Count

Relative Count Concept Absolute

Count Relative Count

technology 453 100% read 98 21.6%

security 380 83.8% biometric 97 21.4%

chips 325 71.8% identity 95 20.9%

information 322 71% industry 83 18.3%

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Concept Absolute Count

Relative Count Concept Absolute

Count Relative Count

data 283 62.4% company 78 17.2%

systems 273 60.2% number 78 17.2%

privacy 232 51.2% digital 76 16.7%

tags 228 50.3% world 72 15.8%

cards 191 42.1% public 68 15%

government 141 31.1% potential 65 14.3%

U.S. 132 29.1% war 63 13.9%

people 131 28.9% terrorist 62 13.6%

personal 126 27.8% business 61 13.4%

risk 101 22.2% money 52 11.4%

track 98 21.6% surveillance 51 11.2%

Table �5.4 is a ranked list of concepts from the content analysis. It allows another

representation of the data as found in Figure �5.3 that suggests risk was a major factor. In

the ranked list risk is not as prominent as the issue of privacy. Privacy has direct

relationships to the data and information that is potentially collected from the systems,

whereas risk is considered as a pervasive concern which is not linked to one major

issue. Interestingly, the concept of surveillance is the lowest ranked term. There is no

direct link between the issue of privacy and the collection of information. However, it

most certainly forms part of the wider concept of the risk of the technology.

128

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Figure �5.4 Technology and Social Impact of ePassports

In Figure �5.4, the concepts from Table �5.4 have been categorised as technology impact

or social impact. In the data collected, there is a greater emphasis on the social impact of

this technology. This reflects the findings in Section �4.3 of a media coverage focus on

the threat and fear associated with the September 11 attacks. By focusing on the fear,

the potential impact of the technology attracts less attention. With the implementation of

the ePassport technology as a response to the September 11 attacks, it is expected that

this technology will receive relatively little attention. Its introduction was portrayed as a

necessary development to prevent a similar attack occurring. This theme is further

developed in Section �5.6.

5.4 E911 for Emergency Services

E911 (Enhanced 911) is a location technology supported by the US Federal

Communications Commission (FCC). Prior to 1996, the service had been available to

wired telephony users. The mobile equivalent enables mobile phones to process 911

emergency calls and emergency services to locate the caller’s phone number and

geographic position of the caller (Dawson et al. 2007, p.4). Prior to the E911 proposal,

only a subscriber’s carrier was able to handle the call. The new ruling meant that all 911

calls from mobile phones were to be handled by any available service provider. There

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were two phases to E911. The first, in 1998, required that the phone number be

identified and location of the signal tower (cell) is accurate to within a mile. Phase II, in

2001, required mobile phone companies conducting business in the US to offer either

handset- or network-based location detection functionality so that “two-thirds of

emergency calls received require the location of the individual to be accurate to within

50 metres, and 95 per cent of calls to within 150 metres” (Michael 2004).

5.4.1 Data Analysis

The primary themes identified in the E911 data are shown in Figure �5.5. The concept of

location is central to the E911 debate. Wireless and systems refer to the technology

focus in the implementation of this scheme. Closely related to location is the issue of

privacy. Minor issues raised in the source material refer to signal and state. The signal

concept is related to the technology focus of wireless and systems. State refers to the

role the FCC and whole government has had in the implementation of the E911

initiative.

Table �5.5 E911 Themes

Concept Discussion Issues

location Considers the technology in terms of determining location through signals, and bases. It also considers the impact of application and the role of phone providers.

wireless This theme is concerned with the emergency communications process through calls and carriers.

privacy Although a larger issue, this theme is specifically focused on privacy in relation to the companies participating in the E911 scheme.

systems This theme brings together considerations of data and reliability.

signal Technology focused theme centres on position, strength in relation to signals.

state The concern of this theme is on the role of the states in effectively supporting and implementing the E911 initiative.

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Figure �5.5 E911 Content Analysis Map

Much of the media coverage is optimistic regarding the use of the technology as an

emergency location identification technology. Behr (2001) has identified the main

concern of the technology as the potential of commercial interest in the collected

information, separate from the safety uses. He goes on to report that “61 percent said

they would be concerned if businesses had access to the information” (Behr 2001). The

impact and probability of this is reported by Gold (2000) on mobile provider Sprint,

already planning to use the “Qualcomm-supplied GPS-assisted wireless location

technology for calls other than E911 ones”. Seltzer (2005) identifies a different

perspective on the role of the vendors using the E911 equipment for other purposes,

being quick to point out that the vendors “are anxious not to get into the middle of such

matters and would probably be happy to require user consent before recording and using

any location data” even though this secondary use may provide a way of recompensing

the expenditure to upgrade systems to comply with the mandate. Seltzer (2005)

succinctly describes this as “a tricky dance of convenience vs. trouble, typical of

modern technology”.

The privacy concerns regarding E911 revolve around the collection and misuse of

stored data. Ross (2004) observes that the government is hesitant to advocate the need

for enhanced privacy in regard to the technology, suggesting that “no administration

131

ever would because it wouldn't want to limit its ability to obtain information”. There is a

definite call for transparency in the data collection and use practices, which Ross (2004)

and Smith (2006) both reflect on. Prior to the deployment of the current phases of E911,

the issue of privacy in relation to the systems supporting the technology were a concern.

Gram (1999) and James (1999) talk about preserving the privacy of a new computer

database that links the calling phone number with names and locations. Representatives

from privacy advocacy groups have been concerned with the risk of misuse of

information for a number of years, including the threat that misuse could be initiated

“not only by the government but also by the phone companies themselves” according to

Jim Dempsey in James (1999). Maintaining a narrow focus of use of information for

specific purposes is one suggested means of overcoming the threat of information

misuse. Ross (2004) and Smith (2006) suggest that terrorism is one of the issues where

there is a good balance between privacy and the need for law enforcement. They have

also put forward that the advancement of technology has provided benefits in terms of

safety monitoring and response, but has also increased vulnerabilities in relation to the

collection of information.

Table �5.6 E911 Ranked List of Concepts

Concept Absolute Count

Relative Count Concept Absolute

Count Relative Count

location 769 100% cell 150 19.5%

wireless 489 63.5% GPS 146 18.9%

technology 469 60.9% privacy 143 18.5%

information 417 54.2% providers 133 17.2%

services 377 49% applications 122 15.8%

systems 359 46.6% cellular 112 14.5%

emergency 355 46.1% companies 103 13.3%

system 333 43.3% industry 95 12.3%

phone 333 43.3% access 93 12%

E911 330 42.9% available 93 12%

service 313 40.7% personal 90 11.7%

calls 306 39.7% telephone 90 11.7%

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Concept Absolute Count

Relative Count Concept Absolute

Count Relative Count

carriers 281 36.5% people 90 11.7%

mobile 263 34.2% base 89 11.5%

data 240 31.2% communications 87 11.3%

FCC 229 29.7% signal 85 11%

public 213 27.6% meet 81 10.5%

provide 190 24.7% position 76 9.8%

state 171 22.2% research 74 9.6%

network 167 21.7% area 73 9.4%

phones 165 21.4% infrastructure 72 9.3%

number 159 20.6% case 69 8.9%

The ranking of privacy is interesting to note in Table �5.6. It is of less concern in the

E911 than the ePassport data collection. There is an implication in the reporting of this

technology that it is less invasive and pervasive than the ePassport initiative. This may

be due to the fact that the E911 service is a pull technology, where users are asking for

help. In situations where the E911 service is likely to be requested, the user will be in

need of assistance, and not in a position to be too concerned about the implications of

the technology.

133

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Figure �5.6 Technology and Social Impact of E911

The division between the technology impact and social impact concepts related to E911

(Figure �5.6) is more heavily weighted toward the technology than the ePassport

initiative division of concepts (refer Figure �5.4). More descriptive information about the

technology is common in the E911 coverage. As the E911 initiative was developed, it

was openly discussed in the newspapers and government, which may account for the

greater focus. The overlap in Figure �5.6 illustrates the blending of the technology issues

and social issues, compared to Figure �5.4 and Figure �5.8, and is indicative of the

interaction between the social impact and the technology development.

5.5 Mobile Alerting for Commercial Application Based on SARS Outbreak

Mobile alerting allows users of mobile phones to receive messages regarding location-

specific information. For everyday use, mobile alerting is a subscription-based service

packaged as an add-on to the ordinary payment plan. During the SARS outbreak, Hong

Kong mobile phone provider Sunday Telecom, and Singapore-based provider Starhub,

had an opt-in service in which subscribers had their phones tracked (Michael and

Masters 2006). When the mobile phone came within a one kilometre radius of a

reported SARS case, an SMS would be sent to notify of the affected building (Staff

2003). This service can be used for many applications: emergency communications is

134

one example, others include: find a friend services, and location specific restaurant and

shopping offers.

5.5.1 Data Analysis

Figure �5.7 Mobile Alerting Content Analysis Map

The primary themes identified in the Mobile Alerting data are shown in Figure �5.7 and

described in Table �5.7. The relationship of these terms provides the structure for the

following discussion.

Table �5.7 Mobile Alerting Themes

Concept Discussion issues

people This theme represents the impact that the SARS outbreak has had on the world. It includes information regarding the spread of the disease.

mobile The role of companies, services and subscribers is covered in this theme.

services This concept represents the SMS alerts from a network and patient perspective.

system It is important to recognise the role of the public health system in managing the global outbreak.

technology This theme identifies the development of the early warning emergency notification systems.

135

Mobile alerting technology brings many benefits in emergency alert applications, but a

number of issues, including privacy and network infrastructure, are viewed as

impediments to fast and complete deployment (Christopher 2006). From a user’s

perspective, any potential downside to the subscription service is outweighed by the

benefits of the location-based warnings, especially those needing to work in affected

areas (Wong 2003). The immediate threat of SARS contributed to the popularity of the

mobile alerting service. The ease of signing up for the alerts (Lui 2003) and the

perceived benefits they delivered meant that the mobile alerting was extremely

convenient for users. The convenience of the mobile alerting is also greater than the

newspaper service as noted by Wong (2003).

Wickham (2005) identifies a number of logistical considerations of releasing “all-points

bulletin for all devices across all carriers within a specific geography”. He believes it is

an opportunity for government and business to come together to create a workable plan

for meeting all requirements addressing the needs of everyone from emergency service

providers to customers.

Sunday Communications launched the location-based SARS alert service in Hong

Kong. It was designed to alert subscribers when they were within one mile of a building

where people have been infected by SARS (Liu 2003; Lui 2003; Ramakrishnan 2003;

Spy Blog 2005). From the success of this alerting system, Sunday Communications has

gone on to provide other location-based notifications.

The success and acceptance of the SARS mobile alert model has impacted in various

areas. Selby (2003) reinforces the use of many of the applications mentioned in Section

�2.2. Eysenbach (2003) expands the notion, illustrating the idea with remote patient

monitoring systems that can be adapted to early warning systems for widespread

outbreaks of infectious diseases.

The financial impact of SARS was felt strongly by mobile providers. The decline in

roaming revenue due to reduced travel was countered by the increase in call traffic. It

was noted that telephone communication was preferred to face-to-face contact during

the initial period (Yuk-min 2003; Zuckerman 2003).

136

Table �5.8 Mobile Alerting Ranked List of Concepts

Concept Absolute Count

Relative Count Concept Absolute

Count Relative Count

Hong_Kong 211 100% services 48 22.7%

mobile 208 98.5% spread 48 22.7%

people 125 59.2% local 47 22.2%

phone 119 56.3% SMS 47 22.2%

service 116 54.9% global 46 21.8%

outbreak 97 45.9% public 45 21.3%

system 91 43.1% patients 44 20.8%

health 79 37.4% subscribers 43 20.3%

disease 71 33.6% countries 42 19.9%

phones 67 31.7% alert 39 18.4%

information 67 31.7% technology 38 18%

world 66 31.2% early 33 15.6%

company 61 28.9% reserved 31 14.6%

million 49 23.2% network 31 14.6%

government 48 22.7% emergency 25 11.8%

Table �5.8 is a ranked list of concepts from the content analysis. The focus of these terms

is the impact of the technology on people, which aligns with the findings in Figure �5.7.

There is continued emphasis on the impact of the disease outbreak, rather than the

specification of the technology. Emergency is the lowest ranked concept. The list of

terms shows beyond the initial shock and emergency status of the SARS epidemic to the

ongoing influence it has had on the population it affected. A number of terms refer to

the international impact of mobile alerting: people, world, global, and countries.

137

Figure �5.8 Technology and Social Impact of Mobile Alerting

The division between technology impact and social impact concepts related to mobile

alerting (Figure �5.8) is more heavily weighted toward the social impact than the E911

initiative division of concepts (refer Figure �5.6). This social impact focus aligns with the

results of the analysis, which determined a concentration on finding methods to manage

the severity of the outbreak and communicating effectively with the population. The

effect on health services is reflected strongly in Figure �5.8.

5.6 Reflections on the Media Coverage of the Technology

The technologies examined in this chapter were all created or further developed as a

response to events investigated in Chapter 4. In many instances, the probability of the

same events occurring is minimal, but technology-based solutions were implemented

regardless. There is an interesting distinction between the reactions to ePassports, E911

and mobile alerting. E911 and mobile alerting were extensions of existing technologies,

where the current development and deployments were a small step from previous use,

whereas the ePassport was a new development. The media coverage of the national

security events in Chapter 4, and the reactions to technologies in this chapter, has

revealed a story that links the public perception to the mass media coverage.

138

Table �5.9 News Content in the Mass Media

News Making Description

Event-driven The hard core of media content. Events which actually occur and which are reported in a relatively straight-forward way.

Managed These are ‘created’ news events, whether for commercial, political or governmental interests.

Media-coloured News treatments through which events are magnified, distorted or sometimes even invented; moral panics.

In Section �3.5, the discussion on mass media covered perspectives from which news

could be reported. In relation to the technologies covered in this chapter, a subset of

categories has been defined in Table �5.9. These categories will shape the discussion in

the following sections.

5.6.1 The Media Reponses to Mobile Alerting and E911

The ‘selling’ points for E911 and mobile alerting appealed to the masses due to the

likelihood of necessity. Mobile alerting is of particular interest in this respect, because

this style of communication has become widely accepted in areas other than emergency

response. As it does not require subscribers to change already adopted methods of

communication, technology is not an adoption inhibitor. Both E911 and mobile alerting

can be considered pull technologies. From this perspective, it is the user who instigates

the use of the technology. When this is the case, there is a need perceived by the user to

have that service activated. The availability of the technology, and its potential impact

on privacy and liberty might still be debated in theory, but at the time of need, basic

survival instinct is likely to override these concerns.

The concept of privacy, in relation to mobile alerting, was not listed in Table �5.8. This

does not rule out privacy as a concern, but it does indicate that privacy concerns are

low. The low level of concern may be accounted for by the pre-existing relationships

between mobile phone users and the mobile network providers, and related to the

description of a pull technology above.

E911 recorded the second-most significant reaction in relation to technology

acceptance. The E911 technology was a second phase of development of an existing

139

technology. The September 11 attacks prompted further development of this service,

especially in light of the confusion of the emergency response effort. Media reaction to

this technology was more explanatory than confrontational in comparison to ePassport.

The everyday nature of the technology meant that users did not have to adopt any

additional devices or learn any new methods of operation. The invisible integration of

E911 into the lives of the American people helped to create interest in the technology

without it being considered an intrusion.

In terms of the styles of news making (Table �5.9), the coverage of both E911 and

mobile alerting was predominantly event-driven. A comparison of the discussion themes

for both these technologies illustrates this (see Table �5.10).

Table �5.10 E911 and Mobile Alerting Concepts

E911 Concepts Mobile Alerting Concepts

• location • wireless • privacy • systems • signal • state

• people • mobile • services • system • technology

The terms listed in Table �5.10 have more to do with the actors and the components of

the technology than the ePassport concepts. Although privacy rates as a concern with

regard to E911, the context of it was about company use of information. The context

was removed from significant personal concern and can be seen as an argument of

concern about company ethics.

5.6.2 The Media and ePassports

The ePassport initiative was developed as a response to the September 11 attacks. It

promised increased security to the holders, but also prompted curiosity as to the

effectiveness of it as a preventive measure in the fight against terror. The media

coverage of the technology drew on the climate of fear that prevailed in the months

following the attack: which classifies the coverage as managed and/or media-coloured.

The questioning in the media about privacy, surveillance and tracking played a part in

maintaining the ‘war on terror’ rhetoric. This rhetoric is now beginning to haunt the

government.

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Unlike the other two technologies, the ePassport is a push technology. The ePassport

initiative questioned the intention of the government in relation to its citizens through

the media. Consent was not sought from citizens in the US, or countries who have

adopted this technology as a standard in order to comply with the US. As a push

technology, the ePassport technology required travellers to take additional and different

action to their normal course. Push technologies are likely to encounter resistance to

adoption because of this. It is the combination of the push technology with the portrayal

in the media, through managed stories and media-colouring that contributes to the

different perception of the technology by the public.

Table �5.11 ePassport Concepts

ePassport Concepts

• technology • data • risk • privacy • systems • chips

The concepts identified in Table �5.11 mostly centre around the application of the

technology and it’s potential for misuse. The term technology, in relation to ePassport

had connotations of mistrust between the public and government. This is different to its

use in the mobile alerting context. Each of the ePassport concepts has been tempered by

degrees of media-colouring, especially in regard to the creation of moral panic.

Marshall and Kingsbury (1996, p.43) refer to Stanley Cohen’s (1973, p.9) definition of

the term ‘moral panic’ as,

A condition, episode, person or group of persons (that) emerges to become defined as a threat to societal values an interests; its nature is presented in a stylised and stereotypical fashion by the mass media; the moral barricades are manned by editors, bishops, politicians and other right-thinking people…

Given this definition, the context of the adoption of this technology involved more risk

than the other two examples, and tended to include coverage that had more bias toward

personal and social impact rather than technology-driven concern. It is important to note

that the ePassport does not act in a direct life-saving way as E911 does. This is a

technology that provides protection to other travellers ‘just’ in case you are doing

something wrong.

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5.7 Conclusion

The purpose of this chapter was to describe the media coverage of three technology

applications being used for national security purposes. Each technology was described,

and then analysed through the identified concepts. By illustrating the identified concepts

in the concept map and the ranked list of concepts, connections could be made with

regard to the impact of the technology deployment.

The media can act from many perspectives. The main perspectives identified in this data

include the event-driven and media-coloured coverage. These categories help to

describe and understand the findings that show the balance between social impact and

technology impact. The use of media coverage in this chapter to gauge reactions to the

technologies has continued to shape the perceptions of interest: privacy, security and

liberty.

Chapter 6 draws on the findings of Chapter 4 and Chapter 5 to create a lifeworld

perspective on the relationship between privacy, security and liberty, and auto-ID and

location-based technologies.

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Chapter 6 The Privacy, Security and Liberty Trichotomy

6.1 Introduction

Having studied events of national security significance, and auto-ID and LBS

technology applications in regard to national security, it is now feasible to investigate

the relationships between the social implications of technology and whether it is

possible to strike an acceptable balance between the values of privacy, liberty and

security (PSL). The description of the PSL Trichotomy is significant to understanding

the influences on the construction of the lifeworld in regard to how an individual

considers the impact of a technology on their life. In addition, an illustration of reactions

to privacy, security and liberty across national security events allows for exploration of

the role of the media in reporting on national security. These graphs are a significant

contribution to the body of socio-technical research, in that this cross-case analysis has

not been identified in any previous works. Finally, critical social theory (CST) was used

to explore the impact of technology on the lifeworld. It is the basis on which the

relationship of the three steering media: the material world (observed objectivity), the

social world (participative intersubjectivity) and the personal world (experienced

subjectivity) are discussed.

6.2 Balancing Privacy, Security and Liberty (PSL) with Technology

The social impact of technology in terms of privacy and security is a significant topic as

it is of relevance to both civil libertarians and governments. The findings in Chapter 4

indicated that security exists as a standalone concept. Security is not always addressed

in conjunction with the concepts of privacy or liberty (see Figure �6.1). When security is

portrayed as an issue of community concern, whether local or global in size, it is picked

up as the overriding factor in the media. This was seen specifically with regard to the

September 11 reaction. The initial fear-based reaction to the attack served to eliminate

concern for everything other than reclaiming security. After the event, this reaction was

not supported as strongly (Figure �4.6). In this instance, the concerns of privacy and

liberty, if they are addressed at all, are portrayed as a threat to security. There is no

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balance recognised between them, and one is lead to believe you can have security, but

no privacy and liberty, or, if you favour privacy and liberty, security will suffer.

Figure �6.1 Security as the Dominant Concern

The dominance of security can also be examined from an alternate perspective.

Figure �6.2 illustrates the example of security subsuming the concepts of privacy and

liberty. This was found to be so when the government or technology developer had

control of the situation. It also required some level of trust to be established in order that

any fears might be overcome. The subsumed perspective is relevant in dire emergencies.

The role of emergency responders would be jeopardised without this perspective. When

first responding to a bomb threat, for example, the need of security far outweighs the

concern of privacy or liberty. Once the threat is contained, then one would expect the

privacy and liberty perspectives to be re-evaluated in the continued operation.

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Figure �6.2 Security Subsumes Privacy and Liberty

Privacy, considered in relation to national security, had very low levels of awareness in

the media studied. In the media responses to events, Figure �6.8 illustrates the level to

which privacy was addressed in the media. Greater awareness of the issue was

discovered through the technology cases in Chapter 5. In the media coverage of the

technology responses to the events addressed in Chapter 4, privacy and liberty were

identified as issues of concern. The concern was propagated, usually through extreme

points of view, by authors associated with particular lobby groups. This was found in

relation to the use of RFID most often with respect to little forethought being given to

the use of the data that would be collected through these schemes. The position put

forward in these standpoints encouraged the view that security and privacy are

incompatible concepts (Figure �6.3). From this perspective, a strong relationship between

privacy and liberty was typically claimed.

Figure �6.3 Privacy as the Dominant Concern

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The final concern is liberty. Through the literature and research, it seems that when

liberty is of foremost concern, it can balance the demands from both privacy and

security proponents (Figure �6.4). The exploration of this can be seen in the discussion

on the deployment of the E911 initiative in Section �5.4. An important note here is that

there is a distinct separation between privacy and liberty with respect to technology

adoption. Green (1999, p.31) provides an example of this in regard to CCTV footage

being used in the UK to make arrests. He states that of the 2800 arrests made between

1991 and 1999, 99 per cent of the offenders plead guilty when confronted with the video

footage, which lead him to the conclusion that

... In contrast to more radical libertarian accounts, the key point here is that not every sacrifice of individual autonomy and ‘privacy’ is the same as the loss of freedom…

Figure �6.4 Liberty as the Dominant Concern

It is clear that there is a distinction between privacy and liberty, and that a loss of one

does not necessarily discount the other, however, it is interesting to note in the

following section that the two issues are barely separated in the media coverage.

6.2.1 The PSL Trichotomy

The balance between privacy, security and liberty needs to be managed in the realm of

national security. From the descriptions in the above cases, it is clear that there are

certain relationships that can exist, and at any given time, for any particular scenario,

there are multiple realities that can be created. This is dependent upon an individual and

their own lifeworld perception, and it is also dependent on the stakeholder position. The

actors, or stakeholders addressed in this research have included: citizens, media,

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government and technology developers. For each event, and for each technology, these

actors will take a standpoint that is based on interplay of privacy, security and liberty.

The positions of the government officials concerned about security on a national level

are likely to have a different perspective to person A, whose primary concern is their

own safety. The trichotomy is found in the way these stakeholder positions need to be

balanced.

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Figure �6.5 The PSL Trichotomy

The trichotomy (Figure 6.5) is a pertinent description of the interaction of privacy,

liberty and security, as it reflects the triad of worlds that create the personal lifeworld.

The bringing together of three perspectives in order to understand the influence they

have on each other is a practice first described by Kant (1787), and then refined by

Peirce (1898) (Widmeyer 2007). The balance between three perspectives depends on the

relational connections in the circumstance they are being applied. In Section �6.4, the

trichotomy is depicted with examples from this research.

The significance of the PSL Trichotomy is realised in the bringing together of three

highly variable concepts (privacy, security and liberty), and situating them in the

framework of CST, which allows the interactions of the outside world to be weighed

alongside personal values. Modelling the lifeworld through the use of the PSL

Trichotomy should facilitate a more sophisticated means of evaluating the impact of

new technologies.

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6.3 Trends Emerging from the Technology and Event Cases

There are two main security-based reasons for adopting the technologies that were

investigated in Chapter 5: increased travel security, particularly for international air

travel, and location awareness for victim identification. Table �6.1 describes the

connections between the events and the technologies that could be used in response,

based on the reason for adoption.

Table �6.1 Potential Response Technologies to the Events

Reason for Adoption Event Response Technology

World Trade Centre & Pentagon attack ePassport, E911 Increased travel security Location awareness of victims London Mass Transport attack ePassport, E911

Bali Nightclub attack ePassport Increased travel security

Jakarta Australian Embassy attack ePassport

SARS Outbreak Mobile Alerting

Tsunami SE Asia Mobile Alerting, E911 Location aware of victims

Hurricane Katrina US Mobile Alerting, E911

The graphs in the following sections present the trend lines from Figure 4.2, Figure

4.12, Figure 4.17, Figure 4.22, Figure 4.27, and Figure 4.32 as one set of data for each

of the issues identified (terroris(m)(ist), security, privacy and liberty). The time series

begins with the date of the first event, and each time marker after that shows a three-

month interval. September 11 is the first event, and Hurricane Katrina is the last event

depicted. Each event is represented by its own unique line graph. The following graphs

represent a five year period of mass media coverage from 11 September 2001 to 5

September 2006. Although much can be made of these events as individual cases, the

collective analysis presented here is unique. By bringing together reactions to this series

of events, patterns or trends in reaction can be identified and discussed. The media, as a

shaping factor with regard to adoption of auto-ID and location-based service

technologies, is recognised as having an effect of public perception.

6.3.1 Terrorism

The sentiment of terrorism throughout the selected events (see Table �6.1) follows a

similar response trend, but still has certain unique features worth exploring. With the

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exception of SARS, the initial response in terms of terrorism is substantial. The focus

on this aspect of all the events, both terrorist and natural disaster, is a significant factor

in shaping lifeworld understanding. Comparing the events that occurred between 2001 –

2003, to the events that occurred between 2004 - 2006, there is a noticeable difference

in the persistence of terrorism as a high profile issue over time. The recovery time, to a

level in line with awareness before the event, is sustained over a longer period of time in

the Jakarta Embassy Attack and London Bombing events. Over the period of time in

Figure �6.6 there is a cumulative effect on lifeworld awareness of terrorism, which

impacts on perceptions of future events. The Boxing Day Tsunami and Hurricane

Katrina are evidence that although both events were natural disasters, initial reactions to

the scale and impact of them raised likenesses to terrorist events. In both events the

focus on terrorism tapered off after the initial three-month period.

Terroris*

05

10152025303540455055

Time since September 11

Impa

ct %

Sept* 11 Bali Bomb* SARS Jakarta BombTsunami London Bomb Katrina

Figure �6.6 Terrorism - Cross-Case Analysis

The time series in Figure �6.6 also illustrates that over a five year period, awareness of

terrorism has remained in the public consciousness. This constant reminder detracts

from the public being able to move beyond the events. The constant referral in the

media to the idea of terrorism has had a definite impact on the public, which through

this research has shown to affect perceptions of the personal values of privacy, liberty

and security.

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6.3.2 Security

Awareness of security is identified throughout each of the cases as an issue of great

importance. Throughout these cases, security has taken on two main meanings:

national/homeland security and personal security. It is an issue that has shown a similar

trend across all events, most notably in an upturn at the point of the one year

anniversary of each event (see Figure �6.7). The content analysis showed that security

was an issue that featured strongly in initial reactions. Yet it has a longevity that comes

with it being considered an issue and/or solution as responses to events of national

security are reviewed over time. Given that it is usually a breach in security measures

which has allowed the event to occur in the first place, the initial heightened focus

makes sense. This supports the idea of security being a measure that can be taken up in

the planning stages of how to respond, should another event occur. It must be noted

though, that technology-based security measures will never entirely curb future attacks.

Security

05

10152025303540455055

Time since September 11

Impa

ct%

Sept* 11 Bali Bomb* SARS Jakarta BombTsunami London Bomb Katrina

Figure �6.7 Security - Cross-Case Analysis

In terms of lifeworld impact, security is an issue that tends to change from a fear-based

response to a confident assurance over the course of reaction to an event. The more

assured a person is of their security, both on a personal level and national level, the

more positive the focus might be on adopting and implementing national security

initiatives. The prime example of this is the reaction to September 11, where the focus

on war detracted from the attainment of security by inflaming other political

relationships, therefore putting society at a potentially higher level of risk. However, the

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alternate position to this is that if there is a strong feeling of security, there might be

hesitation toward adopting a technology that could be seen to be unnecessary.

The initial reaction to security, in comparison to the other issues, is the strongest. Most

noticeably in the events from 2004 - 2006, heightened awareness of security remained.

The proximity of those events contributed to the continued high profile in the media.

6.3.3 Privacy

Privacy, as a concept in shaping the lifeworld, has had little impact in the cases

described in this chapter. Figure �6.8 shows that of all the articles collected, privacy was

recognised in at most two per cent of them. With the exception of the Jakarta Embassy

Bombing privacy has remained in the public consciousness for the duration of the year

after each event. As these events have occurred over time, there have been different

technologies utilised that have potential impact on privacy, such as the CCTV footage

used in the London Bombings.

Privacy

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

Time since September 11

Impa

ct %

Sept* 11 Bali Bomb* SARS Jakarta BombTsunami London Bomb Katrina

Figure �6.8 Privacy - Cross-Case Analysis

It was demonstrated in Chapter 2 that privacy was a difficult concept to define, and the

reporting of it in the media is often sensationalised. Privacy appears to have become an

issue of increased concern in the more recent events. In this period of time, the use of

ePassports has become more widespread, and the level of precision of the E911 service

has become greater. General attitudes toward privacy appear to have increased in

importance.

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6.3.4 Liberty

Although liberty is recognised as a concept that is distinct from privacy, there is little

separation of it in the media coverage. Liberty followed a similar trend compared with

privacy, as shown in Figure �6.9. Similar to privacy, liberty is a concept that is

understood, but not often reported, unless there has been a breach, and again the media

coverage is often sensationalised. Media interest in liberty peaked in the initial reactions

to the Boxing Day Tsunami, London Bombing and Hurricane Katrina. The higher

response compared to the earlier events is a result of increased coverage of the events,

and also in part, to the changed perspectives in the post-September 11 world.

Liberty

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

Time since September 11

Impa

ct %

Sept* 11 Bali Bomb* SARS Jakarta BombTsunami London Bomb Katrina

Figure �6.9 Liberty - Cross-Case Analysis

The impact of Hurricane Katrina highlighted deficiencies in emergency response that

were expected to have been improved following September 11. The result of continued

bureaucratic inefficiency was the anarchy and disempowerment of the victims (CNN

2005; Thomas et al. 2005). Liberty, or more rightly, the loss of liberty was a key factor

in this event.

6.3.5 Media as an Influencer

The significance of these findings in relation to the power of the media can be seen in

the way that privacy and liberty were disregarded by the press. Davies (1992, p.35)

observed in the Australia Card debate in the late 1980s that the mainstream media had

“decided arbitrarily that the issue was of no public interest”. This also seems to be the

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case with regard to technology use in national security initiatives, where media in

general are not reporting government deployment strategies. As addressed in Section

�3.5, McLuhan (2003) strongly argues that the press exists to give the public what they

think they want to hear. The coverage of the national security events in the media lead

to the conclusion that of Marshall and Kingsbury’s six categories of media power (1996,

p.43), most coverage is grouped as managed and media-coloured. These two categories

have a powerful influence in the lifeworld creation as they prevent the facts from being

told in an untainted way. It can be very difficult to filter fact from fiction in the media,

especially when the topic is one that stirs up fear or other strong emotion to colour the

reaction. Habermas acknowledges the powerful role the mass media has in the

development of emancipatory knowledge by the fact they deliver information to a large

audience, but he is also wary of them because of the lack of dialogue they facilitate

(Poster 1995, p.13). The discussion of the lifeworld in Section �6.5 further explores the

significance of this dialogue.

6.4 The Privacy, Security and Liberty Trichotomy: An Illustration

The concern for national security is very real to society and evidenced by the findings of

Chapters 4 and 5. The research outcomes have provided insight into the reactions that

recent events of national security significance have had on social consciousness. The

previous section has put forward a number of positions that can be derived from the

media analysis. This section now seeks to bring these positions together in a paradigm

for understanding and discovering the proposed impact of future auto-ID and LBS

applications being used in national security. Figure �6.10 is a representation of the

factors that contribute to the lifeworld understanding of auto-ID and LBS technologies

being used for national security. The following descriptions use a scale for each of

privacy, security and liberty. These scales were derived from the sentiment found in the

media articles.

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Figure �6.10 The PSL Trichotomy

In this representation, the security axis is presented in terms of intensity. The measures

of security are graded from ‘low or negligible’, up to ‘extreme or invasive’. From this

perspective, the range of ideas and levels of acceptance of technologies comes down to

personal value systems. What is appropriate for one lifeworld experience does not

exemplify the general reaction. Since September 11, there have been examples of hasty

reactions to terrorist attacks prompting the desire for extreme or invasive security

measures. Of key concern here is whether those security responses need to be retained

as long-term sustained measures that make permanent changes to current practice.

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Table �6.2 Security Scale for PSL Trichotomy

Security Level Example Application

Low/negligible E911

Medium Mobile Alerting

High Smartcard National ID

Extreme/invasive ePassport with Biometric Border Controls

The technologies in Table 6.2 are examples that represent varying levels of security that

may be used for national security applications. The classification of these technologies

is dependent upon each citizen’s tolerance of involuntary information sharing, however

the table can be viewed as an exemplar. The tendency to increase the tracking capacity

of a system through the addition of a location-based or auto-ID technology does not

always enhance the security functionality, but may provide a perceived impression of

higher security protection for a citizen individually, and also for governments as a

collective initiative.

The sliding scale of privacy outlined in Table 6.3 ranks from ‘high to ‘none’ the value

placed on privacy by a person. In general, citizens who are unaware of potential threats

to their privacy are not overly concerned by the introduction of new technologies and

the associated level of security they promise. However, when prompted about the

consequences of loss of privacy, reactions become more protective (Tootell, Alcock et

al. 2003). The scale used in Table 6.3 is only indicative of one aspect of privacy but that

aspect is significant to the focus of this research as demonstrated in Figure �6.10. The

extreme points on Table 6.3 are both unlikely to be sustainable positions and this is a

reflection on the concept of privacy. Privacy awareness and protection is very

changeable, and is strongly dependent on circumstance and a person’s level of comfort

with a given situation. For this reason, variable responses to privacy will directly impact

acceptance of new technologies that are perceived to be a threat to privacy. The

variability also contributes to the difficulty of creating a universal solution to

understanding the balance between technology, security, privacy and liberty.

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Table �6.3 Privacy Scale for PSL Trichotomy

Privacy Level Statement

High Most anonymity, least surveillance

Medium More anonymity, less surveillance

Low Less anonymity, more surveillance

None Least anonymity, most surveillance

The examples in Table 6.3 move from the position of most anonymity and least

surveillance, to least anonymity and most surveillance. The ‘least anonymity, most

surveillance’ describes a society where citizens have no control over the information

that is collected or monitored. A low level of privacy is described as ‘less anonymity,

more surveillance’, which is comparable to the notion of opt-out. Opt-out in regard to

privacy policy describes the state where the whole population is included, and an

individual requests to be excluded. This is in contrast to opt-in where the whole

population is excluded and an individual requests to be included, allowing more control

to the individual. Opt-in equates to the medium level privacy described as ‘more

anonymity, less surveillance’. In this instance, a citizen would have privacy as the

dominant state except where they were willing to allow surveillance to take place. The

final state is described as ‘most anonymity, least surveillance’ which depicts the state of

every transaction and movement being untraceable.

These descriptions of privacy states are discrete representations and are not

recommended as optimal levels to be achieved. For illustrative purposes, they highlight

the difficulty in prescribing levels of privacy to be attained. In the adoption of

technology though, especially the adoption of either auto-ID or LBS technologies, the

user could be made aware of the impact that adoption might have. When the technology

use is mandated by a government or other authorising body, a citizen may not have any

option but to adopt the technology. In that situation, understanding the relationship

between privacy, security and liberty, is crucial to an informed decision where

consequences and benefits of adoption can be clearly understood. Even in the case of

mandatory adoption, being aware of the balance between these factors can be

instrumental in a citizen’s attitude and behaviour toward the technology.

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The third axis in Figure �6.10 refers to liberty which is another highly variable and

personal value. Liberty is a value that is often lost in the privacy versus security debate.

It is seen to be of paramount importance in this research as it is central to the

understanding of the lifeworld. People are motivated by a variety of factors: for some

there is a scale of dependence through to interdependence. For others the philosophical

concept of ‘self’ versus ‘society’ is supreme. Whichever way it is understood, liberty in

the context of this research is focused on whether the use of a specific auto-ID or LBS

technology is deemed to be of value. Table �6.4 describes liberty to be of high value to

no value. High value implies that the technology being used is worth the impact it has

on other aspects of life. Associated with the idea of high value is the notion that the

technology is embraced. The alternative position is that the technology is deemed to be

of no value. This implies with certainty that the technology is unacceptable and so, if

still deployed, will result in a personal loss of liberty. It has been found in this research

that technology for national security initiatives is often deployed under the guise of

being for the greater good of society, which leaves little room for liberty to be given any

value in personal lifeworld construction.

Table �6.4 Liberty Scale for PSL Trichotomy

Liberty Statement

High Value Technology is embraced

Medium Value Technology is acceptable with many reservations

Low Value Technology is acceptable with few reservations

No Value Technology is unacceptable

Each of the scales discussed above can be impacted by numerous outside and personal

factors which might include their culture, faith, age, expectancy of event, predominant

character trait (e.g. fear) or any other of the many demographic characteristics that

contribute to a person’s make up. The concept portrayed in Figure �6.10 is by no means

the only way of understanding these issues, but it is a way of understanding how each of

the issues relate to each other, and is representative of the findings of this research.

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6.5 Lifeworld Implications

As a personal decision making tool, and in the context of lifeworld shaping, Figure �6.11

illustrates how the cycle of knowledge for this research manifests itself in the world.

This figure and description is based on the work of Habermas, and has been interpreted

by Mingers and Brockelsby (1997). The material world describes the objective world

which we observe, it can be shaped through our actions, but we are also subject to its

constraints. In the context of this research, this is the world that suffers terrorist attacks

and the effects of natural disasters. The ‘war on terror’ is an action being taken to

prevent further terrorist attacks, but that effort is constrained by the effort being applied

by terrorists to continue their own agenda.

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The personal world is experienced uniquely by each person. This world holds the

personal value of privacy, security and liberty that is used to shape decisions. This

uniqueness contributes to the difficulty in dictating a set standard of value for privacy,

security or liberty as described in the PSL Trichotomy. It is the role of this world to

express our subjective views to others, and similarly appreciate the views of others.

The third component of this group is the social world which is integral to the society we

live in. There are many layers to this world, which include language, meaning, social

158

practices, rules and resources. It is within this world that the influence of media has

power. This world involves both participation and an interactive subjectivity, the

interaction between actors is of great importance. This research identified the key actors

as citizens, government, media and technology developers. The roles and reactions to

these actors were explored in Chapters 4 and 5.

6.6 Conclusion

The purpose of this chapter was to explore the social impact of technology, the

proposition that technology cannot be separated from social implications and the

concept of balance as it applies to technology privacy, security and liberty in the

national security arena. The discussions of terrorism, privacy, security and liberty

illustrate the significance they have had in shaping public understanding of national

security events. The dependency or otherwise of each component contributes to the

lifeworld understanding of the adoption of future technologies. The PSL Trichotomy

proposed in this research illustrates the complexity involved in coming to understand

human attitudes to these technologies. By equipping members of society with tools such

as the PSL Trichotomy, structured consideration of technology can take place within the

lifeworld.

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Chapter 7 Conclusion

7.1 Introduction

This research set out to explore the social impact of auto-ID and LBS technologies in

national security initiatives. The primary method adopted was Critical Social Theory

(CST), using content analysis of mass media reports. The findings from the content

analysis were used to frame an understanding of how people’s perceptions of

technologies are shaped by social impact factors. This chapter highlights the issues

presented in the thesis that relate to the overall aim of the research and also presents the

contribution of the research, the research limitations and future directions in light of the

findings.

7.2 Principal Conclusions

7.2.1 Trends in Technology Use and National Security

The use of technology as a response to national security, or security in general, is

certainly not new. The use of the Trojan Horse (Bishop 2003) as a weapon of mass

destruction to overthrow the city of Troy, through to the adoption of fingerprinting

techniques in the 19th Century as a means of identification, are examples of how early

technology has been used for security purposes. The adoption of auto-ID and LBS

technologies has opened up new opportunities in national security measures for location

accuracy and the facilitation of the collection of information that are more efficient than

previous methods. The pace of technology change in recent times has firstly contributed

to the understanding of the Information Society, and secondly, has resulted in a

generation of people willingly accepting technology without question. The use of

technology in day-to-day life is ‘normal’. Technology innovation is being pushed to

populations by governments and technology developers, and is being pulled by

populations in the quest for a more streamlined and convenient life. This research

explored the use of ePassports, using RFID technology, E911 and mobile alerting, as

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technology applications implemented in direct response to national security events,

satisfying the first objective of the thesis.

It was stated earlier that technology is not a panacea for national security. No

technology solution is foolproof (Michael and Michael 2006b, p.360), and as we

journey along the technology adoption trajectory, it is important to keep in context that:

Technological advancements in all fields have one thing in common: they do not discriminate among their users. Sophisticated weapons, communications equipment, and other technology will be there for all to take advantage of, including terrorists (Simon 2001, p.10).

7.2.2 Methodological Contribution

This thesis puts forward the usefulness of using sociological frameworks like Critical

Social Theory (CST) as a means for evaluating the impact that a technology has had on

citizens. The particular context of national security in this study provided a narrow

scope where trends regarding adoption of technology in response to a national security

event could be explored. Typically, technology studies are conducted from the

standpoint of the technology without social context which can be quite misleading.

Situating technology adoption in terms of social awareness has been supported by many

information society advocates (see Table �2.7). The relationship between technology and

society has been shown to be inseparable by Mumford (1934; 1966) and Ellul (1965),

with technology affecting social development, and at the same time, society determining

aspects of technology development. The impact society has had on technology has been

to redefine purpose, and in some instances, prevent its future progress.

The intention of a CST study is to look for the emancipatory potential regarding a

decision point, in this case, the adoption of technology for national security

applications. The diagrams, developed in Chapter 3, to illustrate the process of the

research, are a significant outcome of this research that can be generalised for use in

much wider ICT scenarios, take for example Figure �7.1. This model, as a generalised

methodology can be applied to many situations where there is interaction between a

person or collective of persons and various steering media and the relationship that

exists between them has a direct impact on the system with which they interact.

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Figure �7.1 Generalised Methodological Approach

The approach can be applied to socio-technical studies and organisational process

assessments. What is most important is that influential actors are identified and

included; here presented as citizens, mass media, government and technology. These

methodological findings satisfy the second objective of this thesis in part.

The identification of words and contextual meanings are very important to the lifeworld

construction. Although no discourse analysis was conducted, the contextual meanings

allowed understanding of events and technologies to be created. The selection of a

qualitative approach to the research allowed the exploration of complex relationships

which cannot be found using other approaches.

7.2.3 The Privacy, Security and Liberty Trichotomy

There are many ways in which privacy, security and liberty can interact. While schemes

for national security using technologies range from being mandatory to voluntary; there

is significant variation in the dominance of the above traits. What has been shown in

this research is the spectrum within which these values exist. The creation of

dependencies in these traits, relying on external factors such as the decree of technology

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use being mandatory or voluntary, means that each situation needs to be assessed

individually. Of significance is that these values are intrinsically linked to each other,

and also to society. They are values that have unique characteristics for each individual,

and yet they can be swayed by media, government and technology. Privacy, security

and liberty are all essential to the function of our society and technology can pose a

threat to their viability.

There will always be a dominant value, depending on personal experience. A privacy-

dominant person will perceive situations differently to someone who is security-

dominant. It is the acceptance of these differing views that will allow the greatest

growth of society to occur. Ratner and Ratner provide a glimpse into the future of

national security technology in their discussion of nanotechnology, and address the

dominance concern through suggesting that vision, humility and peace will be the traits

that enable society to succeed. The following quote is their closing paragraph of the

book and is a pertinent reminder from technology advocates that attention to social

issues is essential for future developments:

The answers to these challenges lie in action and in education, in understanding and in responsibility, in civic awareness and in reaffirmed respect for privacy, civil rights, and individual determination. Big Brother is not the answer. We need the collective will and wisdom of all peoples. We need vision, humility and peace. Nanoscience and nanotechnology will lead to wealth, to security, to better health, and better living, but they will only do so if society welcomes them with awareness, education, and responsibility (Ratner and Ratner 2004, p.134).

Although this is linked to nanoscience and nanotechnology, these sentiments represent a

socially aware view that will be of benefit to any emerging technology. These findings

satisfy the second and third objective of the thesis.

7.3 Major Implications

7.3.1 Technology as a Solution

The unguarded acceptance of technology as we move through the information society, is

a trend that has been inevitable, and yet still sinister. We have reached a point in the

development of technologies where it is prudent to sit back and look at the potential

impacts of what we are designing. Technology for the sake of technology no longer

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holds importance for the emerging generation. The integration of automatic-

identification with location-aware technology has significant benefits for the national

security area. From the critical theory perspective of research, it is necessary to question

the intent of the proposed technology, instead of blindly accepting. This research

explored the adoption of three auto-ID and LBS technologies, and from this it is

contended that promotion of a technology without consent from the population may be

understandable necessity in times of crisis, but the cloak of national security and the

associated imminent danger is wearing thin. Technology alone will not prevent terrorist

attacks. What it will do is assist society in managing these events when they do happen.

Requiring society to remain on elevated levels of alert, or to be ‘alert but not alarmed’,

propagates fear and insecurity. This serves a purpose if the theatre of security can be

boosted by the adoption of a technology, however, without democratic debate; this

method of technology adoption does little to liberate populations (Brzezinski 2004,

p.243).

7.3.2 The Role of the Media

Newspapers have been designed to propagate reports of stories in a widely accessible

manner to the masses. It has been found in this study that the newspaper articles

provided a certain perspective on the use of technologies and events. Media portrayal of

the national security events has been biased. The language used is powerful and biased

toward making patriotic stands. There is an entire school of research focused on the

analysis of the language of terrorism, take for example, Jackson (2005), who points out

his main concern regarding the coverage of the war on terror in America.

Through a carefully constructed public discourse, officials have created a new social reality where terrorism threatens to destroy everything that ordinary people hold dear – their lives, their democracy, their freedom, their way of life, their civilisation (2005, p.1).

Jackson goes on to argue that the media has been a primary advocate of the construction

of a reality where the war of terrorism is normalised and comes to be accepted as a part

of “the way things naturally are and should be” (2005, p.151).

It needs to be acknowledged that the media includes much more than the newspapers

industry. Habermas agrees that there is little room for dissent or interaction with the

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newspapers, so it is interesting to see discussion of the privacy, security, liberty debate

spill into popular media. Television programs, such as Boston Legal portray a lifeworld

example which gives a contemporary perspective on the issues raised in this thesis.

Future research could include an analysis of dialogue from related films and shows. In

Table �7.1 there are four excerpts from Boston Legal pertinent to the themes identified in

this research.

Table �7.1 Privacy, Security and Liberty in the Popular Media

Concept Boston Legal

Privacy

Privacy and the safety and security that word has always implied, has, with time and technology, become an illusion. A National Security agency has access to all our emails the world over with its echelon system. Virtually every website you visit installs a delicious cookie on to your computer which is in fact a spy to track you’re every move… Make no mistake; access to your information is easy. All you need is a person’s five digit zip code, gender and date of birth to uniquely identify eighty-seven percent of the US population. That is how vulnerable we are. How vulnerable you are (Too Much Information 2005).

Security I sympathize with you. I really do. But these are some of the prices we pay to live in a free and democratic society which is safe (Nuts 2007).

Liberty

They say when people get scared the first thing they’ll give up is their civil liberties. That’s why after nine eleven we were only too happy to get frisked at airports. Some of us enjoyed it more than others. But when it gets to a point where people are captured, then tortured, not because there is evidence, but rather just to see if there’s evidence. When they are jailed in perpetuity, afforded no trial, my God, the court has a duty to step in. The government’s motion to dismiss is denied (Guantanamo by the Bay 2007).

Fear

Last night, I went to bed with a book... the book contained a speech by Adlai Stevenson. The year was 1952. He said, "The tragedy of our day is the climate of fear in which we live and fear breeds repression. Too often, sinister threats to the Bill of Rights, to freedom of the mind are concealed under the patriotic cloak of anti-Communism." Today, it's the cloak of anti-terrorism (ABC Television 2006; Stevenson 1952).

These sentiments have been picked up very recently in Australian news with New South

Wales Police proposing a 100-point identification check for people wanting to purchase

a SIM card for their mobile phone:

Preventing terrorism trumps any infringement of civil liberties posed by greater regulation of the purchase of SIM cards, NSW Police Commissioner Ken Moroney says (AAP 2007).

The repeated focus in the media on terrorism being the cause of much change is

addressed in the following section.

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7.3.3 The Influence of Fear and the Degradation of Dialogue

The theme of fear was identified through the research and it is a real concern in the

context of national security. There is fear being generated by the media through their

portrayal of national security events, and there is internal fear that is registered by

individuals as a normal response to this external stimulus. There appears to be a

perception that the prolonged medium security alert, or emergency, has now become

normality. Urbinati (2005, p.63) describes the “preoccupation that dominates public

debate: how to guarantee the safety of citizens now and in the future”. This focus is also

described by Hillyard in Abbas (2006b) who is in support of the need to carefully

consider the social implications of national security measure. He puts forward the idea

that we must avoid the “prevention of terror” becoming the “terror of prevention”. The

move toward technology-centric solutions that begin to erode the rights of ordinary

citizens, suggests that we are already traversing the path that leads to there being a terror

of prevention. In addition to this, the reaction of the government toward fear identified

in society regarding a technology is significant in finding a balance between privacy,

security and liberty. Davies (1992, p.41) surmises that at times there are fears that arise

from proposed technologies that cannot be assuaged by government. However, the more

the fears are silenced, the more they grow. This is of importance to both media and

government who both have the power to manage the perception of technology that is

published and reaches the masses (Schiller 1996, p.45).

It has been shown that there was a lack of consent seeking in the adoption of the three

technologies studied. McCulloch (2006) supports this premise suggesting there is a

general assumption that September 11 was a turning point, especially in international

justice, where the media has played a role in promoting terrorism as a new type of

threat, where there is a shift away from presumption of innocence. This shift away from

the presumption of innocence is sold to the masses that it is a liberty that cannot be

afforded anymore because of the magnitude of the risk.

Even if September 11 changed the world forever, the democratic process between

citizens and government needs open dialogue and transparency. Throughout this

research the interplay of government, media and terrorism has illustrated power plays in

action which leads to the question of whether there is a potential paradigm shift: where

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the government is now acting as a control agent in a democracy. Sometimes it seems

easy to forget that there was a world prior to September 11. The events of September 11

were, and still are shocking and incomprehensible. How long can the time of grieving

over those events continue to shape technology, policy and social decisions? This is a

question that required all members of a society to be aware of the implications of

technology, and the interrelationship technology has with their own lives.

7.4 Research Scope

7.4.1 Links to Earlier Findings

The technology perspective of this research has links to Michael and Masters (2006)

who provided insight into the role of positioning technologies in defense applications.

This work was predominantly technology focused, but it did address some social

concerns.

The strongest links between this thesis and earlier findings are in the field of socio-

technical research. Ng-Kruelle (2006) investigated the construct of a price being paid

for convenience in regard to pervasive computing devices. The Price of Convenience

model has been used as a psychology and calculus to explore sensitivity in populations

to the ‘cost’ of a technology in terms of privacy or other factor. In this thesis the

terminology of price has reflected a social impact: it has not set out to quantify this

value. The cost of security can be examined from an economic point of view, where

security measures do have real dollar values for businesses that need to implement or

upgrade current technology practices. For national security the costs might include

border security, critical infrastructure protection, equipping first responders effectively

and then finding and applying the technologies that can facilitate these aspects.

Heymann (2003, p. 88) proposed a model that suggested multiple perspectives that can

influence choices in regard to personal safety being in danger from the threat of

terrorism. Figure �7.2 is a representation of the choices that draw together democratic

freedoms, political demands and efficacy. Heymann defines the intersections of decision

making as three main choices: steps useful to reduce the chance and harms of terrorism,

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steps dangerous to democratic liberties or national security and steps that reduce public

fear and anger.

Figure �7.2 Heymann's Choice of Actions

Heymann discusses the significance of alternatives that belong in the ‘f’ category. This

describes a decision that is dangerous to civil liberties, not useful in reducing the

danger, but successful in reducing public fear and anger. This research has explored this

notion through the perceptions in the media, and how easily the popularity of a

technology can be propagated or abandoned without any public debate or discussion.

The methodological significance of this research extends the work of Michael (2003)

who conducted a mechanical content analysis of the technology trajectory of the

automatic identification industry. The use of Leximancer to conduct content analysis in

this research eliminated the potential for bias as found in Michael’s work. Leximancer

also allowed the extraction of dominant thematic concerns, which shaped the findings of

this research.

7.4.2 Relevance of the Findings

The findings of this research are relevant to all national security stakeholders. This

grouping includes governments and technology developers through to the individual

citizen. This research has examined cases that have already occurred. Learning from

history, whether through reflective practice or forward planning, is important. For

governments, the most important finding is the realisation of the openness required to

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facilitate discussion and debate about the suitability of technology applications. In

addition to this, the government, as an actor in the national security arena, is responsible

for ensuring that in democracies, that democratic process is upheld. Consumers of

technology, mostly citizens, would have gained an understanding of the factors involved

in technology adoption decision-making. Armed with more knowledge about an auto-ID

or LBS technology, citizens are able to make informed decisions regarding the use of

the specific technology in their lives. In the case of mandatory schemes, knowledge is

still important to the citizen in order to be aware of the consequences of its use. The

media has been identified as a significant actor in this research, and through the content

analysis of newspaper headlines and articles, their contribution to lifeworld shaping has

been revealed.

There are numerous groups and individuals who are likely to benefit from this research,

some of which include: civil libertarians, privacy advocates, regulators, legislators,

educators, politicians, members of the media, sociologists, philosophers, security

professionals, and ethicists. This list covers a broad range of professions and interests,

which is simply a reflection of the widespread significance of technology in society.

There are very few groups of people who remain ignorant to the issue of national

security, which is why this research has been positioned in a social impact perspective

of technology, in order to increase its accessibility to all who imagine an acceptable

balance between technology and society.

7.4.3 Limitations of the Research

The reader should take note of several limitations of this research. As it was pointed out

in Section 4.1.1, the terrorism event cases were selected because of their ties to

Australia. The inclusion of the two natural disasters and one health epidemic were

significant in order to investigate national security from multiple perspectives including

an all hazards approach (EMA). In the period since September 11, there have been

many more events of national security significance, which if included, could provide

additional depth to this research. Second, the content analysis method was conducted

using Leximancer. The other software available for this style of content analysis is

nVivo. Had this alternate software package been used, the findings would have been

interpreted in a slightly different manner, based on the way nVivo extracts data. The

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content analysis was limited to English language sources and the collection of articles

was limited by restrictions from Factiva. This area of research has a close relationship to

politics. It was a purposeful decision to not investigate the political drivers or

ramifications in this research.

7.5 Recommendations for Future Research

Given this research examines the relationship between technology and society; there are

significant areas for future research. The areas of interest are encompassed in the broad

descriptors of information systems research, media studies, and sociological research.

The current research has examined the relationship between auto-ID and LBS

technologies and national security. This has been considered through seven event-based

cases and three technology-based cases. An extension of the existing study to include

further national security events would significantly enhance and refine the current

findings. There are many ways in which this information could be approached: on a

country basis, by perpetrator(s), by event type (natural disaster or terrorist activity), or

by method of attack. An alterative to this approach is to examine the historical impact of

national security history on technology adoption in the current situation. Again, the

broadening of application in this approach could come from including countries that

have suffered significant terrorist activity over time including Spain, India, Israel, and

Iraq. The importance of this country-specific work means that cultural influencers could

be identified. In addition, inclusion of more technologies from the auto-ID or LBS

groups would extend the relevance of the research, as would comparing these results

with technologies outside of the auto-ID and LBS scope. The broadening of the findings

from any of these perspectives would also increase the significance of a legal

perspective.

Further investigation into the role of the media with regard to technology adoption

would enable the findings of Chapter 5 to be expanded. The interplay between the

media and technology with regard to national security has significant implications for

society. The influence of the media in different cultures is an investigation that could

take place, which is removed from the IS field of research, but is an excellent starting

point for collaborative, cross-disciplinary work. An example of this would be to analyse

170

the lifeworld as it is portrayed in movies and television shows. The work of Zournazi

(2007) provided an innovative approach to redefining the language used in the post-

September 11 world, entitled ‘Keywords of War’. Commonly used words such as fear,

freedom and terror have been reconstructed to include meaning that exists outside the

current focus on terror. Jackson’s (2005) interpretation includes political narrative of the

war on terrorism and how the language being used in media and in politics is damaging

democratic dialogue between citizen and state. The findings of this research could

provide insight into further development of this work.

Quantitative exploration of this work would enhance the significance of the findings to

policy makers and technology developers. Perakslis and Wolk (2005) conducted a study

on the social acceptance of RFID as a biometric security method. The findings of this

research have similarities to their investigation. By using their survey instrument as a

basis for a quantitative study, and expanding its scope with the issues uncovered in this

research, the richness of this body of work could be significantly enhanced.

Finally, the impact of lifeworld in information systems application is a field of growing

research. The methodological approach taken in this research could be applied to many

other situations where technology is having a significant social impact. It is important to

continue to apply CST in information systems research to expand the application and

usefulness of the method in this paradigm. An interesting use of this approach would be

to investigate how this approach can help with improving adoption rates of technologies

that are not being taken up.

7.6 Conclusion

This thesis set out to explore the social impact of auto-ID and LBS technologies in

national security initiatives using Critical Social Theory. The end result is the PSL

Trichotomy – a novel evaluation tool that involves privacy, security and liberty being

examined in light of the media influences. This research has addressed technology use

in terms of its social impact.

Where the significance of this work lies is in the application to people – individuals,

groups of people, or governments who represent people. The relevance of this research

is entrenched in the society in which we live, the post-September 11 world. Since

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September 11 there has been an erosion of privacy and an increase in the use of

technology in an effort to strengthen security. Together, this has resulted in an overall

diminishing of liberty. Security, both personal and national is not the answer to all the

problems of society. Rebuilding the confidence of the people is where the strength will

come from to reclaim a world that does not live with the fear of terror. Emancipation

from this fear will come through better understanding of the interplay between the

values that can be affected by technology adoption. The vision of this research was to

provide a tool that would facilitate this emancipation. The PSL Trichotomy is the agent

for change, providing empowerment in these days of ‘war’.

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