THE ROLE OF EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING INTERNSHIPS IN DEVELOPING JOB READY

GRADUATES IN THE FIELD OF PUBLIC RELATIONS: A CASE STUDY OF THE HUMBER

COLLEGE ITAL BACHELOR OF PUBLIC RELATIONS PROGRAM

By

Athena D’Amato, Hons. BAA, Dip. PR, M.BET

A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

Department of Leadership and Higher Adult Education Ontario Institute for Studies in Education

University of Toronto

© Copyright Athena D’Amato (2019)

ii

THE ROLE OF EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING INTERNSHIPS

IN DEVELOPING JOB READY GRADUATES IN THE FIELD

OF PUBLIC RELATIONS: A CASE STUDY OF THE

HUMBER COLLEGE ITAL BACHELOR OF PUBLIC

RELATIONS PROGRAM Athena D’Amato

Doctor of Philosophy

Graduate Department of Leadership, Higher and Adult Education

Ontario Institute for Studies in Education University of Toronto

2019

Abstract

This research study explored the value of experiential learning toward the

development of professional employability skills in students in the Baccalaureate

Program in Public Relations at Humber College Institute for Technology and Advanced

Learning (ITAL) as perceived by the interns, internship employers and faculty. The study

focused on the internship component integrated into the program curriculum, to

determine from the perspective of students, employers and faculty, the value of

internships for all parties involved. More specifically, in this study I explored the

perceptions of participants to determine if there was a skills gap in terms of the

graduate’s job readiness and whether they have developed the necessary skill sets needed

to facilitate success in their chosen profession. The findings identified personal and

professional employability skills that students and employers recognized as being met by

students to qualify for graduation and/or what is needed to succeed in a career in public

iii

relations. The theoretical framework that grounded this study is based on David Kolb’s

Experiential Learning Theory (Kolb, 1984). My goal was to collect rich informative data

through the semi-structured interviews with all the participants. The collection of data

consisted of four phases: (1) document analysis, (2) eight student interviews, (3) eight

employer interviews and (4) four faculty interviews. The data were collected through semi-

structured interviews with eight students from the program, eight internship employers, and four

faculty members. The identified impact of experiential learning on the professional and personal

development of the students during their internship experience was multi-dimensional; however,

it was evident that the internships offered students the opportunity to explore the diversity of the

public relations field, gain self-confidence, and enable them to take ownership of their learning.

The findings in this study suggest that an internship experiential component is both an essential

and an effective curricular model for undergraduate public relations students who wish to better

assert and position themselves for success in the field of public relations. The results of the

internship allowed students not only the benefit of increasing their employment history, but the

benefit of being challenged to grow through experience.

iv

Acknowledgments

I value education and the pursuit of knowledge and strive to work to my full potential

academically, professionally and personally – In these endeavors I am grateful to be supported

by my family, friends, Angle Media Group team and colleagues - I could not have done this

without you.

Thank you to my thesis supervisor Dr. Katharine Janzen for your expertise,

encouragement and support and to the truly invested members of my committee Dr. Dan Lang

and Dr. Doug Sparkes. Together they challenged and inspired me to think differently,

continuously encouraged me to define the problem and contribute to a solution. Dr. Janzen

provided countless hours of careful review, feedback and encouragement, I could not have

accomplished this without her. Dr. Lang and I debated topics from economics to personal

experiences and I trusted in his guidance – the result a stronger piece of original work. “Why do

you have to choose?” - Dr. Sparkes asked me (2007) if you are willing to put in the work you

can have it all. Thank you for that perspective, not only have I thought back to that moment

many times when making daily decisions, but especially each year as I made the decision to

continue my studies and complete this dissertation.

Given the nature of my research I was honoured to work with Ariana Macau, my

research assistant, thank you for all your hard work and dedication to the success of this work.

Thank you to all the participants of my study; students, industry/employers and full time

Faculty. Appreciation goes out to my inspiration; all the students and employees I have ever

taught for giving me the opportunity to teach and lead through my own experiences, successes,

mistakes and failures; and to learn with you and from you on your individual journey’s. To the

employers I have worked with over the years to place hundreds of students and the faculty in the

Humber College ITAL program – thank you.

v

It takes a village… Without all of you this study would not of have the deep personal

and professional meaning that it does.

To my parents and grandparents, your sacrifices afforded me the opportunities I have

been able to experience to date and helped shape me into the person I am. Monika and

Domenico, you have taught me to push pass the status quo and to always keep learning, growing

and experiencing. Thank you to the D’Amatos, the Arcuri’s, the Deeg’s and the Bushell’s for

constantly checking in and being flexible.

I could not have started or finished this journey without my Angle Media Group Family

(past and present), whether you knew you were supporting me or not, you truly gave me the

confidence and support I needed to start and finish this goal, which was very important to me.

To my friends for quietly encouraging me until the end and lastly to Jordan Bushell, you

sparked this adventure – thank you.

vi

Table of Contents Chapter One: Introduction ......................................................................................................... 1

Background ........................................................................................................................ 3

Problem Statement ............................................................................................................. 6

Purpose of the Research ................................................................................................... 11

Rationale .......................................................................................................................... 12

Personal Rationale ........................................................................................................... 13

Research Questions .......................................................................................................... 15

Theoretical Framework .................................................................................................... 16

Worldview ........................................................................................................................ 17

Conceptual Model ............................................................................................................ 17

Limitations of the study ................................................................................................... 18

Summary of Chapter One ................................................................................................ 21

Chapter Two: Literature Review ............................................................................................. 22

Scope of Literature Review ............................................................................................. 22

Experiential Learning ....................................................................................................... 23

Employability ................................................................................................................... 38

Internships ........................................................................................................................ 41

History of Honours Baccalaureate Programs in Ontario ................................................. 43

Big Data and Public Relations ......................................................................................... 46

Summary of Chapter Two ................................................................................................ 47

Chapter Three: Research Design and Methodology ............................................................... 48

Research Design ............................................................................................................... 48

Research Questions .......................................................................................................... 49

Site Selection ................................................................................................................... 50

vii

Humber College ITAL Honours Bachelor of Public Relations Program ........................ 52

Participant Selection ........................................................................................................ 53

Data Collection ................................................................................................................ 56

Data Analysis ................................................................................................................... 60

Establishing Credibility ................................................................................................... 61

Methodological Assumptions and Limitations ................................................................ 64

Ethical Considerations ..................................................................................................... 64

Summary of Chapter Three .............................................................................................. 67

Chapter Four: Findings and Analysis of the Findings ........................................................... 68

Description of Participants ............................................................................................... 68

Findings ........................................................................................................................... 69

Research Question 1 ........................................................................................................ 69

Interpretation of Findings for RQ#1 Related to the Literature Reviewed ....................... 81

Interpretation of Findings for RQ#1 Related to the Theoretical Framework. ................. 82

Research Question 2 ........................................................................................................ 82

Interpretation of Findings for RQ#2 Related to the Literature Reviewed. ...................... 96

Interpretation of Findings for RQ#2 Related to the Theoretical Framework. ................. 97

Research Question 3 ........................................................................................................ 98

Interpretation of Findings for RQ#3 Related to the Literature Reviewed. .................... 107

Interpretation of Findings forRQ#3 Related to the Theoretical Framework. ............... 108

Research Question 4 ...................................................................................................... 109

Interpretation of Findings for RQ#4 related to the Literature Reviewed. ...................... 112

Interpretation of Findings for RQ#4 Related to the Theoretical framework. ................ 113

Research Question 5 ...................................................................................................... 113

Interpretation for Findings for RQ#5 Related to the Literature Reviewed. ................... 121

viii

Interpretation for Findings for RQ#5 Related to the Theoretical Framework. .............. 123

Summary of Findings in Chapter Four .......................................................................... 123

Chapter Five: Conclusions and Implications ........................................................................ 125

Conclusions .................................................................................................................... 125

Implications for Theory ................................................................................................. 128

Implications for Policy and Practice .............................................................................. 129

Implications for Further Research ................................................................................. 133

Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 137

Appendices

Appendix A: Request for Administrative Consent (Email) From Humber College ITAL ........ 152

Appendix B: Recruitment Script (Email) sent to Students by the Researcher .......................... 153

Appendix C: Recruitment Script (Email) sent to the Faculty by the Researcher ...................... 154

Appendix D: Recruitment Script (Email) sent to the Internship Employers ............................. 155

Appendix E: Invitation to Participate and Informed Consent Form for Students ...................... 156

Appendix F: Invitation to Participate and Informed Consent Form for Internship ................... 161

Appendix G: Invitation to Participate and Informed Consent Form for Faculty ....................... 165

Appendix H: Semi-Structured Interview Guide for Student Interviews .................................... 169

Appendix I: Semi-Structured Interview Guide for Internship Employers ................................. 172

Appendix J: Semi-Structured Interview Guide for Faculty Interviews ..................................... 175

Appendix K: Lawshe’s Content Validity Index ......................................................................... 177

Appendix L: Research Assistant / Transcriber Confidentiality Agreement .............................. 182

Appendix M: Research Assistant Confidentiality Form ............................................................ 185

Appendix N: Encryption Protocol ............................................................................................. 188

Appendix O: Request to Adapt Interview Guide Consent (Email) ............................................ 189

Appendix P: Table 3. Employability Skills as Outlined by the Conference Board of Canada in

Employability Skills 2000 ......................................................................................................... 190

Appendix Q: Table 4: Baccalaureate/Bachelor’s Degree: Honours from The Ontario

Qualifications Framework (OQF) .............................................................................................. 192

ix

Table of Figures

Figure 1: Conceptual Model of Kolb’s Cycle of Experiential Learning integrated into the

internship component of the Humber College ITAL, Bachelor of Public Relations (Kolb, 1984)

Source: © 2018 Athena D’Amato. ............................................................................................... 18

Figure 2: Kolb’s (1984) Cycle of Experiential Learning (Stirling et al, 2014, p.14). ................. 27

Table of Tables

Table 1: Example of Kolb’s Experiential Learning in Practice ................................................... 30

Table 2: Data Sources to Answer the Research Questions .......................................................... 59

Table 3: Description of Study Participants .................................................................................. 69

Table 4: Employability Skills as Outlined by the Conference Board of Canada in Employability

Skills 2000+ ................................................................................................................................. 71

Table 5: Baccalaureate/Bachelor’s Degree: Honours from The Ontario Qualifications

Framework (OQF) ....................................................................................................................... 72

Table 6: Humber College ITAL Honours Bachelor of Public Relations Course Progression ..... 74

Table 7: Analysis of Course Outlines and Essential Employability Skills .................................. 76

Table 8: Essential Employability Skills from MKT151: Integrated Marketing Communication 76

Table 9: Comparison of Themes Identified in the Responses of Participants for RQ#1 ............. 79

Table 10: Comparison of Themes Identified in the Responses of Participants for RQ#2 ........... 96

Table 11: Comparison of Themes Identified in the Responses of Participants for RQ#4 ......... 112

Table 12: Comparison of Themes Identified in the Responses of Participants for RQ#5 ......... 122

x

Acronyms, Terms and Definitions

Co-operative Education and Work-Integrated Learning Canada (CEWIL): The voice for

post-secondary Co-operative Education and Work-Integrated Learning in Canada and its

mission is to nurture and expand post-secondary Co-operative Education and Work-Integrated

Learning in Canada.

Curricular: Experiential learning components that are mandatory for academic credit; for

example, an internship.

Deep learning: Deep learning is intrinsically motivated, integrative, reflective and dynamic

(Borredon, Defayette, Baker & Kolb, 2011). It involves engagement and the ability to derive

meaning and underlying structure (Warburton, 2003).

Experiential Learning: A learning derived from experience or learning by doing. Experiential

learning engages learners in an experience and then encourages reflection about the experience

to improve new skills, new outlooks, or new ways of thinking (Lewis & Williams, 1994).

Internship: Despite a comprehensive foundation of research related to student internships, no

prevailing definition of the word “internship” currently exists (Stirling, Banwell, MacPherson,

Bendealy & Battaglia, 2014). I found in the literature that the word co-op and intern are often

used interchangeably. For the purpose of this thesis, the term internship will include individuals

in an internship or co-op placement and will be defined by four criteria as given by DiLorenzo-

Aiss and Mathiesen (1996); it (1) must be for a specified number of work hours, (2) will include

both paid or unpaid work, (3) will result in a credit being awarded and (4) provides oversight by

an institution representative and a corporate counterpart.

HEQCO – Higher Education Quality Council of Ontario was formed through the Higher

Education Quality Council of Ontario Act, 2005, HEQCO it is an agency of the Government of

Ontario. HEQCO uses research to evaluate current practice and provide suggestions to the

Ministry of Training, Colleges and Universities.

xi

ITAL – Institute of Technology and Advanced Learning. There are five colleges who have

been designated to be Institutes of Technology and Advanced Learning and authorized to supply

15% of their programming to the Honours Baccalaureate level, upon recommendation of

Postsecondary Education Quality Assessment Board (PEQAB) to the Minister of Training

Colleges and Universities; all other colleges are limited to a maximum of 5% of their

programming at the degree level.

MTCU - The Ministry of Advanced Education and Skills Training (formerly Ministry of

Advanced Education and Skills Development) is the ministry of the government of Ontario

responsible for the supervision of regulatory laws relating to post-secondary education and skills

training.

OQF - Ontario Qualifications Framework is the framework in Canada that incorporates all

post-secondary education credentials including Honours Bachelor of Arts degrees granted by

Colleges in Ontario (Government of Ontario, 2009).

PEQAB - Postsecondary Education Quality Assessment is a government agency that operates

in an advisory role to make suggestions to the Minister of Training Colleges and Universities of

Ontario on applications for ministerial consent under the terms of the Post-Secondary Education

Choice and Excellence Act, 2000.

Skills gap - The difference between the skill set required on the job and the skills had by the

employees (Güera, 2013).

Soft Skills/ Transferrable Skills: Transferrable skills include problem solving skills,

interpersonal skills, computer skills, information technology and related skills to the business

world to name a few (Bennett, 2000).

Work Integrated Learning (WIL): As defined by the Higher Education Quality Council of

Ontario (2013), WIL labels educational activities that integrate learning and practical application

within an academic institution and in a workplace setting. To be defined as such, the WIL must

xii

be applicable to a student’s program of study or career goals. The structured nature of the

integration is distinct from other experiential learning activities that provide students with

experience to the workplace, such as field trips, job shadowing, career mentoring, and work-

study. WIL included co-op, clinical placements, internships, and more. It has been noted to

significantly improving students’ employment prospects, as well additional benefits for students

and employers. (Sattler & Peters, 2013)

1

Chapter One: Introduction

The purpose of this study was to explore the effect of experiential learning integrated

into the curriculum, on the development of professional employability skills in students in the

Baccalaureate Program in Public Relations at Humber College Institute for Technology and

Advanced Learning (ITAL). Lewis and Williams (1994) defined experiential learning as,

“(l)earning from experience or learning by doing. Experiential education immerses learners in

an experience and then encourages reflection about the experience to develop new skills, new

attitudes, or new ways of thinking” (p. 5).

This was not a program evaluation study but rather a case study of one, albeit an

important, aspect of the learning experience of participants in the Public Relations program that

was the site of this study. The focus of this study was on the impact of curricular internship

based experiential learning on the development of professional employability skills as perceived

by students, internship sponsors and faculty at Humber College ITAL located in Toronto,

Ontario, which was the site for this case study.

The Conference Board of Canada, Employability Skills 2000+ document (2000)

identifies essential professional employability skills as including, but was not limited to:

Fundamental skills, personal management skills and teamwork skills of employees in public

relations and communications roles. Similarly, while not prescribed specifically by the Post-

Secondary Education Quality Assessment Board (PEQAB) for the Baccalaureate credential, the

essential employability skills required by the Ministry of Advanced Education and Skills

Development (now Ministry of Training, College and Universities) for all Ontario College

programs leading to an Ontario College Certificate, Diploma and Advanced Diploma include the

ability to reliably demonstrate: communication, critical thinking and problem solving,

information management, interpersonal skills, numeracy, and personal management skills.

2

The Humber College ITAL, four-year, Honours Bachelor of Public Relations Degree

must adhere to the PEQAB Standards (2010) which state that students graduating from an

Ontario College with an Honours Baccalaureate/Bachelor’s degree must demonstrate: Breadth

and depth of knowledge, conceptual and methodological awareness/research and scholarship,

communication skills, application of knowledge, professional capacity/autonomy, and

awareness of limits of knowledge. Therefore, it was reasonable to assume that these skills were

foundational for those required at the baccalaureate level.

More specifically, these public relations and communications roles are essential for

individuals who improve and apply communication and publicity strategies, information

programs, advertise activities and events, and sustain media relations on behalf of firms,

governments and other institutes. Furthermore, they are essential for publicists to entertainers,

athletes, writers and other talented individuals (Government of Canada, 2015). Specifically,

PEQAB standards require a broad range of knowledge from the mastery of bodies of knowledge

and abilities to innovative forward-thinking knowledge where new knowledge, ideas and

theories are created and assumptions and methods are challenged as students prepare for all

facets of public relations in an assortment of sectors.

This study focused specifically on the Honours Bachelor of Public Relations program

offered at Humber College ITAL. It explored and described the experiential learning internship

component integrated into the curriculum, to determine from the perspective of students,

employers and faculty, the value of internships for all parties involved. This study also explored

the value of the internship experience toward deep learning. With Borredon, Defayette and

Baker (2011) defining deep learning as intrinsically motivated, integrative, reflective and

dynamic. Additionally, Warbuton (2003) states that deep learning involves engagement and the

ability to derive meaning and underlying structure.

3

The public relations field is a profession that grew at 1.2% between 2014–2018 (Stuckey

& Munro, 2013; Service Canada, 2015). Between 2017-2026, new job openings in the public

relations field are expected to total 36,200; while 36,600 new job seekers are expected to be

available to fill them, most job seekers are expected to come from the school system

(Government of Canada, 2015). In addition, this study sought to identify the participants’

perceptions of required skills, specifically those skills that must be included or reinforced in the

final year of a student’s education in the selected program at Humber College ITAL to secure

employment, and the employability skills expected by employers and the government. This

study explored the effectiveness of the program in supporting the development of essential

employability skills which are defined in this study as the required skills to succeed in the

workplace. They act as a baseline that should be achieved by students.

In this chapter, I discuss: the background, the problem statement, the purpose of the

research, the rationale, the research questions, my worldview, the theoretical framework, and the

scope and limitations of the research. I present the literature review in Chapter two and in

Chapter three describe the proposed research design, the specific research questions that drove

this study, and methodology and ethical considerations. In Chapter four, I present the findings

regarding the research questions that drove this study, and in Chapter five, I discuss the

conclusions and implications for policy/practice, further research, and theory.

Background

This background information is relevant in setting the context for the questions I

explored in this study. Humber College ITAL launched the first public relations program in

Ontario in 1968 and during the past 51 years, the institution has developed two programs in

addition to the original program in public relations, namely, the advanced diploma, post-

graduate certificate and the Honours Bachelor of Public Relations degree (Humber College

4

News, 2018). Each of these programs has an experiential, work integrated, learning component.

However, the length of each of these components varies. The experiential component of the

program’s curriculum is designed to be integral for students to develop the skills needed to

match the expectations of employers as they expect to hire students who have demonstrated

identified employability skills. Although the public relations field is growing, due to the number

of programs available in this field in Ontario, there is considerable competition. The findings of

this study will be of interest to other institutions that offer similar programs, to increase the

employability competitiveness of their graduates in the field of public relations. Furthermore,

the methodology used in this study will be a useful example on how studies of this nature can be

conducted for other institutions that seek to assess the effectiveness of their own programs -

whether it be in public relations or not.

The inclusion of a work-related component in vocational programs is not new, and many

professional programs (e.g., medical, nursing, law) have long included work placements such as

practicums, internships and co-operative learning. Practica are work that is a requirement in

skills-based professional programs, such as nursing, physical therapy, and education. Internships

and co-operative learning experiences are generally longer than practica, and students may take

up to 12 months to complete an internship or co-op. All of them are the bridges between the

coursework and the commencement of students’ careers (To, 2017). Under PEQAB, an Ontario

College Honours Baccalaureate is shaped by a certain set of characteristics: a technical or

professional education based on the primary principles of each field of study; application of

theory to practice, applied research, and work experience; development of the analytical skills

necessary to assess new information; and lastly, the balance of personal and professional

development by increasing the students’ understanding (PEQAB, 2018). Based on the Co-

operative Education and Work- Integrated Learning (CEWIL) (2019), both work and academic

5

terms are full-time and follow a formal sequence. According to Lupton (1979), the total amount

of co-op work experience is usually at least 30% of the time spent in academic study, and a

work term is outlined as a minimum of 12 weeks and/or 420 hours full-time paid experience.

CEWIL (2005) indicated there are two approved co-op program structures or models that are

recognized nationally:

co-op programs with more than one work experience integrated into the overall program providing students with the opportunity for career exploration, development and exposure to more than a single type of work environment in their discipline; and co-op internship programs with one work experience period where students receive an in depth exposure (normally) to one employer organization, which provides the student the opportunity for development commensurate with the length of the overall program. (CEWIL, p. 1)

The 2019 Ontario Qualifications Framework (OQF) indicates baccalaureate programs of

eight semesters are required to include professional experience (e.g., supervised practica,

internships, work terms, or co-operative experiences). Davis, Internship Director for the Human

and Organizational Development Department at Vanderbilt’s Peabody College of Education and

Human Development in the United States, suggested that internships were formalized in higher

education in the 1960s, and became popular and branched out into other vocations and

businesses in the 1980s (Spradlin, 2009). Internship programs have experienced growth since

the 1960’s, as a component of many post-secondary programs across North America; however,

few evaluative and/or descriptive studies have been undertaken in this area (Satariano & Rogers,

1979).

Velez and Giner (2015) see it as vital that graduates bring to the workplace experiential

learning to enable them to hit the ground running when employed. More specifically, given that

post-hiring training puts the burden of training costs on employers, firms may be able to mitigate

the expense by hiring individuals with relevant experience and skills. The practice of hiring

already trained individuals has led to a steady increase in the development and popularity of

6

cooperative education programs (Walters & Zarifa, 2008; Sattler & Peters, 2013). For post-

secondary institutions, this meant a push towards incorporating into degree, diploma and

certificate programs, work integrated learning opportunities for students to acquire real-time

experience during and in conjunction with their educational programs.

Based on Statistics Canada (2015) data, there were more than two million students

enrolled at Canadian universities and colleges in 2015, compared to only 800,000 in 1980. It

was not clear whether these statistics included both baccalaureate and graduate enrolments or

not. By 2014, Ontario had over 500,000 students enrolled in post-secondary education with

46.7% of those students participating in work-integrated programs (Stirling, Banwell,

MacPherson, Bendealy & Battaglia, 2014). Similarly, according to Perlin (2012), the College

Employment Research Institute in the United States found that of the 9.5 million students

attending four-year college and university undergraduate programs, 75% took part in internship

programs. These statistics are substantial in demonstrating the high demand of students wishing

to take part in a paid, or an unpaid, internship program. A good internship experience provides

experiential learning through in-class internship training and structured curricular in-field

workplace experience. It is important that internship programs provide benefits for all

stakeholders involved: students, institutes, employers and government.

Problem Statement

Muhamad (2012) asserted that employers want to hire graduates who have not only

technical skills or vocational skills, directly connected to their qualifications, but also essential

transferable skills. The term transferable skills in interchangeable with terms like soft skills, core

skills, generic skills, lifelong learning skills, key skills, and employability skills. Traditional

education, which focuses on developing vocational skills through learning cognitive skills,

including analytical and synthetic reasoning, numerical and verbal abilities, is not enough to

7

prepare youth for employment in the current context (Muhamad, 2012). Ducatel (1998) pointed

out that codified knowledge (such as know-what and know-why) and tacit knowledge (such as

know-how and know-who) must be combined to effectively fuse together experiential learning

(tactic knowledge) and formal learning (codified knowledge). If educational institutions rely

only on one or the other, there is a disconnect from practical knowledge that can be applied.

Furthermore, Muhamad contented that conventional education and training need to be coupled

with experiential learning for the future workforce to learn “how” to apply that knowledge; this

can only be acquired through experiential learning opportunities (Muhamad, 2012).

Furthermore, he suggested that cognitive abilities are not enough; the ability to do work relies on

one’s ability to adapt to a workforce, which is constantly changing. To do this one must develop

those transferable skills.

According to Sullivan (2017), employers also highlight that: entrepreneurial skills,

organizational awareness skills, communication skills, emotional intelligence, creativity, design

skills, interpersonal skills, and technological skills are essential employability skills that are

needed to succeed in current and future work. The skills that recent graduates are claimed to be

missing are not technical skills, but soft skills such as leadership skills, problem-solving skills,

communication and teamwork capabilities (Andreas, 2018). This suggests that there may be

three quite different failures: first, colleges and universities fail to provide curricula that include

these skills; second, the curricula include them, but the programs fail to deliver them, or, third,

students fail to acquire them. These are all aspects of what this study explored as they relate to

the Public Relations program that was the focus of this study.

The mismatch between workplace ready skills developed through postsecondary

education and the requirements of the workplace can be used to describe: vertical mismatch

which is overeducation and or undereducation, skill gaps, skill shortages, which is unfilled or

8

hard to fill employment positions, and horizontal mismatch which is when the field of study has

evolved beyond the candidate’s former education and skill obsolescence (McGuinness,

Pouliakas & Redmond, 2017). Miner (2014) affirms and echoes this with his view on skills

mismatch which includes: the skills mismatch of supply and demand is integral yet there are

other types of mismatch that need to be part of the conversation, overeducation, undereducation,

and geographical mismatches.

The focus of my study was specifically on the participants’ skills mismatch as a result of

undereducation and skills obsolesce. I also asked the question “What skills did you learn and/or

need during your internship that were not taught in the classroom?” Statistics Canada (2015)

data from 2008 and 2014 reported that on average a person will change career three times

throughout their life and many more times from job to job. For individuals to be successful it is

critical that they build on an existing foundation of employability and literacy skills and in order

to more easily transition from one career to the next, one must have essential employability

skills (Miner, 2014). Miner (2012) defines these employability skills as: reading skills, writing

skills, speaking skills, numeracy skills, document usage skills, critical thinking skills, group

work skills, continuous learning skills, and computer usage skills. Miner also indicates that at

this time multicultural awareness and entrepreneurship should be added to the list. A recent

study by Williams (2015) revealed that key soft skills, including communication skills, were the

most relevant and were what most students needed to improve. In addition, another study by

Radermacher, Walia & Knudson (2014) highlighted that recent graduates struggle

communicating with co-workers and customers. These findings suggested that it is the

responsibility of post-secondary institutions to ensure students have effective problem solving

and communication skills.

9

Students need relevant work experience as well as the transferable skills to be job ready.

This increases the important role of educational institutions to not only find placements for

internships and work integrated learning in preparing students for graduation, but also to ensure

that students are prepared to effectively address real-world work challenges while in these

placements. Fallows and Steven (2013) defined transferrable skills as: skills developed within

one situation (education or employment situation) that are useful when transferred into another

situation such as across employment situations. Transferrable skills include, problem solving

skills, interpersonal skills, computing skills, information technology skills and related business

skills to name a few (Bennett, Dunne, & Carré, 2000). Employability skills, including

fundamental, personal management and teamwork skills must be integral to internship

experiences so that students can practice on the job and gain skills, not only currently demanded

by the industry but also those anticipated for the future. This is true, not only for jobs in general,

but also for those entering the Public Relations field. There needs to be a strong transition from

specific vocational skills to essential employability skills that are more likely to allow workers

to transition between different sectors of employment. In the current context, workers are likely

to change career paths several times during their lifetime rather than the one career path of the

past. A real asset for graduates will be to train them to be adaptable and flexible to the ever-

changing job market and prepare them for the realities that the market will throw at them.

I found through my two e-mail correspondences with the Canadian Public Relations

Society, Toronto Chapter, that most of the feedback they receive from employers is that

graduates need to be workplace ready. Dalton (2017) points out that while graduates may have

acquired the knowledge to do the job, they often lack the workplace intelligence. Dalton (2018)

defines workplace intelligence as “the intern’s understanding of the culture of the organization”.

She goes on to explain it is the expectation of intern employers that:

10

Every intern has the skills and knowledge to do the job that is requested but can they also ‘fit’ into the workplace. Is your place of employment very structured with set breaks for lunch? Is there flexibility in taking coffee breaks or talking to others in the office about your personal life or what you did on the weekend? Does the workplace encourage asking questions or do you simply guess and make mistakes? How well you ‘read’ what’s acceptable behavio(u)r and what is expected the more successful you will be. Workplace intelligence is similar to emotional intelligence. (Dalton, personal communication, May 8, 2018)

This is a problem because employers want to be assured that they are receiving qualified

and industry-standard trained students in both vocation-specific and essential employability

skills in order to justify the costs associated with participating in internship programs. This may

suggest that either the internship model as currently used is somehow defective or that colleges

and universities are deficient in their execution of the model. The Postsecondary Quality

Assessment Board (PEQAB) sets the curriculum standards for the Honours Baccalaureate

programs in Ontario Institutes of Technology and Advanced Learning (ITALs), such as the

Humber College Honours Bachelor of Public Relations program. At the time of this study these

standards require that 14 weeks of separate, paid, full-time employment, in the form of 420

hours of paid internship hours be undertaken by all students prior to graduating (PEQAB, 2010).

Scholars (e.g., Philipps, Trucotte, & Nichols, 2016) suggest that the use of student

placement in internships can be viewed as having both a positive and a negative influence on the

labour market. From a negative perspective, some internships may be unpaid (if paid placements

are not available) and may appear to take jobs away from eligible job seekers and full-time

employees and keep wages stagnant. On the other hand, internships are important in developing

the future workforce because they lead to entry level positions and they enable a direct

correlation between learning and doing (Maertz, Stoeberl & Marks, 2014).

Another aspect of this debate about the potential impact of internships is that paid

internships potentially lead to lower pay offered by the employer than would be paid to a

11

graduate hire; both of whom would require general as well as essential employability skills.

Internships are valuable to the higher education sector in Ontario since the academic institutions,

the interns and the host organizations all benefit from an exchange of resources, whether paid or

unpaid. The benefit to students includes the ability to test-drive a career, develop a network of

people in a field that interests them, and apply theoretical knowledge to work in a work-related

context (Coco, 2000; Gerken, Rienties, Giesbers & Köning, 2012; O’Neill, 2010). The benefit to

the institutions includes the ability to bridge the gap between the classroom and industry,

increase relationships with industry and employers and better prepare students for jobs (Alpert,

Heaney & Kuhn, 2009; Coco, 2000; Maertz et al., 2014; Coco, 2000). The benefit to the

employers includes: cost effective recruitment, workforce renewal and added short term human

capital and fresh ideas to the organization with little to no commitment for future employment

(Coco, 2000; Gerken et al. 2012; Little, Moon, Pierce, Harvey, & Marlow-Hayne 2001).

Purpose of the Research

In this study I explored and analyzed the internship component integral to the curriculum

of the Humber College ITAL, Honours Bachelor of Public Relations program to determine its

value toward the development of employability skills in its graduates, primarily as outlined in

the Conference Board of Canada – Employability Skills 2000+ report (2000), and Ministry

requirement standards for Honours Baccalaureate Degree programs in Ontario as perceived by

the study participants. This was not an evaluative case study of the entire program, but rather a

case study of just one, albeit important, aspect of that program, namely the internship experience

as perceived by participants. I obtained consent to name Humber ITAL (Appendix A) and

describe the program in detail in Chapter three.

More specifically, in this study I explored the perceptions of students, employers and

faculty to determine if there was a skills gap in terms of the graduate’s job readiness and

12

whether they had developed the necessary skill sets needed to facilitate success in their chosen

profession. The findings identified personal and professional employability skills that students,

employers and faculty recognized as being met by students to qualify for graduation and/or what

is needed to succeed in a career in public relations.

I acknowledge in my discussion of the scope and limitations that the skills gap of

graduates, where it exists, may well be a result of not just the internship experience, but also of

the curriculum – both content and how it is taught. I define the skills gap as the difference

between the skill set required on the job and the skills had by the employees (Güera, 2013).

However, since the goals of the internship experience of the case study program are specifically

declared to address employability skills needed by graduates, and the value of the program’s

internship experience as integrated into the curriculum, the purpose of this study was to explore

and describe the relationship between the skills gap and the internship experience as perceived

by internship employers as compared with those of participating students and faculty.

Rationale

Kounios and Beerman (2009) emphasized that the internship component of the students’

curriculum may be the most important aspect of the students’ education because that is where

they have the ‘aha’ moment that links classroom learning with hands on experience. This may

be the most rewarding experience in the cycle of learning for both students and employers.

The negative aspects and challenges attributed to internships, have sparked controversy

in Canadian news cycles and popular culture (Shade & Jacobson, 2015). On March 27th, 2014,

the Ontario Ministry of Labour shut down two popular magazine internship programs: Toronto

Life and The Walrus, and in the most recent 2015 Canadian Federal election campaign, one

news article reported on a cataclysmic example of an internship: “Intern’s Death After

Overnight Shift Sparks Outcry” (Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, 2013). In addition, there

13

have been other reports of unfortunate internship scenarios including: “Unpaid Interns: Toronto

College Students Clean Tubs for Nothing” (McKnight, 2013), and “Unpaid Internships Still

Demand Action for Exploiting Young” (Henderson, 2015). Headlines and situations such as

these tend to threaten the impact that internships may otherwise provide in allowing students to

realistically experience the workplace of their choice and impact society with increased

employability of youth, increased development of human capital and further highlights the need

for research on this topic.

This study was highly warranted to identify the perceived benefits and challenges of the

internship component, to facilitate effective work-integrated learning as part of the program

despite these disturbing headlines. The findings from this study will add to our understanding of

the perceived effectiveness and challenges of incorporating work-integrated learning in the

Public Relations curriculum in the Ontario context. The findings may inform public relations

curricula and the internship process in the future. As discussed (pp.19-20), the findings will be

generalizable to the other Honours Baccalaureate Public Relations programs in Ontario as they

are bound by the same regulations, and will be of interest to other postsecondary programs that

seek to include work-integrated learning into their curricula.

Personal Rationale

As the co-founder of Angle Media Group, a digital communications company started in

2008 during the Great Recession, I became responsible for growing a business in a poor

economy, where layoffs and company closures were high. This led me to strategize and consider

building a business by hiring interns in cycles in order to grow and develop different parts of the

business. Ten years later, with offices in two cities; Toronto and Calgary - and four departments:

video, motion graphics, photography and custom web solutions, I am confident that this strategy

worked in surviving poor economic times while creating jobs and contributing to Canada’s

14

economy. Angle Media Group worked, and continues to work, with universities and colleges

across Ontario in various programs including business, public relations and digital media. We

have had more than thirty student interns over the past ten years join us for their internship

experience, and I have been able to grow the business from two to thirteen full time employees

by working with students and institutions to provide hands-on experience. Currently (2019) 6

out of 13 current employees were once interns. This has benefitted all parties, and in turn has

provided opportunities to bridge students from interns to employees upon graduation or provide

mentorship and advice on a specific career path. The partnership which Angle Media Group has

with Ontario institutions provides the opportunity to hire students directly out of programs, after

having supported them through an internship experience. They also refer them to colleagues

looking for specific skill sets.

The success of this model is what initially motivated me in 2010 to become involved at

Humber College ITAL as an instructor, teaching workplace transition skills in the Public

Relations Advanced diploma program and the University of Guelph-Humber degree program.

Moreover, in 2014, I designed and executed the internship component for the Bachelor of Public

Relations program. I have had a variety of experiences: (1) as a former student in the University

of Guelph-Humber degree program with a focus on public relations, comprised of an internship

and a thesis component; (2) as an employer working with universities and colleges to hire

student interns, many of whom have been bridged into full time employees; and (3) as a faculty

and administrative representative from Humber College ITAL. Since I experienced firsthand the

benefits of being a developed, well-rounded student, I was drawn to further exploring the value

of the internship model. I wanted to explore how well the program, that is the focus of this

study, meets the expectations and potential of internship programs and identify any gaps that

may exist which need to be addressed.

15

Research Questions

The overall research question for this study is: “How does an internship experience

integrated into the curriculum contribute value to the Bachelor of Public Relations students’

employability skills, as identified in the Conference Board of Canada – Employability Skills

2000+, Ministry and PEQAB Program Standards, and as perceived by study participants?”

Using Kolb’s experiential learning theory (1984) as the theoretical framework. The five research

questions that drove this study are:

Research Question 1: What are the curriculum requirements for the internship experience

and the expectations of students in the participating Humber ITAL Bachelor of Public Relations

program?

Research Question 2: What are the perceptions of participating Humber ITAL Bachelor

of Public Relations students, internship employers, and faculty members about the overall value

of work integrated learning on the development of the students’ employability skills, through an

internship experience? How do their perceptions compare?

Research Question 3: What do the participants perceive to be the benefits of internship-

based work-integrated learning as experienced in the internship component of their program?

Research Question 4: What do they perceive to be the issues/challenges that need to be

considered in facilitating the development of employability skills of students in the internship

experiences?

Research Question 5: As identified by participants, what, if any sector specific skills,

should be added to the program curriculum and/or internship experience to achieve job ready

skills upon graduation from the Honours Bachelor of Public Relations program?

16

As they pertained to the professional and personal development of the students who are

the focus of this study. I answer the specific research questions that drove this study in chapter

three.

Theoretical Framework

The theoretical framework that grounded this study is based on the foundational theories

of experiential learning, commonly understood as learning by doing, that can be traced back to

Socrates, Aristotle and Plato (4th Century B.C.), Pestalozzi (18th Century) John Dewey (1938),

Kurt Lewin (1951) and Jean Piaget (1971) (Miettinen, 2000). In Chapter two, I discuss more

fully the history of experiential learning. Built upon the original works of these predecessors,

American education theorist David Kolb (1984) defined Experiential Learning Theory (ELT) as

"the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience.

Knowledge results from the combination of grasping and transforming experience" (p. 41). This

insight fostered a unique perspective in experiential learning, described as Kolb’s Cycle of

Experiential Learning (1984). A four-stage model of experiential learning, it provides a

framework that incorporates experience, reflection on experience, educational theory and

abstract concepts with continual practice and testing of concepts through experience (Kolb,

1984).

Kolb’s theory provides a cyclical model of learning through four stages. Lecture-based

curriculum helps strengthen memory-based skills; however, it does not provide any direct

correlation to personal experience. If it is taken one-step further, to in-field projects by way of

an internship, a student will achieve integrative learning. When learning is defined holistically

as a part of the human adaptation process, it allows for the learning and application of creativity,

problem solving, decision-making and leadership; all of which are transferable employability

skills and attributes identified in the Conference Board of Canada, Employability Skills 2000+

17

report, and in the PEQAB and MTCU requirements, and which employers also seek from

potential employees. Furthermore, Kolb’s four-stage experiential learning cycle is also well

known as framework for training and continuing professional development.

Worldview

I conducted the research for this study from a pragmatic worldview. According to

Creswell (2014), pragmatism emerges from the actions, situation and consequences as opposed

to antecedent conditions. There is an emphasis on what works, the solution to the problem and

whether it can be applied to real world problems. Given that the research is centered on the

facilitation of job ready employability skills of youth and their expectation of meaningful work

in their chosen vocation upon graduation, and employers’ expectations for work ready students,

this worldview allows me the opportunity to explore the problem and potential solutions as they

are applied in the program that is the focus of my study, and to provide curriculum-centric

solutions to address the needs and the problem that may be identified. This worldview is rooted

in qualitative data, which allows for depth in exploring the research questions through

interviews and document analysis (Creswell, 2014).

Conceptual Model

From its introduction in 1984, Kolb’s model of the four-stage learning cycle has been

used in a variety of disciplines from engineering to professional development (Daley, 2000).

Experiential learning as discussed by Alpert, Heaney and Kuhn (2009) is the link that bridges

the gap between education, work and personal development (Kolb, 1984). I chose to use Kolb’s

theory of experiential learning as it was the most prevalent one that matched the learning style of

post-secondary university students. The foundation of the application of constructivism in

learning environments are based on the ideas of John Dewey, Maria Montessori, and David A.

Kolb. Dewey’s approach – the idea that schools should serve to realize an individual’s full

18

potential and not solely revolve around the development and acquisition of skillsets that have

been determined by society – was not suited to this study. Nor was Montessori’s as Montessori’s

learning style occurs in early childhood development. Kolb then, with his approach to learn by

doing was best suited for this case study. The adaptation of Kolb’s experiential learning cycle to

the internship component of the Humber College ITAL, Bachelor of Public Relations program is

illustrated in Figure 1 below.

Figure 1: Conceptual Model of Kolb’s Cycle of Experiential Learning integrated into the internship component of the Humber College ITAL, Bachelor of Public Relations (Kolb, 1984) Source: © 2018 Athena D’Amato.

Limitations of the study

A concern for this study is the potential limitations related to the validity of the

conclusions drawn from the small sample of convenience (eight employers; eight interns and

four faculty) and the close relationships of participants with me, the researcher (Creswell &

Miller, 2000).

19

However, as I described under the heading of ethical issues and considerations (page 62)

in chapter three, I made every effort to address these limitations in that I hired a neutral third

party (Research Assistant) to interview the intern employers to address the possibility of

perceived undue influence given my relationship with them. I was not in any position of real or

perceived authority or undue influence over the intern students or faculty. Given this context it

was reasonable to assume that the participants reported their perceptions and insights honestly.

Furthermore, two neutral experts reviewed the themes I identified to ensure the accuracy of my

conclusions of the findings.

According to Creswell (2014), generalizability of findings is not the goal of case study

research design – rather, it is a deeper understanding of the case that is the focus of the study.

However, although the Humber ITAL program is the most established public relations programs

in Ontario (Humber College News, 2017) and includes the unique thesis component in its

curriculum, the MTCU and PEQAB standards apply to all honours baccalaureate programs in

Ontario (see pages 17, 18 & 37). This suggests that the findings of this case study are

generalizable to the five other honours baccalaureate Public Relations programs in this province

(see page 19). Furthermore, given the provincial governments’ focus on work integrated

learning, the findings may well be of interest to other stakeholders and post-secondary programs

that are integrating these experiences into their own programs. Nash, CFICE Communications

Research Assistant at Carleton University noted that the 2016 ‘highly skilled workforce expert

panel’ put together under the direction of then-premier Kathleen Wynne, suggested all

postsecondary students take part in at least one work-integrated learning (WIL) opportunity

before graduation in an effort to make new graduates more employable in their fields. With the

election of the new Conservative government and premier Doug Ford, it has not been

determined whether or not work-integrated learning will be a focus, however, the federal

20

government has committed to it as a priority with the 2017 federal budget announcement. With

the election of the new Conservative government and premier Doug Ford, it has not been

determined whether work-integrated learning will be a focus, however, the federal government

has committed to it as a priority with the 2017 federal budget announcement that the Canadian

government will help fund 60,000 paid student work placements over five years (Nash, 2018).

This study was based on a sample of convenience. Although there are four similar programs in

public relations in Ontario, what differentiates Humber’s degree program from some of the other

public relations degree programs is the combination of a fourteen-week (420 hour) internship

placement and a fourth-year thesis project (which is an academic research paper that allows

students to pursue an area of interest and develop expertise in a specific facet of public relations

practice – related to their internship experience if possible). The thesis project is intended to

provide the students an opportunity to transition to master’s level academic work after

graduation. The notion that students will complete the cycle of experiential learning at the

conclusion of their internship in the spring/summer of their third year of the program and have

the opportunity to apply professional and personal development skills to their fourth and final

year of study, including their thesis, is unique when compared to any of the programs offered by

competing institutions, that is: the Conestoga and the Centennial Honours Bachelor of Public

Relations programs, the University of Guelph-Humber Media Studies degree (with options for

specializing in one of five areas of emphasis including Public Relations), and the joint

University of Ottawa and Algonquin College program (in English) and La Cité (in French)

Honours Bachelor in Public Relations program.

Furthermore, to minimize this concern as much as possible: I hired a neutral third party

Research Assistant to conduct the recruitment of the students, employers and faculty as well as

data collection from the employers only on my behalf, and I analyzed the research and findings

21

in an objective manner through triangulation and maintaining a reflexive journal to consciously

reflect on and diminish potential biases during my identification of the findings based on the

data (Creswell, 2014). Afterwards, I asked two experts in the field to review my data and the

themes I identified to validate or question the themes based on their professional judgment. One

of the experts was a retired communications professional who teaches public relations, and the

other expert was a public relations graduate who works in the professional field. Neither of them

participated in the study. The review was more of an organic discussion; however, both

individuals/experts suggested to further explore the theme of numeracy given the feedback from

the students, employers, and faculty.

Another limitation is that participating faculty were not re-interviewed to assess whether

the perceptions of the interns or employers were aligned with theirs or not, and what the

implications for the program might be. This is included as an implication for further research in

chapter five.

Summary of Chapter One

In chapter one, I introduced the research topic of the Humber College ITAL, Honours

Bachelor of Public Relations program specifically focused on experiential learning and

internships. I outlined the reason and purpose for the research as well as the research questions,

rationale, theoretical framework and worldview that grounded the study. The chapter concludes

with acknowledgement of the scope and limitations of the work and key terms. In chapter two I

describe the relevant literature reviewed; chapter three outlines the research design and

methodology used for this study. In Chapter Four, I present my findings, data analysis and

interpretation relevant to the literature and grounding theoretical framework. And, finally, in

chapter five, I describe conclusions related to the focus of this study and implications for

policy/practice, further research and Experiential Learning theory.

22

Chapter Two: Literature Review

In this chapter, I review and analyze the relevant literature under the two themes:

experiential learning and employability. My discussion of experiential learning is divided into

the following themes: the history of experiential learning, experiential learning and Kolb, Kolb’s

Cycle of Experiential Learning Theory, Kolb and deep learning, Pestalozzi and experiential

learning, human capital and experiential learning, types of post-secondary experiential learning,

curricular experiential learning and the impact of experiential learning on employers. Thereafter,

the theme of employability is discussed according to: employability skills, internships, the

history of honours baccalaureate programs in Ontario and big data and public relations.

Scope of Literature Review

Upon conducting a search through the University of Toronto’s vast database collection,

particularly the Education Resources Information Center (ERIC), I was unable to find

information specifically related to the five Ontario CAAT Bachelor of Public Relations

programs. I did not find any empirical studies in the literature that explored the work-integrated

learning experience and employability skills of the undergraduate Bachelor of Public Relations

students in Ontario, Canada. The themes I have identified and searched in the literature

associated with this topic include experiential learning and employability skills (Stirling,

Banwell, MacPherson, Bendealy & Battaglia, 2014). Although I found a limited amount of

directly related research specific to Ontario-based Public Relations Bachelor of Applied Arts

programs, there was a large quantity of research available on broader related themes of

internships. Drawing from academic literature published by the Conference Board of Canada

(2000), Coco (2000) and Kolb (1984), as well as literature published by the Higher Education

Council Quality Ontario (HECQO), popular literature - most notably Intern Nation by

RossPerlin (2012) and the Cooperative Education and Work Integrated Learning Canada

23

(CEWIL Canada) association, I was guided to identify the areas that relate to my topic of

interest. I identified several recurring broad themes in the literature including the relationship

between internships and employability skills, experiential learning and work integrated learning,

and the overall benefit of internships.

Experiential Learning

This section deals with the history of experiential learning, followed by experiential

learning and Kolb, to Kolb’s Cycle of Experiential Learning Theory, and then the relation of

Kolb and deep learning. Transitioning from that, the section will deal with the types of

experiential learning, the pedagogic benefits of experiential learning as it relates to internships,

and the impact of experiential learning on students and employers.

History of experiential learning. The history of experiential learning dates back to

ancient times, with Socrates (469-399 BC), Plato (427-347 BC) and Aristotle (384-322 BC) all

playing a role in experiential learning philosophy (Stonehouse, Allison & Carr, 2011). Socrates’

greatest contribution was his eclectic method, which suggests a way of asking questions that

helps the person inquiring or asking questions to know what they know and do not know (Long,

2002). The professor’s role is only to assess where a student is rather than to intervene in an

effort to promote discovery. Influenced by Socrates, Plato’s view on experiential learning is

framed through adventure. He describes what today we call experiential learning as holistic

learning which is both intellectual and physical (Stonehouse, Allison, & Carr, 2011). Aristotle

has been quoted “for the things we have to learn before we can do them, we learn by doing

them” (Kickul, Griffiths, & Bacq, 2010, p. 652). Aristotle attended Plato’s Academy and

contributed to the theme of experiential learning through discussions on character virtue and

phronesis. Phronesis as noted by Stonehouse et al. (2011): “draws on previous knowledge

amassed through former experience, and makes an informed contextual judgment” (p.7). For

24

Aristotle, developing phronesis is a cycle, which allows for reflection and experience – this is

the beginning of Dewey’s theory.

Rousseau introduces the idea that there is a need for individualized education, just as

plants are shaped by their habitat, humans are shaped by education – the basis of education

should be natural to learn through the experience of creativity, discovery and trial and error

Rousseau calls this natural education and he is known for the publication of Émile (Smith &

Knapp, 2011). Like Rousseau, Pestalozzi’s methods were learner-centered versus content-

centered. Students should not be fed information they should be led to find the answer through

observation, analysis and reason. The goal of education must be to educate the whole student,

and this is published in his work How Gertrude Teaches her Children (Smith & Knapp, 2011).

John Dewey indicated that experiential learning is the act of doing followed by

reflection; because in the long run, the impact of any theory is determined by practical

application (Smith & Knapp, 2011). Dewey published The Child and Curriculum (1902) of

which the statement:

…the child and the curriculum are simply two limits which define a single process. Just as two points define a straight line, so the present standpoint of the child and the facts and truths of studies define instruction. It is continuous reconstruction, moving from the child's present experience out into that represented by the organized bodies of truth that we call studies. (cited in Simpson & Jackson, 2003, p. 25)

It is based on this notion that Dewey came to at the time and is still is one of the most

famous proponents of experiential learning. Lewin contributed to experiential learning theory

through his research in relation to learning style and its effect between the person and the

environment. For Lewin, person and environment were independent of each other and behaviour

is a function of the person and his or her environment (Armstrong & Fukami, 2009). Piaget has

a cognitive, constructivist theory that individuals build new ideas and theories based on what

they already know (Armstrong & Fukami, 2009). Through philosophical pragmatism, the

intellectual origins of experiential learning stem from Dewey’s contribution to experiential

25

learning. Lewin’s through social psychology and Piaget’s through cognitive, developmental

genetic epistemology. All of which provided at the time an unexampled perspective (Kolb,

1984; Sternberg & Zhang, 2014). Today, David Kolb is the leader of experiential learning and

many people use his model, expand on it, or use it to explain theories.

Experiential Learning and Kolb. Building on John Dewey’s notion of active learning,

David Kolb is widely recognized for his work in experiential learning and its modern impact in

education. Kolb points out that between 1971 and 2014 experiential learning theory has been

referenced 4,000 times in bibliographies; however, within the discourse, experiential learning is

referred to interchangeably with experiential education and more recently with work integrated

learning (Kolb, 2014; Breunig, 2009). For the purpose of this research, the term experiential

learning as defined by Kolb (1984): “(e)xperiential Learning is the process whereby knowledge

is created through the transformation of experience” (p. 49). The principal reason why people

enroll in post-secondary institutions is to acquire the skills and experience necessary to attain a

job; therefore, institutions must provide opportunities for students to become equipped with

those skills (Wittekind, Raeder & Gorte, 2010). This can be done through experiential learning,

which comes in many forms including internships, volunteering and simulation projects (Clark

& White, 2010).

Experiential learning is a pedagogy that enables educators to teach the development of

skills and understanding needed to succeed in the job market (Green & Farazmand, 2012). This

method of teaching is now more than ever an important approach to teaching in higher education

institutions across North America and Europe (Miettinen, 2000). This is however not a new

idea. The concept of learning by doing dates back to ancient times, as quoted by Sophocles:

“One must learn by doing the thing, for though you think you know it, you have no certainty,

until you try” (Gentry, 1990, p. 9). Helyer (2010) and Beard & Wilson (2013) similarly believe

that the knowledge must be implemented in order to be fully learned and Jennings and Wargneir

26

(2010) suggest that experiential learning helps unlock one’s capabilities through action versus

theory-based instructions.

Although there are many types of experiential learning activities, this section will focus

on the highly effective learning pedagogy of a curricular internship, curricular is an experiential

learning component that, are mandatory for academic credit, for example an internship by way

of Kolb’s (1984) experiential learning theory (Green & Farazmand, 2012). The presence of this

teaching technique offers significant opportunities for students and benefits for employers

(Stretch & Harp 1991). Learning paired with the work placement period of an internship, has

proven to provide higher quality education and career preparation for students, as compared to

learning alone (Gault, Redington & Schlager, 2000). The positive aspects and benefits of a

highly effective education and on the job training for students and employers are grounded in

Kolb’s (1984) Cycle of Experiential Learning. Consequently, it is important that internship

programs are grounded in experiential learning theory and provide deep learning, which is

intrinsically motivated, integrative, reflective and dynamic and involves, engagement and the

ability to derive meaning and underlying structure in order to graduate employable students

(Borredon, Defayette, Baker, & Kolb, 2011; Warburton, 2003). Little et al. (2001) indicate that

“Kolb’s learning cycle provides a conceptual framework for creating a theoretical base for

internships” (p. 444).

Kolb’s Cycle of Experiential Learning Theory. The foundational theories of

experiential learning, commonly understood as learning by doing can be traced to John Dewey

(1938), Kurt Lewin (1951) and Jean Piaget (1971) (Miettinen, 2000). Built upon the original

works of his predecessors, American education theorist David A. Kolb agreeing mainly with

Dewey, describes that the aim for his theory was intended to explain how individuals learn and

to motivate learners to trust in their experience with the goal of attaining mastery over their

individual learning. He developed this theory as a systematic framework to help solve the

27

problems of work and education in the 21st century (Kolb, 2014). This insight fostered a unique

perspective in experiential learning theory as illustrated in Figure 1 (Chapter One, p. 19), Kolb’s

Cycle of Experiential Learning (1984), a four-stage model of experiential learning as depicted in

Figure 2.

Figure 2: Kolb’s (1984) Cycle of Experiential Learning (Stirling et al, 2014, p.14).

The theory provides a cyclical model of learning through four stages. A learner may

enter at any stage but must complete the cycle to achieve its full benefits. The model begins with

(1) a concrete experience, (2) followed by time to reflect on the experience, (3) with the ability

to apply theories to the experience and (4) time to evaluate the experience and plan (Stirling et

al., 2014). (1) Concrete experience is the hands-on experience from participating in a new

situation. According to Kolb, Boyatzis and Mainemelis (2001), concrete experience is about

grasping experiences and perceiving “new information through experiencing the concrete,

tangible, felt qualities of the world, relying on our senses and immersing ourselves in concrete

reality” (p. 3). The concrete experience mode of Kolb’s experiential learning theory as it applies

to an internship includes: the hours completed by the student, common internship

tasks/responsibilities, and components of the internship that make it a diverse experience

(Stirling, Kerr, MacPherson, Banwell, Bandealy & Battaglia, 2017). Stirling et al. (2017)

describe phase (2) Reflection Observation as: the process of taking in an experience and

reflecting on it. Reflection Observation includes reflecting on personal experience as well as the

28

experience of observing others (Kolb et al., 2001). Examples of this in relation to the internship

include: training that is completed before, during and after the internship by way of final reports,

midterm journals, and discussion and ongoing feedback between the student, employer and

faculty/internship supervisor (Kolb et al., 2001). Stirling et al. (2017) continue to describe phase

(3) Abstract Conceptualization which denotes the ability to take experience and relate it to

theory or to create innovative ideas from it. There is an intersection between the internship and

the class work. This intersection as noted by, Stirling et al. (2017) was represented by three

different models:

an integrated model (i.e., internship occurs concurrently with academic courses), a distinct model (i.e., internship occurs separately from academic courses), and a mixed model (i.e., internship occurs at the same time as courses but remains independent of course work). (Stirling et al., 2017, p. 37)

Abstract Conceptualization also includes common learning outcomes such as

professional skill development and career specific skill development, and an overarching

connection to course material and idea generation, such as the development of suggestions for

future practice in the field (Stirling et al., 2017, p.37). Active Experimentation is the ability to

apply to practice what has been learned and conceptualized through theory (Kolb et al., 2001).

Examples of the Active Experimentation phase of Kolb’s theory as it relates to the internship

includes the students’ ability to: apply new thoughts through research related to the internship

environment or integrations of unique practices to emerging needs of the industry; apply

curricular learning to their internship, including the development and/or implementation of a

project (e.g., planning a special event for clients, writing a press release and designing a social

media calendar); and the ability to apply professional skills throughout the internship (Stirling et

al., 2017).

Kolb and deep learning. Deep learning research was initiated by Marton and Saljo

(1976) and further developed by Ramsden (1992), Biggs (1987, 1993), and Entwistle (1981)

29

(Borredon et al., 2011). Deep learning has been analyzed in comparison with surface learning in

a variety of perspectives, however, to broadly define it, cited in Shearer, Gregg & Joo (2015):

surface learning includes activities like memorization and superficial knowledge retention, for

example, an extrinsic reason of getting a good grade (Borredon et al., 2011). Whereas deep

learning is more intrinsically motivated, reflective, dynamic and involves engagement, the

ability to derive meaning and underlying structure (Borredon et al., 2011; Warburton, 2003).

Surface learning is associated with short-term practices, whereas deep learning enables the

ability to change (Garrison & Anderson, 2011). Cited in Borredon et al. (2011), Border (2007)

argues that Kolb’s (1984) experiential learning theory provides a more refined and applicable

definition for deep learning as it stands today.

In experiential learning theory, the concept of deep learning is introduced to highlight

learning that enables the four modes of the experiential learning cycle which include: (1)

experiencing, (2) reflecting, (3) thinking, and (4) acting (Kolb & Kolb, 2008). Therefore,

including work integrated activities into curriculum involving practical application of concepts

and personal experiences, for example internships, the stimulation of conversation, and the

reflection of such experiences allows for deeper, integrative learning and conceptual

understanding through the completion of the cycle of experiential learning (Kolb & Kolb, 2008).

Furthermore, experiential learning theory maintains the constructivist view that learners develop

and retain knowledge based on previous experience when it is integrated into the learner’s

experience (Lave & Wenger, 1991).

To find one of the best examples of Kolb’s theory in use, I reviewed co-op programs in

Ontario and chose the University of Waterloo Engineering program with a mandatory

experiential learning component by way of multiple co-op placements, as an example of a well-

established (1957), renowned and large-scale experiential learning program intended to develop

critical cognitive learning. Evidence suggests that Kolb’s theory is deeply rooted in the

30

University’s pedagogy; as seen in Table 1. Found on their website is an example of Kolb’s

model as it applies to one assignment poised to prepare students in the classroom for a

professional career.

Table 1: Example of Kolb’s Experiential Learning in Practice

Stage Example

The learner has a “concrete experience.” In a mechanical engineering course, students are asked to use 20 popsicle sticks to build a small bridge that will support 500 grams.

The learner makes observations and reflections based upon that experience.

Students note which popsicle sticks failed first, whether the sticks supported more when they were laid flat versus on their edges, and so on.

The observations and reflections are synthesized into a new conceptual understanding and interpretation of the experience.

Students develop a list of construction “principles” or best practices.

This conceptual understanding is applied and is used to guide new and purposeful experiences.

Students build another iteration of the bridge with the list of construction principles in mind.

Source: University of Waterloo. Experiential Learning. Lectures: A Venerable Tradition. (n.d.).

Lecture-based curriculum helps strengthen memory-based skills; yet, does not provide

any direct relation to personal experience. Moreover, the activity shown in the Table 1 model

fails to address lab-based activities used in physical sciences, which are also experiential in

nature. However, the activity demonstrates that in-class experiential learning serves to deepen

conceptual understanding. If that is taken one step further to in-field projects by way of an

internship, a student will achieve integrative learning (Kolb, 1984). When learning is defined

holistically as a part of the human adaptation process it allows for the learning and application of

creativity, problem solving, decision-making and leadership. All of which are attributes

employers vocalize that they seek from potential employees (Bloom & Kitagawa, 1999).

31

The literature review indicates that approaching experiential learning by way of Kolb’s

experiential learning model provides both the experience and the opportunity to reflect on the

experience; which in turn provides deep learning both from a subject matter perspective as well

as individual self.

Pestalozzi and experiential learning. Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi is often mentioned

but not often cited. Yet, Pestalozzi is the father of modern education science, inspiring the likes

of Fröbel and Herbart (Soëtard, 1994). In line with his ideas are Maria Montessori, John Dewey

and more recently Jean Piaget and his curriculum, which was modelled after Jean-Jacques

Rousseau’s plan in Émile, which focused on participatory activities (Silber, 2014).

Much of what Pestalozzi learned was a result of a failed experiment, “The Neuhof”. In

the early 1770s, Pestalozzi took impoverished children and brought them to his land in Aargau,

Switzerland, setting them up to spin and weave cotton, with the hope that what they would

produce would pay for their training. In 1780, his experiment of teaching through work forced

him to declare bankruptcy (Soëtard, 1994). From 1805 to 1825, he was the director at a boarding

school, Yverdon, that focused on vocational and civic training. The institute drew critical

acclaim, drawing students and apprentice teachers to study under Pestalozzi. Fröbel and Herbart

visited the institute, drawing material from the school to integrate into their own philosophy.

In the 1950s, Hildreth (1951) made the observation that all liberal arts colleges and the

students in those programs needed to bridge the gap between their theoretical knowledge and

their life experience through connecting course work and work integrated learning experiences.

Before Dewey, Pestalozzi experimented with “learning from things”. Hildreth (1951) states:

His idea was that the teacher should do as little as possible to dominate the pupils thinking; the teacher should guide, supervise and direct the pupil’s experiencing. The student must learn how to observe and how to draw conclusions from his observations. (p.182)

32

Furthermore, Pestalozzi’s elementary teaching method for head, heart and hand

highlighted that education should develop the strengths of students, by giving them the

opportunity to combine intellectual with authentic natural sensuality. Through observations,

practical applications of their skills would become clearer (Füssl, 2006). This sort of elementary

experiential learning would provide a basis for later theory.

Human capital and experiential learning. In 1776, Adam Smith (1776/1976) defined

human capital as the “acquired and useful abilities of all the inhabitants or members of the

society” (p. 368), which act as a part of the individual’s fortune and that of the society he

belongs to. Later, in the 20th century, the neoclassical analysis of the connection between

human capital and material well-being gave rise to the idea that increased education would

increase the human capital of workers and, in turn, their productive capacity, and lead to

economic growth. Becker’s (1964) formative work Human Capital became the building ground

for modern human capital theory, focusing exclusively on general-purpose and firm-specific

human capital, with human capital as a means of production. In 2004, building on Becker’s job

specific human capital, Gibbons and Waldman (2004) introduced a third type of human capital,

which they called task-specific. “By task-specific human capital (they) mean that some of the

human capital an individual acquires on the job is specific to the tasks being performed, as

opposed to being specific to the firm” (Gibbons & Waldman, 2004, p. 203). This is in line with

Page (1990), Pestalozzi’s and Dewey’s belief in learning by doing.

Simkovic (2013) identified the mismatch between the supply of labour-specific human

capital and the needs of employers. Mincer’s (1975) model took estimates of the rate of return to

schooling and used those as a basis to directly measure a country’s stock of human capital.

Manuelli and Seshadri (2014) attempted to build on the pioneering work of Becker (1964) and

Ben-Porath (1967), by modelling human capital acquisition as part of a standard income

maximization problem. Boden and Nedeva (2010) indicate that when employability was the

33

ability to get a job, it was the institutions responsibility to produce employable graduates

however, now that employability depends on personal attributes, it is the government’s

responsibility to use authority to provide a framework for the training.

The proper match between skills, students, and their learning abilities leads to greater

employment rates if prepared properly for the labour market. Because of this, the ability to

graduate employment ready students is integral to the labour market and governments maintain

that it is the responsibility of universities and colleges to produce employable students (Knight

& Yorke, 2002). Whereas on the private side, the major reason people enroll in post-secondary

institutions is to acquire the employment and employability experience and skills necessary to

attain a job. Therefore, institutions must provide opportunities for students to become equipped

with those skills, forcing educational institutions to review their curriculum and whether it meets

the needs of employers to create job ready students (Wittekind, Raeder & Gorte, 2010). In

public relations, students need to be able to apply theory to practical circumstances.

Types of post-secondary experiential learning. There are many variations of

experiential learning, which includes work integrated learning; MTCU (2017) indicated the

following as work integrated learning: (1) coop, (2), internship, (3) campus incubators, (4)

apprenticeship, (5) practicum, (6) clinical placements, (7) Service Learning, (8) applied research

projects and (9) field experience. The goal of all the above is to help students get real world

experience that will help them transition into employment and to help employers by graduating

students that are able to hit the ground running.

Pedagogic benefits of experiential learning as it relates to internships. Experiential

learning benefits all the stakeholders in the education eco-system including students, industry,

institutions, policy makers and researchers, as a model to prepare students for specific careers.

Internships are viewed as an effective way to prepare university and college students with

classroom learning, basic job knowledge and experience in an effort to increase their

34

employability (Coco, 2000; Hynes & Richardson, 2007; Coco, 2000). Research shows that not

only are internship programs beneficial to students who seek these opportunities, but also to

organizations that employ the students and to the institutions that facilitate the success of the

programs (Knemeyer & Murphy, 2002). Velez and Giner (2015) note that as a valuable

component of higher education programs in North America, internships are believed to be a

benefit, to all groups for different reasons and to varying degrees. In narrowing the scope of this

discourse, this section will focus solely on the benefits of using this pedagogy in teaching

students, which based on the research, directly benefits employers.

Curricular experiential learning. The HECQO document “A Practical Guide for Work

Integrated Learning” (2016) identifies non-curricular internships as work experience that is not

necessarily connected to the practice of a student’s future profession. Instead, non-curricular

internships are a general professional and personal development opportunity (Kerr, Banwell,

MacPherson & Heron, 2016). The same guide identified curricular experiential learning as the

opportunity to combine theory and practice in a real-world atmosphere which further strengthens

and deepens the student’s knowledge and understanding for the curricular/classroom material

(Cooper, Orrell & Bowden, 2010). Moore (2010) explains:

the shortcomings of experiential education are exposed when the purpose of the work- integrated learning is not pedagogically grounded and instead viewed solely as an opportunity for career exploration or networking, rather than primarily as a learning experience. Administered in this way, Thornton Moore (2010) argues that the value of the experiential activity is minimal: ‘The student could have learned the same things just by virtue of having a part-time job or volunteer service activity. Experiential pedagogy, done right, is extremely rewarding – but also extremely demanding’. (p. 10)

Based on the guide and Moore’s argument it is clear that both non-curricular and curricular

work integrated learning provide benefits; however, a curricular internship, even though a bit

more difficult to source, can be extremely rewarding if done correctly.

35

The impact of experiential learning for students. Helyer and Lee (2014) quote

Birchall: “Students who just focus on their degree studies without spending time in the

workplace are unlikely to develop the skills and interests that graduate employers are looking

for” (p. 353). Similar to Kolb’s cycle of experiential learning, Cooper et al. (2010) suggest that a

student must be an active learner in the experiential learning setting with the ability to interpret,

translate and reflect on the experience in order to acknowledge what they have learned and build

upon it. Similarly, Wilson (2012) states:

It is not just the possession of knowledge or skills that define a graduate and the contribution she (or he) makes to the workplace, it is the capacity to articulate them, to think about how they relate to other forms of knowledge and skills, and to reflect upon the different domains in which they may be applied. Being reflective requires a thinking process that understands strengths and weaknesses and seeks means for their enhancement. (p. 39)

Data from the article “Internships: A Try Before You Buy Arrangement”, showed that in

2000, the number of students taking part in an internship was up with three out of four students

participating in an internship compared to 1 out of 36 students in the 1980’s (Coco, 2000). These

data highlight that experiential learning has grown in popularity and is seen as a vital component

to education in the 21st century as a bridge to corporate training through the use of case studies,

role playing and even sensitivity training to name a few (Deardorff, Wit, & Heyl, 2012). In my

professional experience, firms give interns training before their internship starts; therefore, the

rise of experiential learning can be attributed to the education given by firms when

interns/graduates arrive.

In the case study, “Experiential Learning: The Internship and Live-Case Study

Relationship”, passive learning is described by the Association to Advance Collegiate Schools

of Business as ineffective and of short duration, whereas students prefer the deeper experiential

learning activity of an internship because it is perceived by students to provide a positive

36

experience (Green & Farazman, 2012). This type of learning allows students to gain personal

benefits and improve employability (Gupta, Burns & Schiferl, 2010).

As discussed by Alpert, Heaney and Kuhn (2009) internships bridge the gap between

theory and practice and between classroom education and real industry life (Meredith & Burkle,

2008). Further, Helyer and Lee (2014) note:

Work experience allows students and graduates to reflect on and put into practice what they have learned from formal study and furthermore to develop transferable, employability skills, within a real workplace; placing students and graduates with appropriate businesses as interns is one way of facilitating this crucial experience and consequently experiential learning. (p. 353)

An internship program further allows students to be able to make connections between

classroom knowledge and knowledge gained by experience while on the internship. In

Internships and The Sociological Perspective: Applying Principles of Experiential Learning, an

internship experience must continually be brought back to the classroom (Parilla & Hesser,

1998). The question remaining is how often does this happen? For example, are some

experiences too diverse to be brought back into the classroom and integrated into programs for

analysis and discussion? And should knowledge from the classroom be brought to the field work

situation for application? It must reinforce the learning outcomes identified as part of the

program as a whole (Parilla & Hesser, 1998).

In addition to the hard skills exemplified by students through the outcomes of

experiential learning and internships, self-efficacy, which is defined as the conviction for an

individual to successfully execute the behaviour required to produce the outcomes, is an

important component in the current job market (Bandura, 1977). Culture and fit within an

organization are commonly contrived as one reason to hire or fire a person. Experiential learning

helps heighten self-awareness, in turn leading to personal self-efficacy including; mastery

experiences, modeling, social persuasion and physiological states which are necessary for a

career in today’s world (Subramaniam & Freudberg, 2007). In addition to self-efficacy is the

37

notion of personal development, the report entitled, “Work-Integrated Learning in Ontario’s

Postsecondary Sector: The Experience of Ontario Graduates”, highlights personal development

as confidence, motivation, improved interpersonal, and organizational skills as necessary

characteristics for success in the job market (Sattler & Peters, 2013).

The impact of experiential learning on employers. From my experience as an

employer with over 10 years of experience (David Hunt, 1987) working with student interns,

employers close the loop by playing the lynchpin role in connecting students with the

opportunity to apply knowledge learned in the classroom in a real-world work setting. The

importance of an internship for the employer includes the value a student brings to the company,

the low cost of recruitment, and the relationship between the company, community and the

institution. By being intrinsically engrained in the inner workings of an educational institution a

company can position itself as a leader. In this way, they can have a strong presence on campus,

assist in curriculum review and participate in advisory committees to create the exact student

intern they are seeking. The ability to provide learning opportunities for the future workforce is

valuable to an organization in optimizing a company’s reputation with its employees, the

community, and universities and colleges (Beard, 2007).

Nevertheless, there is risk for the employer in training and supervising student interns.

Student internship programs require guidance and support from their host employer in order to

exercise their role in the cycle of experiential learning (Kolb, 2004). Companies are able to hire

at a lower cost, interns, with current theoretical classroom knowledge of the industry and can

test them in a work situation to determine whether they would qualify as future employees

(D’Gravel, 2011). This allows companies to use internship programs as an inexpensive

mechanism to bring in student interns who will promote enthusiasm in the workplace, add

human capital to departments, teams and short-term projects; and enable collaboration with

interns in an effort to expose new and fresh ideas (Gerken, Rienties, Giesbers & Könings, 2010).

38

Internships are important to organizations for support on daily activities and/or projects.

When they have student interns, they can benefit from this temporary workforce by re-assigning

work that would typically be assigned to a full time or part-time employee or contract worker.

For example, Google hired 3000 summer interns in 2014, and Deloitte, Ernst and Young,

KPMG and Price Waterhouse Cooper hired 30,000 interns combined internationally (Herring,

2014). Students are typically young with boundless energy and enthusiasm, are highly motivated

by the need to pass their internship, understand the importance of experiential training, and are

cognizant of the potential for a full-time job (Coco, 2000). This combined with a students’

advanced knowledge in technical applications and in their specific field, is motivation for

companies to hire interns because the result is that they help improve the functioning and

performance of their organization (D’Gravel, 2011). With opportunity to select high-quality

students upon graduation, internship programs will continue to gain momentum and thus will

continue to help students and employers alike (Gault et al., 2000). In the past, internships would

have led to more concrete benefits for firms; however, in the Article “The Evolution of Interns”,

professor Wender Cohen observes that today’s internships are much less structured leading to

more variance in experience and skill (Spradlin, 2009).

Employability

Employment and employability are not the same. Being employed means having a job,

being employable means having the skills and knowledge necessary to maintain employment

and progress in the workplace. Historically, medieval universities in Europe graduated students

from three faculties: theology, law and medicine. Traditionally, these universities educated

elites, including professionals, all of which graduated with direct skills useful to governments

and society (Boden & Nedeva, 2010). Systems in higher education have grown over time to

allow for universal access. Based on this, post-secondary institutions must now train students for

a workforce that fits employers’ needs. Before, an institution’s role was to graduate citizens of

39

knowledge but that has now been rebranded as employability (Boden & Nedeva, 2010).

Discussion on employability began at the beginning of the 20th century and explored the topic

of the economic impact of education and the relationship of education to labour markets (Boden

& Nedeva, 2010). Over time, the definition of employability has evolved. McQuaid and Lindsay

(2014) indicate that there are seven versions of employability: (1) Dichotomic employability

(beginning of 21st century), (2) Socio-medical employability (1950), (3) Manpower policy

employability (US, 1960), (4) Flow employability (France, 1960), (5) Labour market

performance employability (Global, 1970), (6) Initiative employability (North America and

Europe, 1980), and (7) Interactive employability (Global, 1990). Although it remains a

subjective term, which is why only general definitions of the term exist, a summary of

employability, as noted by Harvey (2003) and Knight and Yorke (2002) indicates that

employability goes beyond developing characteristics, techniques or experience in an effort for

students to retain a job. It is developing critical, reflective abilities as seen in Kolb's (1984) cycle

of experiential learning, with a view to motivate the learner to achieve deep learning versus

surface learning through knowledge, application, persistence and metacognition (Boden &

Nedeva, 2010; Shearer et al., 2015).

Employability skills. In 2003, a federal advisory committee determined that Canada was

experiencing a shortage of skills, therefore all levels of education needed to be reshaped to meet

the needs of the current economy (Lin, Sweet & Anisef, 2003). As evidence, a 20-year

longitudinal case study reports that there is a disconnect between what is learned in an intern’s

internship experience and what is being taught in their classroom settings (Cook, Stokes &

Parker, 2015). Despite the findings, educators argue for a broad-based liberal education rather

than one that caters specifically to corporate interests (Lin et al., 2003). In Ontario, the Ministry

of Training Colleges and Universities (MTCU) (2009) mandates the skills in all college

diploma, advanced diploma and post-graduate certificate programs based on the Essential

40

Employability Skills (EES) and with the introduction of the CAAT baccalaureate programs, the

Postsecondary Education Quality and Assessment Board (PEQAB) mandates the skills students

must have upon graduation based on the Ontario Qualification Framework (OQF). One example

of the categories of generic skills outlined to promote transferable skills in the workplace

includes the Honours Bachelor degree specifications: (1) Depth and Breadth of Knowledge, (2)

Conceptual and Methodological Awareness/ Research and Scholarship, (3) Communication

Skills, (4) Application of Knowledge, (5) Professional Capacity/Autonomy, and (6) Awareness

of Limits of Knowledge (MTCU, 2009). The Conference Board of Canada (2000) document

Employability Skills 2000+ indicates categories in which a graduate must hold the attributes and

skills to enter, maintain and excel in the current and future economy: (1) communicate, (2)

manage information, (3) use numbers, (4) think and solve problems, (5) demonstrate positive

attitudes and behaviours, (6) be responsible, (7) be adaptable, (8) learn continuously, (9) work

safely, (10) work with others, and (11) participate in projects and tasks.

Both industry specific and generic skills are needed for the current and future economy

however, Ontario employers report a deficit in skills beyond the credentials; the essential skills

that provide the foundation of learning (Stuckey & Munro, 2013). Stuckey and Munro state that

at the time of the survey:

(Seventy) per cent of employers said that there are gaps in critical thinking and problem-solving skills. Nearly half also said that they are seeing insufficient oral communication (46 per cent) and literacy skills (42 per cent) in the workforce. Even the least selected area - numeracy skills - reveals that more than one in five (22 per cent) employers are seeing deficits. The data identify that there is a need for improvement with regards to essential skills. (Stuckey & Munro, 2013, 26)

One strategy being deployed to help resolve the issue is experiential learning opportunities

through internships.

41

Internships

Despite a broad base of research related to student internships, no standard definition of

the word “internship” currently exists (Stirling et al., 2014). In my review of the literature I

found that the words intern, co-op and work integrated learning are often used

interchangeably. For the purpose of this study the term internship will include individuals in an

internship, co-op or internship based work integrated learning placement and will be defined by

four criteria as stated by DiLorenzo-Aiss and Mathiesen (1996); it (1) must be for a specified

number of work hours, (2) will include both paid or unpaid work (less than minimum wage but

some form of remuneration), (3) will result in a credit being awarded, and (4) provides oversight

by an institution representative and corporate counterpart. Furthermore, internships are defined

as educational activities that integrate learning and practical application within an academic

institution and in a workplace setting. The structured nature of the integration is distinct from

other experiential learning activities that provide students with experience to the workplace,

such as field trips, job shadowing, career mentoring and work-study. It has been noted to

significantly improving students’ employment prospects, as well provide additional benefits for

students and employers (Sattler & Peters, 2013). CEWIL Canada demonstrates the minimum

criteria an institution must adhere to, to become accredited and the rules and regulations indicate

what constitutes acceptable work integrated learning (CEWIL Canada, 2018). Whereas the

PEQAB Handbook for Ontario Colleges indicates that any work integrated learning experience

must (1) be appropriate to the field of study, (2) have articulated learning outcomes, (3) be

supervised by both a college representative with appropriate academic credentials (4) amount to

no less than 14 weeks of full-time equivalent work (420 hours), and (5) where applicable the

curriculum reflects the appropriate levels of Ontario content (PEQAB, 2017).

Internships provide opportunities for students to transfer theoretical knowledge learned

in the classroom to a practical setting with guidance and support. As discovered by Edelman,

42

Manolova & Brush (2008), through analyzing textbooks used in business entrepreneurship

programs, it was noted that there was a significant gap connecting entrepreneurship education

and what was necessary for individuals to start a new business. This example points to the need

to integrate theory and practice by way of academic internships and allow students to apply

theoretical knowledge to a work-related context, something that is missing in the textbooks,

teaching and classroom learning (Gerken et al., 2012). It also speaks to the need for higher

education institutions to stay connected with industry in order for curriculum to be tangible and

relevant. All of which are necessary to ensure students find jobs after graduation. Internship

programs have been credited for assisting students in finding positions post-graduation, and

more specifically, helping them find better paid jobs, in less time.

From a macro perspective, internships can be viewed as a way to practice what is learned

in the classroom, however, at the micro level it boils down to so much more. The American

Sociological Association (1991) describes internships as an opportunity for students to achieve

one of the primary goals of sociological theory: to promote a student’s ability to apply

sociological perspective in order to understand their own lives (Parilla & Hesser, 1998). The

ability to understand this puts students closer to achieving self-conceptualization and career

clarification. This is important because not only does an internship allow a student to bridge the

classroom with the workplace, but it also provides the right environment to allow students to

understand society and the behaviour of people in different environments; thus, allowing them to

further develop themselves based on this experience. Participating in schedules and supervised

work is integral for an academic program because it develops not only work skills but also the

transferrable and soft skills necessary for understanding the work environment (Gault & Duey,

2010). In 1976, the Conference on Undergraduate Internships noted that internships are vital to a

student’s education in order to facilitate intellectual development, vocational development,

personal growth and community service. Internships encourage students who passively consume

43

information to become active consumers of information; it encourages them to be aware, be and

or become responsible citizens, focus on his or her development and be an agent of change in an

effort to assume meaningful roles, responding to real issues for both themselves and the people

they serve (Munter, 2002). Using Kuhn’s (2008) theory of high impact practice, which is an

experience that is particularly beneficial for students, internships being one of them, O’Neill

(2010) states that internships:

provide opportunities for students to reflect on the people they are becoming. High-impact practices deepen learning and bring one's values and beliefs into awareness; [they] help students develop the ability to take the measure of events and actions and put them in perspective. As a result, students better understand themselves in relation to others and the larger world and they acquire the intellectual tools and ethical grounding to act with confidence for the betterment of the human condition. (para. 15)

The evidence points to the impact of the internship experience in the development, well-

being and future career potential and aspirations of a student. An internship makes a difference

in preparing students for the realities of the workplace and provides them with the strategies

needed to exist in a corporate environment.

History of Honours Baccalaureate Programs in Ontario

In 2000, in response to Ontario’s Post-Secondary Education Choice and Excellence Act,

Colleges of Applied Arts and Technology (CAAT) were given the ability to grant baccalaureate

degrees through the Ministry of Advanced Education and Skills Training or by an act of the

legislative assembly of Ontario. In 2011, the Humber College ITAL, Bachelor of Public

Relations program was launched with this Bachelor level degree program created to help

prepare students for employment. Unfortunately, the link to the labour market has been weaker

in these types of programs compared to traditional undergraduate degrees (Hall & Soskice,

2001).

The ability for CAAT’s to grant degrees is still relatively new (The Ontario Colleges of

Applied Arts and Technology Act, 2002 for the first time stated that the colleges “may” conduct

44

applied research) and the Humber College ITAL, program is still in its early stages with only

five years of graduates. Research has yet to support the connection between the program and its

ability to develop employability skills and graduate employment ready students.

In 2014, and mandatory as of September 2014, the Ministry of Training Colleges and

Universities (MTCU) launched a new protocol, Guidelines for Workplace Insurance for

Postsecondary Students of Publicly Assisted Institutions on Unpaid Work placement. The intent

of these Guidelines was to outline important conditions for students participating in a workplace

internship as a post-secondary education requirement. This protocol, in response to employment

rights activism, protection of students and overall safety, articulates important internship

requirements. It documents the responsibilities of the institution, student and employer, and

includes clearly defined timelines and stipulations.

It was not until the 1970s that experiential learning became recognized as a field of

education, and in 1973, the Canadian Association for Co-operative Education (CAFCE) - now

Co-operative Education and Work-Integrated Learning Canada (CEWIL Canada) - as well as the

Association for Experiential Learning (1977) was established (Hammerman et al, 2001). In

1979, CEWIL Canada first established criteria and a process for the accreditation of co-

operative education programs. Accreditation standards were developed to establish co-op as an

educational strategy and to deliver guidance in ensuring high-quality co-op programming in

Canada (CEWIL Canada, 2018).

Although experiential learning has been a preference across generations, millennials are

distinctly recognized as preferring experiential learning experiences to other experiences, as it

allows them to create content and be an active participant in the learning (Becker, 2009; Stratton

& Julien, 2014). Millennials can reach their learning goals not only through digesting and

memorizing information but also through experiencing (Gerjets & Hesse, 2004). This notion is

further supported by Wilson’s perspective that students need more than just lectures, they need

45

to be involved in the learning process to make learning relevant to their lives (2012). Given the

case when education and what is needed for the job do not intersect, in 2005, Kolb urged

educators to link what occurs in the classroom at both undergraduate and graduate levels with

the professional world students will soon encounter. This is especially pertinent for young

students and their learning habits (Conklin, 2013).

With an increasing number of schools and programs implementing internship

programs, potential students have more options for taking part in an academic internship for

school credit. Adès (2012) suggests that students should attempt to identify shortages and gaps

in the labour market and choose programs that have a direct pathway into a career. In Van Ours’

(2015) opinion, this is a quick solution to curb high youth unemployment rates, because it

allows for a smooth transition into the workplace. Notwithstanding, while this appears to be a

good solution in difficult times, an internship provides no guarantee as young people may

continually be in a position where there are no jobs or where they are the first to be fired

(Bernard & Branch 2013). Moreover,

if there were greater communication and co-ordination between employers and colleges and universities and more skills-specific training programs incorporating co-op and internship opportunities, young Canadians would be in a better position to gain the skills needed to find a job. (Adès, 2012, para. 5)

With 76% of employers making use of some form of experiential learning (internship,

co-op and simulations), potential employers value the benefit of work experience in a graduates’

skill set and prioritize them in the selection process (Stuckey & Munro, 2013). Therefore,

institutions and programs must enable graduates to strategically position themselves during the

experiential learning component of their education if they want to be considered for a job

(Helyer & Lee, 2014).

46

Big Data and Public Relations

With the demands of a technology-driven knowledge economy there is an even further

need to bridge the world of skills development, training and education (Province of Ontario,

2016). Canada’s economy has been experiencing change specifically in the technology sector

(Oschinski & Wyonch, 2017). According to Borenstein (2011), the use of robotics in the

workplace is likely to continue in the near future, with new job opportunities emerging while

others closing off. The characteristics of the workforce will change over time in regard to age,

education, and income. Currently, there is a shift in student encouragement of science,

technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) through implementations of programs from a

young age (Karp & Maloney 2013). As unemployment remains an issue (Stewart & Fields,

2014), the emergence of the technology industry further highlights the skill gaps and skill

shortages amongst graduates.

The article “The Use of Big Data in Corporate Communications” highlights the

increasing quantity of data that is available, and the challenges faced by corporations today;

specifically, with regards to marketing communications, public relations and internal

communications (Wiencierz & Röttger, 2017). Big data is defined as high volume, high

velocity, high variety and high veracity assets, generated through a computer that makes the data

usable for organizations and individuals (Wiencierz & Röttger, 2017). Big data will reshape

business. Epser, Ellinger, Stank, Flint & Moon (2010) imply that business strategies and tactics

can be improved by big data management. Uldam (2016) and Colleoni (2013) indicate that the

use of big data can help improve corporate social responsibilities initiatives. Triantafillidou and

Yannas (2014) suggest that big data can be used by conducting research on sectors of the public.

This in turn will provide a clearer manner in which firms can control their corporate message

and evaluate their strategies.

47

Big data is also gaining speed in the areas of crisis communications, investor relations,

and media relations. Kent and Staffer (2014) point to the high probability that if PR fails to

adopt new technologies associated with big data, PR professionals and the industry as a whole

will start to fall behind. Research indicates that big data will lead to a paradigm shift in the

communications field. Statistical analyses and the ability to perform mathematical problems are

becoming so prevalent that corporate communications are beginning to run in parallel to IT

(Wiencierz & Röttger, 2017). The communications industry, which includes public relations,

will require skilled professionals that are able to absorb, analyze and explain incoming data

(Wiencierz & Röttger, 2017).

Summary of Chapter Two

This chapter presented the literature I reviewed, which is important to understanding the

variables involved in the eco-system of experiential learning. I provided an overview of the

stakeholders involved and their involvement within the system. I included both empirical

studies, grey and popular literature to identify the recurring themes within the discourse on

experiential learning.

In chapter three, I explain my research design and methodology, my collection of data

and analysis of the data, and underlying assumptions and methodological limitations of my

study. In chapter four, I present my findings, data analysis and interpretation relevant to the

literature and grounding theoretical framework. In chapter five, I describe conclusions related to

the focus of this study and implications for policy/practice, further research and experiential

learning theory.

48

Chapter Three: Research Design and Methodology

Identifying employability skills will enable students, employers and institutions to

strategize and prepare for the future. This is a case study that explored and describes the value of

the internship component on the development of employability skills by graduates of the

Honours Bachelor of Public Relations program at Humber College ITAL. The program’s

experiential learning component of the internship provides hands on experience for each student

and at the time of the study includes both employer and faculty supervision.

The goal of the study was to explore and describe the perceived benefits and challenges

of experiential learning for the students and provide recommendations for curriculum review of

workplace learning and the internship course such that students are internship ready based on

employer demands. In the Humber Bachelor of Public Relations program, the cycle of

experiential learning as defined by Kolb is used to produce well-developed students, to meet the

Ontario Qualifications Framework (OQF) mandate and employers’ needs upon graduation. In

this chapter I describe the research design, study site and participant selection, data collection

and analysis, limitations and ethical concerns as well as the specific research questions (see

Table 1) that drove this case study.

Research Design

This was a pragmatic, qualitative exploratory/descriptive case study. According to

Creswell, the pragmatic world view originates from the work of Peirce, James, Mead and

Dewey and is based on actions, situations and consequences, with a focus on the problem and

the ability to use all approaches available to understand the problem (2014). Pragmatism seeks

to find real solutions to real problems. Pragmatism is not committed to one form of research; it

is up to the researcher to decide what method is best for their research at the time and, it

provides a complete perspective of the problem as a whole (Creswell, 2014). A descriptive

49

exploratory qualitative methodology is appropriate since I did not find any research reports in

the literature that focused on this particular topic. Creswell (2014) defines a case study as a

qualitative design whereby the researcher takes an in-depth look at an event, activity, process or

one or more individuals. The research is bounded and based on time and activity within the case.

Creswell (2014) states, that the researcher uses a variety of tools to collect the data. This study

explored and compared the thoughts and perceptions of students, employers and faculty through

in-depth semi-structured interview discussions.

This is a case study because it is bounded by a single cohort of students and their

teachers in a single program at a single institution, and their respective internship workplace

employers. This approach allowed me to develop an in-depth analysis of the program, as it

relates to experiential learning and employability skills of its students (Creswell, 2014). The

research was undertaken concurrently, in that I conducted all the elements of the study at the

same time and then merged the data to provide a comprehensive analysis of the research

problem and overall findings. Any contradictions to the finding and or inconsistencies in the

data are highlighted in the analysis and interpretation of the findings (Creswell, 2014).

Research Questions

The overall research question for this study is: “How does an internship experience

integrated into the curriculum add value to Bachelor of Public Relations students’ employability

skills, as identified in the Conference Board of Canada – Employability Skills 2000+, Ministry

and PEQAB Program Standards, and as perceived by study participants?” Using Kolb’s

experiential learning theory (1984) as the theoretical framework, the following five research

questions drove this study:

50

Research Question 1: What are the curriculum requirements for the internship

experience and the expectations of students in the participating Humber ITAL Bachelor of

Public Relations program?

Research Question 2: What are the perceptions of participating Humber ITAL Bachelor

of Public Relations students, internship employers, and faculty members about the overall value

of work integrated learning on the development of the students’ employability skills, through an

internship experience? How do their perceptions compare?

Research Question #3: What do the participants perceive to be the benefits of

internship-based work-integrated learning as experienced in the internship component of their

program?

Research Question 4: What do they perceive to be the issues/challenges that need to be

considered in facilitating the development of employability skills of students in the internship

experiences?

Research Question 5: As identified by participants, what, if any sector specific skills,

should be added to the program curriculum and/or internship experience to achieve job ready

skills upon graduation from the Honours Bachelor of Public Relations program?

Site Selection

I considered five institutions across Ontario for the research in to this topic because they

all offer a four-year bachelor’s degree in Public Relations, and as such all meet the minimum

PEQAB standard for internships and all address the three areas of the Conference Board of

Canada (1) fundamental skills, (2) Personal Management) and (3) Teamwork Skills.

• Conestoga College's Honours Bachelor of Public Relations degree (PEQAB)

51

o Requires students to complete three co-op work terms.

• Centennial College's Honours Bachelor of Public Relations Management degree (PEQAB)

o Requires students to complete a single 14-week placement after their third year of

studies including a thesis project in semester eight.

• The University of Guelph-Humber offers a Media Studies degree where students have the

option of specializing in one of five areas of emphasis including Public Relations. (OQAC)

o Requires students to complete a minimum 200-hour internship at a media

organization, as well as a project called EMERGE, a media conference and

online/print magazine.

• The University of Ottawa offers an Honours Bachelor in Public Relations jointly with

Algonquin College (in English) and with La Cité (in French) (OQAC)

o Students are not required to complete a work placement to graduate.

• Humber College ITAL Honours Bachelor of Public Relations degree (PEQAB)

o Requires students to complete a 420 hour or 14-week internship as well as a thesis

in semester seven and eight.

I chose Humber College for the case study site because, out of the five similar programs

in Ontario CAAT’s, the Humber College Bachelor of Public Relations program is currently the

only undergraduate program among the public relations programs in Ontario to offer the

internship component in the third year of study followed by a thesis component in the final year.

The thesis component in year four is a clear differentiator between Humber’s program and the

other programs. This format facilitates the opportunity for students to make the connection

between the classroom and their experience in the internship, as well as connections between the

experience and the classroom by providing an opportunity to reflect on their internship through

52

class work supervised by a teacher. Students subsequently apply issues or topics from their

internship experience in their thesis project that is the focus of year four, which is an academic

research paper that allows students to pursue an area of interest and develop expertise in a

specific facet of public relations practice. Consistent with Kolb’s experiential learning theory,

with the internship experience completed, students are better able to understand the topics and

issues discussed in their research paper.

The thesis component has no impact on this study because it follows after completion

of the internship (which is the focus of this study). However, students know about the thesis

requirement and prepare for it during their internship. As well, the thesis component provides

context for future research, potentially with the same group.

Humber College ITAL Honours Bachelor of Public Relations Program

Based on the Humber College ITAL, 2015-2016 self-study of the program, the Honours

Bachelor of Public Relations has been offered by Humber College since the fall semester of

2011. This degree program was developed and launched in response to the Ontario Post-

Secondary Education Choice and Excellence Act, 2000, which permits the granting of degrees

either with the consent of the Minister of Training, Colleges and Universities or by an act of the

Legislative Assembly of Ontario. The passage of this act marked the first time Ontario’s

community colleges were permitted, under ministerial consent, to offer degree-level programs.

Consents are granted for a defined period of time, generally five to seven years, and must be

renewed.

The four-year Honours Bachelor of Public Relations program at Humber’s Lakeshore

campus is an all-inclusive degree program that prepares graduates to manage public relations in

all sectors: corporate, nonprofit, government and agency. Students learn to plan, manage and

implement a broad range of public relations programs including brand management and

53

marketing communications, media relations, public affairs, international PR, government

relations, social and digital media, fundraising and corporate philanthropy programs.

This program includes skills-based courses in writing, social and digital media,

presentations, project management, planning, consulting, researching, measurement, proposal

development and more. The program also includes a 14-week work term in a public relations

department or agency. The program also prepares students for the full breadth of roles in

agency, corporate, consumer, government and nonprofit sectors including roles in social and

digital media management and strategy, internal and external communications, corporate

communications, media relations, investor and government relations, international PR and

consulting.

The program is distinctly unique as it embraces the art of story-telling, creating a

compelling narrative for a product, service or organization in a multi-platform, digital

environment that prepares graduates for the contemporary public relations field and or further

education including a master’s level.

Participant Selection

The Humber College ITAL, Honours Bachelor of Public Relations program, is the first

of its kind in Ontario and to my knowledge, no formal in-depth research has previously been

conducted involving employers who support the program’s internship component. For this

reason, it was important to document the perceptions of the internship employers, faculty and

students.

Although I considered including alumni in the research, I chose not to because I wanted

my subject to be consistent, before and after the internship. Because this was a case study of this

specific program, it was appropriate to select a purposeful sample of convenience of the three

groups of stakeholders involved in this one cohort. With the hope of achieving saturation of the

54

information gleaned, I invited all members of each group of participants involved in the

program’s 2017 internship cohort, which was the third cohort in this program (Appendices B, Bi

& Bii with attachments C, D & E).

While students and internship employers are clearly direct stakeholders in the internship

experience, faculty are as well but somewhat more indirectly, because it is the curriculum they

develop and teach that grounds the students for the internship experience. PEQAB Standard 12

for college baccalaureate programs states clearly:

Any work-integrated learning experience a) is appropriate to the field of the program b) has articulated, appropriate learning outcomes c) is supervised by both a college representative with appropriate academic credentials and an employer/staff member who collaborate to evaluate the student performance d) amounts to no less than 14 weeks of full-time equivalent work (420 hours), either in one block, or in multiple cumulative blocks appropriate to achieving the learning outcomes. (PEQAB, 2017, p. 22)

Recruitment of Students. As there was no reasonable potential for a perceived undue

influence of power differential between the students and me, I sent the recruitment and

information-consent letters (Appendices B & Bi with attachments C & E) to the students by

email. I invited all 33 students from the third cohort of the Bachelor or Public Relations program

to participate in the semi-structured interviews for my study (Appendix B). At the time of the

study, the students were in their fourth year. I was not their professor, nor would I be their

professor at any point going forward, and marks had already been submitted for the internship

component. The students were given a token compensation in the form of a $10 Starbucks gift

certificate per individual once the interviews had begun. Participants who withdrew from the

study were given the compensation as well.

Recruitment of faculty. I also invited all four of the full-time faculty members who

teach in the program to participate in the semi-structured interviews of my study. Again, as there

was no reasonable potential for a perceived undue influence of power differential between the

55

faculty and me, I emailed the recruitment and information-consent letters (Appendix C) directly

to the four potential participants in this group.

I did not include part-time faculty because of the transient nature of these employments

which can vary in sessional, partial load and part-time contracts, and change year to year.

Furthermore, part-time faculty are generally not involved with students in the internship

experience in any meaningful way or for a significant time. Full-time faculty are all connected in

some way to the internship component of the curriculum although it is not their direct

responsibility; they are only expected to help.

Recruitment of internship employers. All 33 internship employers who hired a student

from the 2017 internship cohort were invited to participate in semi-structured telephone

interviews for my study (Appendix D). Because of the potential for perceived undue influence

given my relationship with the employer participant group, I hired a neutral third-party,

Research Assistant (RA) to recruit these participants (Appendix D) and conduct the interviews

with them, on my behalf. After signing a Confidentiality Agreement (Appendix L), the RA sent

out my Recruitment communications (Appendix D) and negotiated the time and location of

interviews with those who consented to participate in this study. The employers who agreed to

participate were not the employers of the students who also participated in the study; however,

they were employers of students from the same cohort. Furthermore, some had also been past

sponsors but the RA was instructed to encourage the participants to comment on the current

cohort and internship experience, rather than their past experiences, to enable the comparisons

between the perceptions of all three groups of participants involved in the same internship, in an

effort to enhance the credibility of the findings through triangulation of data.

56

Data Collection

My goal was to collect rich, informative, qualitative data through the semi-structured

interviews with all the participants (Fusch & Ness, 2015). The collection of data consisted of

four phases: (Phase 1) document analysis, (Phase 2) student interviews, (Phase 3) employer

interviews and (Phase 4) faculty interviews. The interviews with students, employers and faculty

were one-on-one semi-structured audio-recorded telephone interviews. The anticipated May

2018 graduation date for the 2017 internship impacted the timing of data collection and

scheduling of interviews. As well, it necessitated that interview data be collected concurrently

(rather than sequentially), as the participants become available. The time limitations refer to the

fact that the students took part in the internship from May to August of 2017. For the interviews

to be as comprehensive as possible, I thought it is best to conduct the interviews as close to the

end of the internship as possible so that the feelings, experiences and memories were fresh in the

minds of the students, employers and faculty.

Phase One: Document Analysis. In this phase I manually reviewed and analyzed

relevant publicly accessible documents including: (1) Ontario Qualifications Framework (OQF),

(2) Conference Board of Canada documents including Employability Skills 2000+ report and

Understanding Employability Skill, and The Cost of Ontario’s Skills Gap, (3) PEQAB program

standard and (4) Humber College ITAL, Honours Bachelor of Public Relations course outlines.

From course outlines and curriculum materials, I manually identified the skills students

were expected to achieve and to identify how the experiential learning was integrated into the

curriculum. I identified the learning outcomes as prescribed by the program and approved by

PEQAB, which I then compared to the learning outcomes or skills needed to be successful in the

industry as discussed with employers. As well, the document analysis compared the skills

57

identified in the Employability Skills 2000+ (2000) report with the current curriculum to

identify themes and gaps relevant to the research. Based on this, I sought to establish a baseline

of the expectations of the institution and government regarding experiential learning,

internships, and components of the Bachelor of Public Relations program and determine the

benefits and gaps of internships as they relate to employability skills.

The program encourages students to think about their thesis while they are in their

internship experience and apply what they learned in the internship experience in all fourth-year

classes and their final thesis.

Phases Two, Three and Four: Interviews with Participants. Fusch and Ness (2015)

refer to rich data as the quality of the data; and thick data as the quantity of data – their meaning

intricate and detailed data. The fact that this study was not about the number of participants but

about the depth of the data led me to focus on the type of qualitative data I collected (Fusch &

Ness, 2015; McNamara 2009).

Student, Employer and Faculty Interviews. I used semi-structured interviews

because the questions could be designed ahead of time based in the theoretical framework

grounding this study and on themes I identified in the document analysis, and my own

professional experience. More importantly semi-structured questions would allow me to probe,

with non-leading follow up questions, the participant’s responses during the interviews to gain a

deeper understanding of their responses. The data consist of participants’ responses to semi-

structured interview questions (Appendices F, G & H) with consenting students, employers and

faculty respectively.

58

The RA conducted the interviews with the internship employers and I interviewed the

students and faculty. With their explicit consent (Appendices C, D & E) the interviews were

audio-recorded and then transcribed by the RA and me.

Instrumentation. The RA and I used semi-structured interview guides (Appendices F, G

& H) that I developed based on themes/issues I identified in the literature review, the grounding

theoretical frameworks and my own professional experience of seven years teaching in the

program and more than 10 years in the industry. The questions were open-ended enough to

allow the participants to fully express their perceptions and allowed the RA and me to ask non-

leading follow-up probes to gain a deeper understanding of the participants’ responses.

To design the student, employer and faculty interview questions, I created relevant

research questions using the Interview Protocol Refinement Framework created by Castillo-

Montoya (2016), which is suitable for semi-structured interviews. The framework includes the

following criteria: (1) the interview questions are aligned with the research questions, (2) the

questions lead to an inquiry-based conversation, (3) feedback included on interview protocols is

provided, and (4) the interview protocol is pilot tested (Castillo-Montoya, 2016).

With the Castillo-Montoya (2016) criteria in mind, the interview guides (Appendix H, I,

& J) were adapted with permission of Certina Ho (2016) (Appendix O) from the instruments

used by Ho (2016) in her study of the first University of Waterloo Pharmaceutical Co-op

program, my document analysis of the Conference Board of Canada – Employability Skills 2000

+ report, PEQAB and OQF standards, themes I identified in my review of the literature, and my

own in-depth knowledge of the internship program. Table 2 depicts the sources of the data that

answered the research questions stated in Chapter One that drove this study.

59

Table 2: Data Sources to Answer the Research Questions

Research Questions Sources of Data Data Collection Tools

Qualitative Semi Structured Interviews

Research Question #1: What are the curriculum requirements for the internship experience and the expectations of students in the participating Humber ITAL Bachelor of Public Relations program?

Documents Thematic analysis

Research Question #2: What are the Perceptions of participating Humber ITAL Bachelor of Public Relations students, internship employers, and faculty members about the overall value of work integrated learning on the development of the students’ employability skills, through an internship experience? How do their perceptions compare?

(1) Students (1) Appendix H, Question; 1

(2) Employers (2) Appendix I, Question; 1

(3) Full-time faculty (3) Appendix J, Question; 1

Research Question #3: What do the participants perceive to be the benefits of internship based work-integrated learning as experienced in the internship component of their program?

(1) Students

(1) Qualitative Semi Structured Interviews – Appendix H, Questions; 2

(2) Employers (2) Qualitative Semi Structured Interviews – Appendix I, Question; 2

(3) Full-time faculty (3) Qualitative Semi Structured Interviews – Appendix J, Question; 2

Research Question #4: What do they perceive to be the issues/challenges that need to be considered in facilitating the development of employability skills of students in the internship experiences?

(1) Students (1) Qualitative Semi Structured Interviews – Appendix H, Questions; 3

(2) Employers

(2) Qualitative Semi Structured Interviews – Appendix I, Question; 3

(3) Full-time faculty (3) Qualitative Semi Structured Interviews – Appendix J, Question; 1

Research Question #5: As identified by participants, what, if any sector specific skills, should be added to the program curriculum and/or internship experience to facilitate securement of gainful employment by students upon graduation from the Honours Bachelor of Public Relations program?

(1) Students (1) Qualitative Semi Structured Interviews – Appendix H, Questions; 3

(2) Employers

(2) Qualitative Semi Structured Interviews – Appendix I, Question; 3

(3) Full-time faculty (3) Qualitative Semi Structured Interviews – Appendix J, Question; 3

60

Data Analysis

In my in-depth review of the interview transcripts I conducted thematic analysis of the

three sources of data, interview transcripts from students, employers, and faculty respectively

(Guest, 2012). I conducted constant comparative analysis to confirm or disconfirm the input

from all three respondent groups in triangulating, organizing, and inferring the overall findings

of the study (Glaser, 1965). Key phrases and words were derived from the transcripts and

organized based on their thematic elements. Where I was able to identify new phrases, the

search increased in magnitude and I was able to better refine my search and incorporate these

new findings into my discussion and recommendations for future research.

I analyzed the qualitative data using Creswell’s six steps (Creswell, 2014). The first step

was to organize and prepare the data to be analyzed; it included transcribing interviews, visually

scanning material, documenting field notes, and sorting the data into types based on the

information. Step two was organic and holistic; it included reviewing all the data, to get an idea

of the information and to reflect on its overarching meaning and to think about the general ideas,

the tone, depth and credibility of the information. Step three involved coding the data, which

involves organizing the data by breaking it into sections and labeling it. Step four built on the

coding process by creating a description of the setting, people and themes for analysis. For my

research, this step assisted me in identifying the themes and in interconnecting the themes to a

storyline. Step five used the themes to represent the qualitative narrative and highlight the

findings of the analysis. Step six provided the opportunity to use the data analysis in

interpreting the qualitative research (Creswell, 2014).

Saturation in qualitative research is defined as the point when a researcher stops

collecting data because new data does not provide new insights (Creswell, 2014). This is

important because there is no one size fits all approach to saturation (Fusch & Ness, 2015);

61

therefore, the type of study, number of sites and participants in the study are important in

determining and achieving saturation. Guest, Bunce and Johnson (2006) suggest that data

saturation may occur at 12 participants who are part of a homogeneous group but may also be

attained with as few as six participants. My objective was to examine the perceptions of the

internship experience for students, employers and faculty from a homogeneous public relations

group, consisting of a maximum of 33 students, 33 employers and four faculty. Ho (2016) cited

Guest et al., (2006) noting that 12 interviews are ideal for data saturation and thematic discovery

and furthermore indicate that six interviews are enough to attain higher level thematic

production (2016). I identified common themes in the responses early on, and I identified no

new themes after interviewing eight of the students, eight of employers and four of the faculty.

The four faculty also raised very similar issues and concerns. Saturation was evident by that

time. Therefore, the data reported in the findings are derived from my interviews with eight

students, eight employers and four faculty members.

Establishing Credibility

As this is a relatively new program with only five cohorts to graduate at the time of the

study, there were no pre-existing benchmarks on this topic or comparative information available

at this time within the department. To establish credibility, I sought triangulation, engaged in

reflexivity, and content and face validity pilot testing of the interview guides. Since I developed

the interview questionnaires, it was particularly important that these tools were tested for content

and face validity as I describe below.

Triangulation. I used triangulation of data collected to support the credibility of the

qualitative data by examining the input from multiple sources including documents analysis, and

semi-structured interviews with students, employers and faculty to obtain three different

perspectives on the study topic. The data from each of the three stakeholder participant groups

62

and document analysis provided several different perspectives and allowed for triangulation of

the data that supported the analysis and interpretation of the findings. The data enabled me to

identify convergence or divergence of themes I identified by using several sources such as the

students, employer and faculty interviews as well as the document analysis to support the

validity of the study findings (Creswell, 2014).

Reflexivity. Because of the potential for personal bias that I acknowledged in chapter

one and as a method to demonstrate trustworthiness, I consciously engaged in reflexivity, which

Creswell (2014) describes as the act of the researcher in reflecting about their role in the

research at every stage of data collection to facilitate the credibility of the qualitative data

collected and interpreted.

Validity testing. Validity of data collection instruments is a function of the credibility

established for the data collection tools used. Validity is determined by testing research

observations and providing the phenomena that the researcher is trying to understand; it is the

opportunity to prove something wrong which allows for the opportunity to refine the data

collection instruments (Gaber & Gaber, 2010). Validity is relevant in terms of the context, the

types of research questions and the method used to conduct the research and is used to develop

trustworthiness (Maxwell, 2012; Gaber & Gaber, 2010). There are two types of validity-

content/construct validity and face validity of the data collection tools (Gaber & Gaber 2010).

Content validity testing. Content validity testing determines the representativeness or

sampling adequacy of the content, substance, matter or topic (Kerlinger, 1973). One of the

earliest and most widespread measures of content validity is Lawshe’s Content Validity

(Appendix K); it is essentially a method for determining agreement among raters on how

essential a particular item is (Lawshe, 1975; Wilson & Schmusky 2012). I asked three subject

63

matter experts questions to validate my data collection instrument using the Lawshe Tool (1975)

method to identify if the skill or knowledge measured is essential, useful – but not essential, or,

not necessary (Lawshe, 1975; Wilson & Schmusky 2012). The three subject matter experts were

professionals with a considerable amount of knowledge of the internship and work integrated

learning process. Based on these results and feedback, I lightly revised the interview guides.

Face validity testing. It was important to establish face validity of my instruments for

data collection. Face validity refers to the credibility of the tool by the way the questions are

stated or in the order they are stated (Creswell, 2014). To test the face validity of the interview

guides I asked two individuals who were from the population of each of the stakeholder groups

but who were not in the samples invited to participate in this study. I asked two students who

were in a similar program that includes an internship experience (but are not from the 2017

cohort) to review the Interview Guide for Student participants and identify any questions that are

unclear or solicit a different response in nature than the one they had in mind, or whether the

wording or sequence of questions were perceived to lead the responded to an answer. I slightly

revised the wording of the Interview Guides based on the feedback from the face validity

testing.

Furthermore, participants had an opportunity to view their transcripts and make any

changes if they wished to do so before their information was included in the findings. Zero

students, zero employers and zero faculty members revised the transcripts. I also asked two

experts, one retired communications professional who currently teaches public relations, and

one public relations graduate who now works in the communications field, to review the data

and validate my themes and questions. Neither expert was a participant in the study. They both

validated the overall research and themes after reviewing the data separately with me. There

64

were no changes identified by them that needed to be addressed. However, they both did

encourage further discussion on numeracy.

Methodological Assumptions and Limitations

It is reasonable to assume that the respondents answered all questions honestly and

authentically, since I was not at the time of the study in any direct relationship with any of the

participants and not in any position of undue influence. Participants had nothing to lose or gain

by participating in this study. However, there are several variables that could influence the

participants’ responses. These include how they felt when they were participating in the

interview, where they interned, and the type of compensation the students received in their

internship to name a few. Another limitation was that the interviews required self-reporting and

some recall, both of which are known methodological limitations (Creswell, 2014). The

interviews took place, as close to the end of the internship experience as possible, to ensure the

student participants and employers memories were fresh, therefore enhancing credibility of the

data. I was not able to cross reference student interns with their employers because, although all

the students were invited to participate in the study along with their respective employers, there

was no cross over in those who agreed to participate. However, the students’ employers were

conscious that they pave the way for future students and interns and may have been somewhat

biased and presented information that was advantageous to them.

Ethical Considerations

In year three of the program, I had taught the students who were invited to participate,

but they were in year four of the program at the time of the study. I had not taught these students

since year three nor would I be teaching them in the remainder of the program. It is therefore

reasonable to assume that there was no real or perceived perception of a differential in power

between me and this group of participating students.

65

From September 11, 2011 to January 2018 I was employed on a part-time contract basis

at Humber College ITAL and I was on a part-time contract as an instructor in the program, and

at times in an administrative role. Although, I sometimes help the four faculty who were invited

to participate in this study with placements of students; I had not, did not, and would not have a

line relationship with any of them at any time. For this reason, it is also reasonable to assume

that I was not perceived to have any power or influence on them or their work. Therefore, I

conducted the student and faculty interviews.

However, given my full-time role with Angle Media Group, I do have a relationship with

some of the employers as friends, colleagues, clients, and/or Angle Media Group is their

supplier and/or vendor, there may be a perceived undue level of influence, I hired a neutral

third-party RA who had no line relationship with any of the employer participants or me

(Appendix L) to recruit and interview all of the employer participants on my behalf (Appendix

D) and transcribe the interview recordings. The RAsigned a confidentiality agreement

(Appendix L) before receiving any access to participants or data. The Appendices, E, F, & G

informed the potential participants of what was expected of them and their rights as participants

in this research study. Since I was not in any position of perceived undue influence or power

differential in my relationships with participating students and faculty, and the intern employers

were recruited and interviewed by a neutral third person on my behalf, and none of the

participants had anything to gain or lose from participating in the study, it is reasonable to

assume that the participants’ responses were as honest as their recall permitted.

Participation in this study was completely voluntary and participants were informed

(Appendices E, F, & G) that they had the right to decline to answer any question(s) they did not

wish to answer and they were free to withdraw their participation in the research study without

explanation, by simply terminating the interviews or, after that, by letting me or the RA know by

66

any means. Participants were informed that if they wished to withdraw before data aggregation

begun, all information they provided would be deleted and not included in the study findings.

However, once data aggregation had begun it would not be possible to delete their input.

I received Administrative Consent to name the College (Appendix A). Given that at the

time of this study the Humber College Bachelor of Public Relations program was the only one

of its kind in Ontario that includes a 14-week curricular experiential learning program in year

three and a thesis in year four, it was not possible to anonymize the study site.

Only non-identifiable codes were used for all participants throughout the study and in

any reporting, presentations or publications of the findings. Because the program that is the

focus of this study is unique, there is a small chance that participants may be identifiable to

others who have intimate knowledge of the program. The participants were informed of this

possibility in the informed consent forms (Appendices E, F, & G).

All the participants were identified by code only (e.g., S for students; F for faculty, and E

for employers) and all the code information was kept confidential and secure - with no personal

identifiers. Student and faculty data were located on my own personal password protected

computer and internship employer data on the RA’s password-protected computer. Digital data

were encrypted consistent with University of Toronto policy and not accessible to anyone other

than the RA and me at any time. The names of any participants were fully delinked from any

data, kept secure and completely destroyed upon completion of this study. Participants were

informed of this in the Informed Consent (Appendices E, F, & G), which they signed before the

beginning of their interviews.

Given that audio-recordings render participants identifiable, all audio-recordings of

interviews were erased immediately after each interview had been transcribed. The participants

were also given the opportunity to review and revise their own transcripts within a two-week

67

period if they wished to do so. None of the participants asked for revisions to be made to their

transcript.

Summary of Chapter Three

In this chapter, I identified the use of the qualitative exploratory descriptive case study

for this study, which included data collection from document analysis and student, employer and

faculty interviews. I used triangulation, reflexivity and content and face validity testing of the

data collection tools to establish trustworthiness and credibility. Based on the data collected I

was able to gain a deeper understanding of the skills that students and employers believed they

have and need and to what degree, as well as any sector specific skills gaps and thoughts from

faculty concerning the issues.

In chapter four, I report and interpret the findings in relation to each of the research

questions that drove this study, and then in chapter five I present the conclusions and

implications of the findings for policy/practice and further research.

68

Chapter Four: Findings and Analysis of the Findings

This study explored the perceptions of students, employers and faculty related to the

effectiveness of the internship experience in developing the graduates’ job readiness and

necessary skill for success in the Public Relations field. The findings identified personal and

professional employability skills that students and employers recognized as being met by

students to qualify for graduation and/or what was needed to succeed in a career in Public

Relations.

Description of Participants

All of the participating students were in the third year of the Humber College ITAL

Bachelor of Public Relations; that program is currently the only undergraduate program among

the public relations programs in Ontario to offer the internship in the third year of study,

followed by a thesis requirement in the final year.

Students. The first cohort of 68 students began their studies in 2011 with the first

internship cohort taking place in the Spring/Summer of 2014 and the first class graduated in

2015. The focus of this study was the 2017 cohort of 33 students who began their studies in

2014, completed their internships in 2017, and graduated in 2018.

Eight (24%) of the 33 students from the 2017 internship cohort responded to my

invitation to participate in semi-structured telephone interviews. Five of those who responded

were female and three were male students. The ages of the student respondents ranged from 20-

25 years of age with an average age of 22 years. Their internship experience settings included a

mix of agency, corporate and not-for-profit settings.

Internship employers. Eight (24%) of 33 internship employers invited, participated in

the semi-structured telephone interviews conducted by my RA. Of those who participated, four

69

were female and four were male. The employer group came from different areas of public

relations which included agency, corporate and not for profit organizations. Each employer had

one Humber College ITAL Bachelor of Public Relations student, in some cases when answering

the questions, they referenced past Humber College ITAL Bachelor or public relations students

as a comparison. The employers and students were not necessary pairs, but the students were all

from the same cohort and the employers all had interns from this same cohort.

Faculty. All four of the full-time faculty members from the Humber College ITAL

Bachelor of Public Relations program participated in the semi-structured telephone interviews.

Of the faculty, three were female and one was a male professor. The faculty had an average of

11 years teaching in higher education. They all taught the students of the 2017 internship cohort

in an array or courses including: writing (including the writing of the students ‘portfolios), social

media, strategic planning, emerging issues, public affairs, media relations, non-for-profit public

relations, crisis communication and introduction to public relations. The expertise of the four

full-time faculty included in-field public relations experience; all were public relations

practitioners at one time - in a variety of sectors and all had full time teaching experience. Table

3 depicts the description of study participants.

Table 3: Description of Study Participants

Interviews 8 Students (2017 Internship Cohort). Semi-structured telephone interviews (n=8)

8 Internship Employers (2017 Internship Cohort). Semi-structured telephone interviews (n=8)

4 Full Time Faculty. Semi-structured telephone interviews (n=4)

Findings

The findings of this study are organized according to the research questions, and then by

the sources of data that answered each research questions. Document findings, student

70

interviews, employer interviews and faculty interviews are reported as appropriate and then

reported by themes identified into skill sections for the subtopics. This allowed me to make

more fluent comparisons.

Research Question 1. asked: What are the curriculum requirements for the internship

experience and the expectations of students in the participating Humber ITAL Bachelor of

Public Relations program?

Data for the findings of this question were obtained from my document analysis of the

Employability Skills 2000+ document, Ontario Qualifications Framework, PEQAB Program

Standards, and 37 course outlines from Humber’s Honours Bachelor of Public Relations

program, and interviews with participating students, internship employers, and faculty members.

Document Analysis. Employability Skills 2000+ Document Analysis. Employability

Skills 2000+ was published by the Conference Board of Canada to describe the “employability

skills, attitudes, and behaviours you need to participate and progress in today’s dynamic world

of work” (2000, p. 1). The skills listed are meant to provide a common ground for three different

skills: fundamental skills, personal management skills and teamwork skills. Fundamental skills

are “needed as a basis for further development” (2) and are necessary to prepare you to

“progress in the world of work” (2), personal management skills reflect the “personal skills,

attitudes, and behaviours that drive one’s potential for growth” (3) allowing you to offer

yourself “greater possibilities for achievement” (3), and teamwork skills are the “skills and

attributes needed to contribute productively” (2), allowing you to be “better prepared to add

value to the outcomes of a task, project, or team” (3). The document is a list that acts as an

informational guideline for Canadian workers. The document acted as the basis for our interview

findings, with the themes directly overlapping the themes discussed in this thesis. Table 4

summarizes the document.

71

Ontario Qualifications Framework. The Ontario Qualifications Framework (OQF) is a

government document that outlines the qualification descriptions, qualification standards, and

descriptors necessary for students to graduate. The document:

includes all non-religious postsecondary certificate, diploma and degree programs offered under the auspices of the Province of Ontario, including apprenticeship certificates, the qualifications awarded by private career colleges, the qualifications awarded by public colleges, and degrees offered by public universities and institutions authorized to award degrees by a consent of the Minister of Training, Colleges and Universities of Ontario. (Ontario Qualifications Framework, 2009, p.1)

The OQF outlines all necessary requirements for graduation, and expectations. Specifically

looking at the Baccalaureate/Bachelor’s Degree Honours in the document, the information was

used to analyze interviews by manually documenting key ideas and then comparing them to

interview responses. To summarize, Table 4 includes the data used from the document.

Table 4: Employability Skills as Outlined by the Conference Board of Canada in Employability

Skills 2000+

Fundamental Skills

Communicate Manage Information

Use Numbers

Think and Solve Problems

Personal Management Skills

Demonstrate Positive Attitudes and Behaviours

Be Responsible

Be Adaptable

Learn Continuously

Work Safely

Teamwork Skills Work with Others

Participate in Projects and Tasks

Source: Conference Board of Canada (2000). Employability Skills 2000+.

(See Appendix P for full table.)

PEQAB Standards Document Analysis. The Handbook for Public Organizations

Applying for Ministerial Consent under the Post-secondary Education Choice and Excellence

Act (2000) outlines the mandates of the Postsecondary Education Quality Assessment Board

72

(PEQAB), and its standards and methods of reviewing applications for consent to offer or

promote degree programs in Ontario or to use the term “university” in Ontario. The PEQAB is

an advisory agency that provides counsel to the Minister of Training Colleges and Universities

Table 5: Baccalaureate/Bachelor’s Degree: Honours from The Ontario Qualifications

Framework (OQF)

Depth and Breadth of Knowledge

a) A developed knowledge and critical understanding of the key concepts, methodologies, current advances, theoretical approaches and assumptions in a discipline overall, as well as in a specialized area of a discipline;

b) A developed understanding of many of the major fields in a discipline, including, where appropriate, from an interdisciplinary perspective, and how the fields may intersect with fields in related disciplines;

c) A developed ability to: i. gather, review, evaluate and interpret information; ii. compare the merits of alternate hypotheses or creative options, relevant to one or more of the major fields in a discipline;

d) A developed, detailed knowledge of and experience in research in an area of the discipline;

e) Developed critical thinking and analytical skills inside and outside the discipline;

Conceptual & Methodological

Awareness

An understanding of methods of enquiry or creative activity, or both, in their primary area of study

Communication Skills

The ability to communicate information, arguments and analysis accurately and reliably, orally and in writing, to specialist and non-specialist audiences using structured and coherent arguments, and, where appropriate, informed by key concepts and techniques of the discipline.

Application of Knowledge

a) The ability to review, present and critically evaluate quantitative and qualitative information

b) The ability to use a basic range of established techniques c) The ability to make use of scholarly reviews and primary sources.

Professional Capacity/ Autonomy

a) The qualities and transferable skills necessary for further study, employment, community involvement and other activities

b) The ability to manage their own learning in changing circumstances, both within and outside the discipline and to select an appropriate program of further study:

c) Behaviour consistent with academic integrity and social responsibility.

Awareness of Limits of Knowledge

An understanding of the limits to their own knowledge and ability, and an appreciation of the uncertainty, ambiguity and limits to knowledge and how this might influence analysis and interpretations.

Source: Conference Board of Canada. (2018). Employability Skills.

(See Appendix Q for full table.)

73

of Ontario on applications for ministerial consent under the terms of the Post-secondary

Education Choice and Excellence Act (Government of Canada, 2000). To fulfill its duty,

the PEQAB determines the criteria procedures for its reviews, manages advisory panels, and

undertakes any related research to the application in question. Specifically, PEQAB standards

require a broad range of knowledge from several bodies of skills to advance new ideas and

theories, and to challenge previously held assumptions and methods by students. The document

acts as a guide for Ontario colleges seeking new or renewed consent of the Minister pursuant to

the Post-secondary Education Choice and Excellence Act (2000) to offer bachelor’s degree

programs in applied areas of study.

Course Outlines. Data related to the skills expressed in the course outlines for the

Humber College ITAL Honours Bachelor of Public Relations program are presented in this

section. The data came from an analysis of 37 course outlines. All 37 course outlines included a

course description and listed student learning outcomes. Table 6 shows course progression and

the type of evaluation required to demonstrate achievement of these skills throughout students’

degree. However, my analysis focused on the essential employability skills mentioned in the

course outlines (Table 7).

Of the 37 course outlines analyzed, 89.19% (n = 33) of course outlines included essential

employability skills that would be developed in the class and reinforced for the duration of the

course. Of the 37 course outlines, 78.38% (n = 29) included the following essential

employability skills: “Communication”, “Critical Thinking and Problem Solving, and

“Interpersonal” skills. Of the 37 course outlines, 81.08% (n = 30) included the essential

employability skill “Personal”. Of the 37 course outlines, 67.57% (n = 25) included the essential

employability skill “Information Management”. Five of the 37 course outlines included the

essential employability skill “Numeracy”. It’s important to note that two of the four course

outlines that included numeracy as a required skill were the fourth-year thesis and the internship

74

between third and fourth year. Therefore, the only taught courses that included numeracy were a

third-year course titled Public Relations Management and a fourth-year course titled Investor

Relations. Of the 37 course outlines, 2.94% (n = 1) included a description of the essential

employability skills. Table 7 depicts these findings. Communication skills, critical thinking and

problem-solving skills, and interpersonal skills were the most stressed in the course outlines.

Students seemed to excel in these skills the most during the internship. Numeracy, however, was

lacking in both the course outlines and in the numeracy skills students brought to the internship.

Students, employers and faculty noted that students greatly lacked the numeracy skills necessary

to succeed.

Table 6: Humber College ITAL Honours Bachelor of Public Relations Course Progression Course Participation Essay Assignment Test/Quiz Presentation Case

Study Exam

Year 1 Fall Semester Communications Theories and Models ü üü ü ü

Social and Digital Media ü ü ü

Writing Lab 1 ü ü ü Introduction to Public Relations

ü üüüü

üüü ü ü

Year 1 Winter Semester Integrated Marketing Communications ü

ü

ü ü

Presentation Skills ü üü üüüüüü üü Public Relations Ethics

ü üüüüü

üüü ü

Quantitative Research Methods üüü

ü ü

Writing Lab 2 üüüüü ü Year 2 Fall Semester Media Relations ü üüü ü Writing Lab 3: Writing for Web 2.0 ü üüüü üüü ü

Communications Law ü ü ü üü

Strategic Communications ü ü ü ü ü

Year 2 Winter Semester Internal Communications ü üü ü ü ü ü

75

Table 6: Humber College ITAL Honours Bachelor of Public Relations Course Progression

continued Innovative Thinking ü üüü ü Research Methods ü üüüüü ü ü ü ü Writing Lab 4 üüüüüü üü Year 3 Fall Semester Consulting Skills ü ü ü üü Career Development* ü üü ü ü

Event Management ü üüü üü PR Management

ü ü ü ü ü

Writing Lab 5 ü üüüüüü ü Year 3 Winter Semester Issues and Crisis Management ü üü üüüüüü ü

Fundraising and Philanthropy ü ü ü üü

PR in Non-Profit Sector ü ü ü ü

Internship Year 4 Fall Semester Course Participation Essay Assignment Test/Quiz Presentation Case

Study Exam

Investor Relations ü üüü ü üü International PR üüüüüüü ü ü Changing Management and Communication

üü ü ü üü

Corporate Social Responsibility

ü ü üü üü ü üü

Year 4 Winter Semester Senior Level Thesis Project

ü

Cross-cultural Communication

üü ü üü

Building Communities Through New Media

ü üü üü ü

The Emerging Issues in PR

ü ü ü ü ü

*Course is a full-year course and is in session in both the fall and winter semester.

A first-year course titled Integrated Marketing Communication described the skills as

depicted in Table 9. Table 9 is included in order to illustrate what a course outline might look

like in regard to the essential employability skills listed in it.

76

Table 7: Analysis of Course Outlines and Essential Employability Skills

Skills Included in Course Outline Number of Course Outlines Relative Frequency of Skill

Communication Skills 29 78.38%

Critical Thinking and Problem Solving Skills 29 78.38%

Interpersonal Skills 29 78.38%

Personal Skills 30 81.08%

Information Management Skills 25 67.57%

Numeracy Skills 5 13.51%

Total Number of Course Outlines 37 100% Source: D’Amato, Athena. (2019).

Table 8: Essential Employability Skills from MKT151: Integrated Marketing Communication

Communication Skills Organize a message according to the intended purpose. Select content necessary to convey an appropriate message. Employ suitable style, tone and vocabulary to the message, situation and audience. Demonstrate proper use of grammar, spelling and punctuation. Follow the instructions correctly. Thinking Skills Identify premises, conclusions and reasons to justify thinking. Identify and define problems within the context of the course of study. Gather data related to the problem Use idea-generating strategies to create new ideas, concepts, products and systems. Use a variety of thinking skills to create innovative strategies and/or products. Identify the nature of information required to answer a question. Research by using a variety of media and methods, including the web, to source relevant materials and gather data. Organize the information appropriately. Analyze the information and select the relevant, important and useful data. Computer Skills Use technology tools to locate, collect, evaluate and organize information from a variety of sources.

Source: Boyko, Lydia. (2012). MKT151 – Integrated Marketing Communications (Syllabus).

Toronto: Humber School of Media Studies and Information Technology.

Understandably, courses are not required to include all skills. Certain courses, such as

Integrated Marketing Communications, will be lacking in numeracy skills. However, my

analysis sought to depict the variety of courses that students undertook during their education.

The skillsets that went along with their courses were important in identifying how often they

77

were able to practice these skills. In a way, this was a manner of learning by doing. As most

skills should be transferable in the workplace, they too should be in an academic setting.

Student Interviews. The curriculum requirements for the internship component of the

program include the students be current and passing all of their year one, two and three courses

including the workplace transition course prior to taking part in an internship. During the

interviews, student stated their expectations for the internships in hindsight. Student 1 indicated

the writing lab courses in the year one and two curriculum helped prepare them for the

internship “(a)ll that stuff we learned in school related so that came in handy” (S1). Student 8

also felt the writing lab was the course they were able to most apply to the internship experience

as well as a media relations and media list templates they were provided in a second-year course

(S8). Student 5 echoed the sentiment of Student 1 and 8 with regards to the writing lab courses.

Confidence is not something you can teach in the classroom; however, it is needed in the

workplace (S7). Students felt based on the classroom experience and course material that they

would have more confidence in the workplace but when they were put into the workplace, they

did not feel that way. However, having the opportunity to see how everything that was taught

can be applied to the workplace provided Student 7 with confidence. Student 8 was surprised at

how long it took to get a piece of content edited, “it was not something that was taught in the

program” (S8). Student 5 highlighted that the tactics learned through the curriculum in the

events course were very applicable to the events they took part in during their internship (S5).

Student 4 referenced the connection to a two-way communication model (Gruning) that was

applied during their internship that they had learned in one of their classes (S4).

Employee Interviews. Ready to learn how to communicate and write was the expectation

of Employer 8. Employer 8 felt that the students came with a mediocre ability to write and

communicate but suggested it is okay as long as they were ready to learn because “they’re

students” (S8). However, they went on to suggest that the ideal expectation of an intern

78

includes; (1) the ability to write, (2) speak relatively well and communicate persuasively, (3)

knowledge of the media landscape of public relations, (4) know how to use social media (5)

know how to use leading software in the field (6) they understand media lists and (6) reputation

management and marketing 101 (E8). All of the above are skills built into the curriculum.

However, the following are also built into the curriculum, yet Employer 8 felt that students

lacked knowledge of PR theory (E8). Whereas, Employer 6 felt the student had knowledge of

related industries and specific industry knowledge they noted this was rare in an intern (E6).

Employer 6 indicated one of the major benefits of this particular intern was the education they

had gone through, and they did not feel the student lacked any skills needed for the internship

(E6). Employer 5 echoed the thoughts of Employer 6 with regards to the social media course

and the student’s ability with regards to social media “the student knew all the necessary tools

and had lots of ideas” (E6). Employer 4 highlighted the lack of knowledge the student had with

regards to investor relations. However, this topic is the focus of a year four course, which takes

place post-internship. Employer 1 and Employer 3 both indicated the students lacked a sense of

urgency, which is a critical skill that they expect in a public relations student. It is unclear, based

on the course outlines, where this soft skill is built into the curriculum.

Faculty Interviews. Considering the curriculum requirements that the student must be

current and passing prior to their internship the expectations rely on the concepts learned in the

first six semester of the program. All faculty felt the students should understand public relations

theory and common public relations practises, as well as terminology, and be able to write and

employ appropriate editing skills to deliver error free copy as well as clearly express concepts

and arguments in writing. Faculty 3 explained that there is a reason why the internship is a

prerequisite to the thesis (focus of year four of the program) because the student needs to pull

together not only the learning gained over the past three years but the internship as well – the

79

internship is part of the learning (F3). Table 9 depicts a comparison of the themes identified

above.

Table 9: Comparison of Themes Identified in the Responses of Participants for RQ#1 Research Question #1: What are the curriculum requirements for the internship experience and the expectations of students in the participating Humber ITAL Bachelor of Public Relations program?

Themes Students Employers Faculty

Public Relations Theory Not Mentioned Expected Expected

PR Terminology Not Mentioned Expected Expected

Verbal Communication Skills Expected Expected Not Mentioned

Writing and Editing Skills Expected Expected Expected

Investor Relations Not Mentioned Expected Not Mentioned

Social Media Tools Not Mentioned Expected Not Mentioned

Knowledge of Related Industries and Specific

Industry Knowledge Not Mentioned Expected Not Mentioned

Knowledge of PR Software Not Mentioned Expected Not Mentioned

Reputation Management and Marketing Not Mentioned Expected Not Mentioned

Understanding of Media Lists Not Mentioned Expected Not Mentioned

Sense of Urgency Not Mentioned Expected Not Mentioned

We note specifically that PR theory and PR terminology is not mentioned by students but

mentioned by both employers and faculty. Faculty failed to mention verbal communication

skills, but students and employers both noted it. Writing and editing skills were mentioned by all

participants and this was evident in both the course outlines and in the interviews. Employers

expected investor relations skills, social media skills, knowledge of related industries and

80

specific industry knowledge, knowledge of PR software, reputation management and marketing,

media list skills, and a general sense of urgency. Students and faculty did not identify these

items as expected of students.

Conclusion of Findings for Research Question 1

To summarize, the findings for this question were based on my document analysis of the

Employability Skills 2000+ document, Ontario Qualifications Framework, PEQAB Program

Standards, and 37 course outlines from Humber’s Honours Bachelor of Public Relations

program, and interviews with participating students, internship employers, and faculty members.

I found the curriculum requirements for the internship experience and the expectations of

students in the participating Humber ITAL Bachelor of Public Relations program.

The Employability Skills 2000+ is a list that acts as an informational guideline for

Canadian workers. The document acted as the basis for our interview findings, with the themes

directly overlapping the themes discussed in this thesis. Table 4 summarized the document. The

OQF outlined all of the necessary requirements for graduation and expectations, and by

specifically looking at the Baccalaureate/Bachelor’s Degree: Honours section in the document, I

was able to analyze interviews by manually documenting key ideas and then comparing them to

interview responses. This was shown in Table 5. The PEQAB Program Standards acts as a guide

for Ontario colleges seeking new or renewed consent of the Minister pursuant to the Post-

secondary Education Choice and Excellence Act (2000) to offer bachelor’s degree programs in

applied areas of study. The course outlines were used to paint a picture of what the Humber PR

program course progressions for the students who partook in the study was. The interviews

discussed writing, communication, social media, and PR strategies.

81

Interpretation of Findings for Research Question 1 Related to the Literature

Reviewed. I found little scholarly discussion that directly related to Ontario-based Public

Relations Bachelor of Applied Arts programs during my literature search. However, the concept

of learning by doing as discussed by Gentry (1990) for instance is prevalent in the course

outlines and curriculum standards analyzed. The course outlines included the range of

assignments and examinations that students did during their bachelor’s degree and this was in

direct relation to Green and Farazmand’s (2012) study. Green and Farazmand’s (2012) study

examined the how educators are increasingly using experiential learning pedagogy to improve

the learning of their students by relating learning outcomes from courses to experience on the

internship. The students in this study and Green and Farazmand’s study both saw positive results

in their knowledge and skills development. Moreover, Helyer (2010) and Beard and Wilson

(2013) stated that knowledge must be implemented in order to be fully learned, and the range of

assignments that students did – including mixed media writing – were fully aligned with this

concept.

The Ontario Qualifications Framework (OQF) document and the internship curriculum

reflected Jennings and Wargnier’s 2010 study that suggested that experiential learning helped

unlock students’ capabilities through action when compared with theory-based instructions.

Both articulated the importance of learn-by-doing. Furthermore, the deep learning that is

required for students as stated in the OQF document reflects the surface learning versus deep

learning approaches of Garrison and Anderson (2011). The interviews relating the expectations

of the internship was consistent with Hildreth’s (1951) observation that all liberal arts colleges

and the students in those programs needed to bridge the gap between their theoretical knowledge

and their life experience through connecting course work and work integrated learning

experiences.

82

Interpretation of Findings for Research Question #1 Related to the Theoretical

Framework. The documents analyzed: the Employability Skills 2000+ document, the Ontario

Qualifications Framework, the PEQAB Program Standards, and the 37 course outlines from

Humber’s Honours Bachelor of Public Relations program, describe practical applications of

Kolb’s framework of experiential learning in Canadian education. Kolb’s model begins with a

concrete experience, followed by time to reflect on the experience, with the ability to apply

theories to the experience, and time to evaluate the experience and plan (Stirling et al., 2014).

The course outlines depicted just that. Students were taught, asked to reflect through

assignments, and applied the knowledge during exams. The Ontario Qualifications Framework

and PEQAB Program Standards described programs that enabled this learning to take place. The

interviews depicted learning expectations of the students. The internships component of their

Humber education allowed them to experience Kolb’s experiential learning cycle, further

advancing their employability skills.

Research Question 2 asked “What are the perceptions of participating Humber ITAL Bachelor

of Public Relations students, internship employers, and faculty members about the overall value

of work integrated learning on the development of the students’ employability skills, through an

internship experience? How do their perceptions compare?”

Interview data. The data to answer this research question came from the interviews with

participating students, employers and faculty. I now describe the themes I identified in the

comments made by all three groups. Themes were identified in similar frequency from the

interview transcripts, and their organization is by no means an indication of their importance

over one another. The themes of communication skills, confidence in the workplace,

adaptability, and time management skills emerged during the student interviews. Employer

interviews were centered around confidence, communication, adaptability/teamwork/personal

management skills, problem solving skills, time management skills and technology skills.

83

Faculty interviews touched on communication skills, confidence in the workplace, and

performance in the workplace.

Student Interviews. Participating Humber ITAL Bachelor of Public Relations students

(S) self-reported great value on the development of their employability skills as a result of the

internship experience, and several behavioural changes as a result of internship experiential

learning. These behavioural changes were associated with personal skills, such as their

confidence in the workplace, their adaptability on the job, time management, and recognizing

the importance of professionalism and ethics in the real-world workplace.

Communication skills. The participating students reported that their internship

experience progressed the development of their communication skills, allowing them to further

develop their writing skills, editing skills, presentation skills and interpersonal communication

skills. All eight students interviewed acknowledged the importance of the development of their

writing skills. One of the eight students reported that their employer was positively surprised

that their “writing and editing skills were at a level that they were at this point in (their)

educational career” (S3). Another reported (S1) that they were able to “really fine-tune (their)

ability to seek out any errors in the copy” and that they were able to easily change the “syntax of

the copy that (they were) reading so that it was better fit with the brand” (S1).

Using the fundamental skills that they learned in the classroom, students felt well

equipped to deal with the writing components of their internships. For example, S2 stated “I

think mainly the writing skills transferred into the internship. A lot of the different writing styles

that we had done - the blogs, the press writing, everything else that we had learned for five

semesters of our lives”. All eight students credited the development of their writing skills to

their experience in the Humber program; in particular, one student reported that “for the writing,

the writing labs we had were really important, because of all the variety of writing that (we) did

84

in-house for corporate communications” (S4). The internships allowed them to practice their

writing skills in a setting where stakes were higher and outside of the classroom. Student 7

reported that:

I mean everything we've done in the program (helped), without that I would have been lost, to be honest, .… If I lacked the confidence, that allowed me to go back and double check maybe something I’ve done in the previous years even though I had a template. Just knowing that, gaining the confidence and flow of the work you're doing, and the information you're putting in it would’ve been much more of a bigger hill to climb (without that learning in the program). (S7)

Students were able to understand and interpret information flowing through their

workplace and they “felt well prepared with the skills that (they) brought from the classroom

into the workplace” (S1). The internship gave them a chance to use a broad range of

communication channels and methods to communicate to the public and other businesses. One

student reported that,

for communicating with the public, we used a lot of integrated online and mailing -both print and digital media, as a lot of our stakeholders were older in the community and we still wanted them to have all the information. (S4)

Moreover, students were able to engage with different audiences. For example, one

student reported that: “A lot of my internship was spent engaging with complete strangers and

building brand awareness. If not for that fundamental comfortability of interacting with them, it

would’ve been a much more difficult and uncomfortable experience doing that” (S5). The

internship forced this student (S5) to become more comfortable and confident when dealing with

strangers. This is an important aspect of working in the working world.

Confidence in the workplace. The students commented on the positive development of

their confidence in the workplace as the internship went on. Many of the eight students entered

their internship with performance anxiety; for example, one student stated:

Going into my internship, I think one of my biggest issues was that I lacked a lot of confidence in my own abilities and skills just because I didn't seek out enough workplace experience. So even though I had the skills that I learned in school, because I hadn't applied them in the workplace yet, I didn't feel like I was as qualified as some of my

85

other peers in my program. But once I was able to delve into the workplace on my own and apply some of the skills that I had learned, I realized that I was capable of doing all of that. (S1)

Some students realized that they were much more competent than they had previously thought.

Student S2 reported: “I think I realized that I'm a faster learner than I thought I was. Being put

on the spot and having these little tasks from all different areas like videography, writing, and

kind of jumping around between them” allowed S2 to develop. Furthermore, Student S2 states

that: “I didn't realize how quickly I could address myself and my writing styles to fit into what

everybody else needed in the organization” (S5). This is of key importance in the public

relations field.

Each student had a different level of responsibility required of them in their respective

internship workplaces; however, each of the eight students reported that they were pleased with

the amount of responsibility they were given, and that it made them work harder. For example,

one student reported that their employer “really gave me a lot of trust in the work I was putting

together” (S3). Another student commented that that they were “happy that the employer took

their input” (S1) in projects, as it gave them a renewed sense of confidence. Another student

(S3) described their experience as follows:

…I think the biggest thing for me was knowing that, ‘okay I didn't need my hand held throughout a lot of things’. I was able to take what I learned in class and really go with what they wanted me to do - taking direction but really go with it on my own, and then obviously there was just the editing. They had to approve everything, obviously, but I thought that was really something, personally and professionally, that I didn't realize maybe I thought I was a little bit nervous going in, thinking that I would need a lot more guidance and want things laid out very specific(ally), but it was … ‘okay, here is the situation now, go do it and bring it back to us when you're done’. That was something that I took away from it (the internship experience), for sure. (S3)

Students conveyed the importance of attitude in the development of their employability

skills while on their internship. For example, Student S4 stated:

Attitude is really important. You have to be willing to put yourself out there or it's not just going to come your way. I think the internship really taught me that you're there to continue the work that they give you. But if you really want to get the most of the

86

experience, you have to ask, and you have to be engaged in everything else going on. To get the most out of the experience. The same thing is when you go into a job, you have to make your mark and have a positive attitude. Just because you get more done when you are invested and engaged.

For one student, confidence meant learning to let go. This student stated:

I tend to overthink small things. Being on my first internship, I (tended to) focus on one thing that I (would) re-edit and re-edit, until it was how they wanted it, (I learned) if you feel it’s efficient that’s great because you don’t want to (spend) too much time working on something and end up making it not ideal after adding too many things, too long or too short, but just go with what you think is correct because that’s what they want from you - to do your best, not to spend too much time focusing on little details. (S6)

Essentially, the internship experience offered students an invaluable site to grow their

confidence in the workplace while recognizing their strengths and weaknesses for individual

growth. One student reported that they felt “much more comfortable being in a professional

setting” (S4) after their internship.

Adaptability. Students self-reported that the internships required them to be adaptable,

and that flexibility in the workplace was both a matter of being able to think creatively and

being able to manage time properly. “That kind of quick learning and quick judgment” (S2) that

was required on the job pushed students to be more innovative and resourceful than they had

previously thought themselves to be. All eight of the students reported that they had worked

both independently and as part of a team, with some students commenting that they had to “keep

up with a bunch of different team members in order to finish one document” (S8). All students

reported they had positive experiences with their teams. Teamwork allowed them to identify

aspects of their tasks that previously seemed daunting and to find alternative ways to reach their

work goals. Moreover, it allowed them an opportunity to accept constructive criticism from their

professional colleagues and adapt to the demands of the job. Participant S6 said that: “the

intellectual growth is just having a mindset, managing all this stuff, staying focused, (and)

balancing multiple projects on your own at the same time because everyone is busy”. Coping

with uncertainty developed their ability to adapt, especially when the internship was unpaid.

87

Unpaid internships and work may result in lower motivation for the individual to attend work

given the opportunity cost of going to work may be greater than another task that provides a

greater economic incentive (S8).

Problem solving skills. Students reported that their abilities to problem solve developed

quickly during their internship. Student S1 stated “(she) had a lot of independence throughout

(her) entire internship, so having that ability to creatively think about any of the tasks that (she)

had” allowed her to overcome many challenges that she faced during her internship. The

students were able to assess the situation, identify the root causes of the problem, and work

towards solving the problem. The students reported that in the internship, they were given much

more independence and responsibility than they had previously thought they would be given.

One of the benefits of interning was that there was always help available, either from the

employer or the internship coordinator. Being able to find their footing in the industry, while

being supported, allowed them to be creative in their problem solving and have faith in their

solutions.

Time management skills. Time management was a topic that each student mentioned in

the interviews. Student S5 explained:

I would say one of the biggest things about my internship was that there were always a lot of different things on the go at the same time. Definitely being able to pay attention to details and multi-task while there are three to five different events going on in a single week was a challenge for me. (S5) Another student reported that their “time management (skills) greatly improved from the

beginning of the internship to the end” (S1). And Student S8 stated conveyed that much of the

job had a “time management aspect of it”. (S8)

In summary, the input of participating students as overwhelming indicated that their

perceptions of the overall value of the internship learning experience on the development of

their employability skills was positive. I was surprised that not one student reported negative

88

value. It is also entirely possible that only those students who thought they had had a positive

learning experience in their internship agreed to participate in this study.

Employer Interviews. The participating internship employers also found that the

internship experience generally added value to the development of the students’ employability

skills. Students came with different sets of skills that they were able to develop. “Some had great

written capabilities, some were very organized, some were detailed, some were personable. Each

student had a little different skill set, but they all had a specific one - they were responsible”,

said employer E3. One employer mentioned that given the development of transferrable

fundamental skills, students become “very hirable” (E8), and that their firm usually hires their

interns after graduation. I identified the following themes in their interview transcripts:

Confidence. All eight intern employers stated that they noticed “development or

increased confidence” (E2) in their interns between the beginning and the end of their

employment. The participating employers stated that the internship experience allowed students

to develop their intrapersonal and other employability skills by allowing them to flourish in the

workplace. One employer (E1) noted that: “I think most interns start out very shy and timid, and

afraid of their writing or their communications skills. But I think with coaching and one-on-one

work, they left with confidence”. For a student, the “ability to do things independently grew

over time” (E2) as the student grew comfortable in their tasks and workplace. Another employer

(E7) noted that interns “are somewhat shy about their duties” at the beginning, and as they

developed, they add value to the organization and “fill a gap of resources”. Many (n = 6; 75%)

employers saw growth in their students “ability to try different things and to get a certain level

of comfort in doing something that was maybe outside of their comfort zone” (E2). Another

noted that the development of their intern’s confidence grew their creativity and their ability to

think outside the box; they recalled that:

89

There was one girl who was super shy and didn't really know what to say. They were very timid of being in a new workplace or whatnot. But by the end of it they had better ideas than we were coming up with for some things … We had another intern that was just very creative and became more and more so as time went on. (E5)

Communication. Employers noted that students came with basic writing skills but they

“needed more finessing” (E1). Students came prepared with “more business PR than lifestyle

PR” skills, and initially found it difficult to be “flexible in their workplace”, said E1 in terms of

their written communication. They initially found it difficult to use widely known industry

language for the organization, which was natural, but it restricted the flow of their

communication channels. For example, one employer described their experience during the

interview:

I found that some students found it really hard to be conversational in nature with the writing and the newsletter and the media that we are putting out, and they were more factual and business oriented. So, I'm not sure if that's them taking more courses geared toward corporate PR, corporate communications, versus lifestyle and consumer PR. I think teaching them to not be so - like, when writing material, they need to be a little bit relaxed and informal. Moreover, I find that a lot of younger students find it hard to pick up the phone to call journalists. And I said call and follow up with these publications and these media. And they will say, 'oh, I emailed them'. Like, no, no, no, call them. I think the ones that excelled were ones that weren't afraid to pick up the phone and call them. Which I find is a dying skill. (E1)

Another employer noted that students were initially “scared to get out that message. To

be able to really learn what our message was and being able to express it out through our various

channels of public relations” (E3). However, when students became comfortable in their

position, they flourished. Employer E8 commented:

They all learn about proactive servicing, how to provide value to people, internally and externally. They grow in their ability to express themselves in boardrooms. (In the workplace,) they grow in their understanding of two-way communications. They learn how to listen a little bit better. They grow in their service culture, service that they can offer customers. They mature because we deal with a lot of crises and issues. (E8)

During the internship, students learned to “work as part of a team, communication skills, the

ability to outreach (and) work with the media,” said (E7), and E4 added “prioritization, and

90

listening skills”. Employers were enthusiastic to note the accomplishment of their interns, and

the impact their developments had on their skillset. An employer echoed that:

They learn about measurements of PR, which involves tables, charts, graphs and dashboards. They learn how to write better. They learn how to manage client relationships. They learn how to work with media. They learn how to anticipate crises. They learn how to scan for issues and anticipate issues that might affect the client and also anticipate opportunity. They learn how to research. They learn etiquette in the business context. (E8)

Employer E2 stated that: “…. when they leave (the internship) they really have some great skills

in terms of communication”.

Adaptability - teamwork – personal management skills. According to all eight of the

participating employers, the level of students’ professional and personal development varied, as

this was individualized, and students came with different experiences and backgrounds. Some of

the students could be motivated and self-directed, but others struggled to learn and reflect.

However, the internship provided a reality check for students into what it means to work in the

industry. One employer stated:

…; they had to be put in situations where they had to work. Like, going from the back, they had to work with other people that they might not have always had to work with or chose to work with. Where(as) in school you have projects with your friends and all that, sometimes you don't get to work with the people you like or want to work with. (E3)

Given the collaborative nature of employer E2’s organization, their intern was often working in

teams, across different levels of the company. Their intern had “significant exposure to having

to be able to understand (their) role within the team and knowing how to work with others and

communicate clearly and then be able to deliver on the aspect of what that collaborative

experience is”, said E2. Another employer noted that:

We pushed them to work long hours, not on purpose. PR is an interesting field and there is work on the weekend and definitely work in the mornings, really early. There's a little bit of stress. There's a little bit of pressure, which is same as stress. And there's a lot of files at the same time, so they have to be more organized. They have to run a manager checklist. They have to learn how to prioritize things. You need a sense of judgment. There's a lot of professional growth and personal growth, because we teach them about

91

public relations the way we teach them is all about symmetry or symmetrically harmonious relationships. They all come out of this exercise being better at interpersonal relationships. (E8)

Employer E2 felt that “in terms of responding to feedback, I felt that our intern was able to take

that constructive feedback and apply it and improve along the way and really kind of grow from

it” (E2).

Similarly, the workplace allowed interns to interact with a variety of different people,

cultures, and personalities. “It's a multi-facetted environment, it's not just sitting in a cubicle

writing, it's a lot of talking with different people in the business, internally and externally. But it

teaches you a lot of interpersonal skills”, commented E1.

Problem solving skills. Participating employers agreed that the students experienced

personal development in their problem-solving capabilities, whether that was crisis

management, intrapersonal management, or stressful situations. Employer E2 conveyed that

interns were not only exposed to task-based level work, but also work from a “strategic

standpoint”. The students were engaged in strategic conversations in terms of objective setting

and strategy, and also in how we measure our success and make decisions”, said E2. The

students’ work integrated learning within the context of the internship experience allowed “them

to understand how decisions are made and where the different tasks that (the employer) might be

assigned fit into the overall organizational objectives” explained (E2); and, “I think in any

organization you have to be able to understand your role within the organization; how you might

support others within that team” (E2). E3 observed that Students learned the “ability to figure it

out, to get to work and get it done” with tough deadlines and requirements. Employer E4 noted

that they “saw them (the students) in quite stressful situations and having to navigate through

those situations” (E4), and that they were impressed with the resilience that the students showed.

Employer E6 noted that one of the things their student intern

92

…. will take away is a kind of understanding, in any situation, the lay of the land and the players involved and making decisions based on the understanding of the ethos of a company. Not necessarily sales objectives or goals or things like that, but some of the PR elements are very human and very emotional and there's a very human element to them. And I think understanding what your company stands for and what we want to project or portray and being able to make decisions fairly quickly in a way that is in line with that is something that (they) will have now.

The adaptability of the students acts as an important skill in the ever-evolving workplace.

Each employer noted that the attitude that their interns held on the job greatly increased their

productivity and resourcefulness in the job.

Time management skills. Intern employers perceived that the degree of autonomy

students had during their internship influenced how much they learned on the job and

experienced during their internship. Some students worked in an office environment, while

others worked remotely, in different venues, or a mixed office space. Therefore, the employers’

degree of autonomy was different for each student. However, each employer noted that students

lacked the time management skills they required for the job when they began their internship.

Employer E1 noted that “in real life, there are deadlines” and students cannot be given “two

weeks to write a press release” because it’s not viable. E2 commented that Interns “need to

know how to prioritize” their time, and know their threshold forwork, and “their capacity to

deliver” on tasks, and to be able “to respond to those deadlines and really grow and understand

what it means to be able to manage that workload” (E2). Another employer, (E1), specified that

interns needed to learn to be “productive on a schedule, and responsible and accountable”.

Employer E1 commented

So, I think that teaching people there's timelines and deadlines. Being responsible and accountable. So, if I ask them to do something, I expect them to write it down, record it, come to me with any issues, and then send me back what I've requested.

Another employer, (E8) remarked: “Students were too negligent with deadlines when they

started, but that switched as the internship went on, and students had the opportunity to

experience growth through their personnel management”. (E8) These concerns identified by the

93

employers have implications for faculty and for the curriculum. I suggest that the program may

want to consider mimicking the real-world deadline expectations for academic work, especially

in an industry that relies on them in an effort to prepare the students.

Technology. Participating employers felt that in the internship experience the students

developed their knowledge for programs and databases that were used in the industry for their

respective organizations. Employer E2 stated that: “a lot of the skills that they learned on the job

were ones that they can absolutely take and apply”; specifically, the technology used in that

industry. Students learned project management, media monitoring, web site maintenance,

newsletter tools, delivering webinars, project management, and various media tools on the job

(E2). All of the employers noted that during the internship students were taught about

engagement – whether that be with the public, social media, or government enterprises. One

employer noted:

There is the technology aspect; we expose them to a lot of the platforms that are part of the communications world …. we expose them to the technology that we use here and really try to give them a robust type of experience. So, I would say that the experience that's transferable that they can take with them is more what they've learned on the job than what they've come to us with through their course work. (E2)

Faculty Interviews. The participating faculty (F) at Humber were enthusiastic about the

benefits of work integrated learning on their students’ employability skills. They felt that the

internship was a “valuable, component” (F1) and truly added to the education of their students. I

identified the following themes in the faculty responses:

Communication skills. The faculty generally felt that the internship narrowed the divide

between the communication skills students need and the ones they thought they needed. The

intensive writing combined with the new communication channels they were introduced to

focused in on how important communication is in the PR industry. In contrast to the students’

positive perspective of their own communication skills, faculty members conveyed that they felt

94

these skills were inadequate. This was well conveyed by this faculty member (F1) who said,

“They don't know how to work with people, …they’re afraid of a direct interaction”. Similar to

the concerns about this expressed by the employers, a lack of initiative in picking up the phone

to make a call compared to the ease of writing an email was an example that was cited

repeatedly by faculty members. However, faculty did note that the internship experience

improved the way their students communicated. They came back from the experience with a

renewed confidence in their work and in their abilities.

Confidence in the workplace. All four faculty members noted that students came back

after the internship experience with renewed confidence in their own abilities. One of the four

faculty members described the lived experience of the students in an internship as:

I think that when they come into the internship, they’re a little bit hesitant and it’s just the learning curve and they have to get through that. But, they start to realize that they can come up with a solution before they actually come to us. Nine times out of ten they're going to figure it out on their own and that’s just practice. I don't know. When they're still in school, there is a lot of that, and they're able to do that. I just think that in the internship, it really solidifies that, and it makes it all real, and it’s so important that way. (F2)

Faculty noted that the gap between the workplace expectations of the students’ and the reality of

the workplace were bridged during the internship (F4), and in a way, this provided a boost of

confidence to the students.

Performance in the workplace. Learning to be adaptable to the demands of the job and

the workplace is a skill that students learned during their internship. As perceived by the faculty.

“Internships teach them how important deadlines are” in the real world said F2. The greater

emphasis on deadlines forced interns to adapt the reality of the workplace; tasks and projects

cannot be postponed for later, they must be dealt with when they arrive. The ability to adapt is a

transferable skill that many students will take with them to their next places of employment. The

work integrated learning that occurs during the internships goes beyond the attainment and

95

solidification of knowledge and finds its place in behavioural aspects of the students (F4). For

example, F4 indicated that the internship provided the students perspective on judgment

decisions about what content to include and appropriateness of online behaviour.

To summarize, the four participating faculty noted that teamwork, ethical skills, time

management and responsibility is what internships taught their students the most (F1). Overall,

faculty conveyed the message that the value of the work integrated learning on the development

of the students’ employability skills “depends on the person” (F1) in question.

Consistent with the students’ comments, the faculty also reported on the improvement of

their teamwork skills during their internships. Faculty reported that internships provided “lots of

opportunities for them (the students) to work as a team” (F4) however, it is noteworthy that one

participant (F4) commented “there are always students who are not team players. That's a

reality, and that's got nothing to do with our program or anything, there's just people who are

difficult and cannot work in teams”. Moreover, faculty felt that the students were able to

“exercise judgment” during their internship with things like “decisions about what content to

include, appropriateness of online behaviours, those sort of things” commented F4.

Table 10 depicts a summary comparison of the themes identified. All participants saw

improvement in communication skills and the students’ general confidence in the workplace.

Students saw improvement in their ability to adapt, employers had varied perceptions of this,

and faculty failed to mention this. Improvement was felt by students in their problem-solving

skills and time management skills, with employers stating that this varied but that there was

general improvement. Faculty did not discuss these two skills in relation to the research

question.

96

Table 10: Comparison of Themes Identified in the Responses of Participants for RQ#2 Research Question #2 asked “What are the perceptions of participating Humber ITAL Bachelor of Public Relations students, internship employers, and faculty members about the overall value of work integrated learning on the development of the students’ employability skills, through an internship experience? How do their perceptions compare and why?”

Themes Students Employers Faculty

Communication Skills Improvement Improvement Improvement

Confidence in the Workplace Improvement Improvement Improvement

Adaptability Improvement Varied Not discussed

Problem Solving Skills Improvement Varied but improved Not discussed

Time Management Skills Improvement Varied but improved Not discussed Legend: Improvement: Overall improvement in specified skills. Varied: Variance in responses on improvement in specified skills. Varied but improved: Skillsets varied by overall, participants reported improvement in specified skills.

Interpretation of Findings for Research Question #2 Related to the Literature

Reviewed. The unstructured, inconsistent and site-dependent landscape of internship based

experiential learning presented the opportunities for students to learn more about themselves,

from personal discovery to career-related employability skills including their confidence,

adaptability time management and professional skills. After undergoing the 14-week internship

term, students, employers and faculty indicated that the employability skills and behaviour of

the students displayed a positive change. The students felt more confident, had a better

understanding of time management, and understood the need to be adaptable and flexible in the

workplace. But most importantly, they understood what it really means to be a professional, and

to act with professionalism.

Consistent with Hildreth (1951), Alpert, Heaney and Kuhn (2009), Meredith & Burkle

(2008), and Helyer and Lee (2013), students were able to bridge the gap between their

academically based knowledge and real-life experience through connecting coursework to their

97

work-integrated learning experiences. They were able to learn, in Pestalozzi’s manner, how to

work with little guidance from teachers, and how to observe and draw conclusions from their

work experience. The internship also began a foundation for students to develop their self-

efficacy (Bandura, 1977). Students became more self-aware (Subramaniam & Freudberg, 2007)

and were able to better analyze their positive attributes and their short comings. Employers

noted that the internship was a way to try out a job and allowed students the opportunity to apply

theoretical classroom knowledge of the industry to the workplace (D’Gravel, 2011).

In line with Stewart and Fields (2014), the findings suggest that the rise of technology

further illustrates the skill gaps and skill shortages amongst graduates. Students must learn to

deal with the increasing quantity of data that is available and the challenges that this data

presents to corporations today (Wiencierz & Röttger, 2017). Employer interviews revealed that

their expectations are in line with Triantafillidou and Yannas’s (2016) thesis that suggests that

firms are now looking to use big data to conduct research on the public in order to provide a

clearer manner in which firms can control their corporate message and evaluate their strategies.

Kent and Staffer (2014) discussed the fall of the PR industry as a result of not keeping with the

technology sector. The findings of this study reveal that graduates are not prepared to deal with

the technological challenge that will face them in the workplace. This will lead to a paradigm

shift in the communications field.

Interpretation of Findings for Research Question #2 Related to the Theoretical

Framework. American education theorist Kolb describes that his theory (Figure 2, Chapter

Two, p. 27) was intended to explain how individuals learn, and motivate learners to trust in their

experience with the goal of attaining mastery over their individual learning (Kolb, 2014). He

developed this theory as a systematic framework to help solve the problems of work and

education in the 21st century. The theory provides a cyclical model of learning through four

stages. A learner may enter at any stage but must complete the cycle to achieve its full benefits.

98

The model begins with (1) a concrete experience, (2) followed by time to reflect on the

experience, (3) with the ability to apply theories to the experience and (4) time to evaluate the

experience and plan (Stirling et al., 2014). Kolb’s framework applied to the internship

experience encourages students to take control of their learning through consciously moving

through the stages experiencing, reflecting, discussing and applying changes as time and tasks

evolve. This sense of flexibility and adaptability is an employability skill that will position

students for the current and future workforce.

The internship forced students to take control of their learning, under the supervision and

mentorship of faculty members including the internship professor and facilitator before, during

and after the internship; this level of guidance matches with stage three of Kolb’s experiential

learning cycle (Figure 2, Chapter Two, p. 27) and should not be underestimated in shaping the

personal, professional and employability skills development of the Bachelor of Public Relations

students. This situation set them up to experience Kolb’s experiential learning cycle (Figure 2,

Chapter Two, p. 27) which lends itself to the development of employability skills through the

internship experience.

Research Question 3 asked, “What do the participants perceive to be the benefits of internship-

based work-integrated learning as experienced in the internship component of their program?”

Themes that I identified in the data related to this research questions came again from the

interviews of all three groups of participants.

Student Interviews. Internship work integrated benefits reported by the participating

students focused around the students’ ability to adapt to the workplace, and their ability to put

public relations theory into practice. Students conveyed that the positive benefits of their

99

internships were reflected in their newfound respect for professionalism and their expanding

knowledge base.

On the job benefits. Students found the workplace a site for personal exploration. They

were able to test their abilities, knowledge, and communication skills in a closed environment

with relatively low stakes. This in turn provided them an opportunity to grow both as people and

as professionals. Students were happy to find that many of the tasks required of them during

their internship were things that they had practiced in school. With their background giving

them a base, now, it was time for them to put theory into practice. One student commented:

I feel like a lot of the knowledge that I had going into my internship was knowledge I already had from school. But I feel like it just really solidified it because I was able to put it into practice. Anything new that I really learned out of it was just added advice or something like that, on how I would complete tasks and stuff like that. (S1)

Another student (S7) conveyed that their growing confidence in their ability to manage tasks

was even more important than the communication skills they had developed, and that finding

their passion in the workplace gave them a new respect for their job.

You don't want to stall on sending something off because you're unsure of the fact that you could have done it correctly. You don't want to send out something just immediately because you don't care either. Finding that balance and also having something that I was interested in writing about, made getting to work easier. The days went by pretty quick because I was pretty consumed in the stuff I was doing. I think it just reinforced the idea that if you have to find something you actually enjoy doing. Some days are still going to be tough and going to be work. But it makes all the difference in the world to actually be invested in the material you're working on. (S7)

Yet another student reported positive experiences with personal interactions with their

colleagues and clients:

I would say my internship was extremely hands on, I spent a lot of time in actually interacting with people. It wasn’t primarily news releases or doing anything like that, a lot of face to face time both with my supervisor, and with people we’d be meeting with and working alongside. I think it was really good for a personal experience. And to be able to actually work alongside him, in meetings, and see how he interacts with those potential partners we could be working with, and also people that we do have to work with already on a day to day basis. (S5)

100

Students were happy to be included in tasks, meetings, and events. A student summarized it as:

“The more you perform well, the better and more responsibilities they are going to give you.

And because I was there for so long it helped a lot with them feeling comfortable to give me

new tasks” (S4).

Class instruction compared with the workplace. Students recognized the challenges in

real practice public relations settings during internship experiential learning and contrasted that

with what they learned in the classroom. They were able to get “hands on experience” (S2).

Moreover, they were able to identify and contrast how their skills were developed in the

workplace compared to the classroom; an example of this is the comment made by S4:

The internship really helps you develop the soft skills that you need. I think being in the class is the way to learn structure. Each course isn’t just some writing, it’s based on attendance, participation, coming to class, being involved, different quizzes, oral presentations. They help us develop the soft skills as well. However, an internship is being thrown into deep water where if you can do it, you can do it. (S4)

Furthermore, Student S4 pointed out that students also learned how to work in a workplace:

I learned how to work in an office. I learned that we learn a lot of hard skills in our program but being on the internship we learned a lot of soft skills about actually being in an office environment, having different departments around, so close to the communications department, and how important it is for the communication to be centrally located within the office for many different reasons. (S4)

They realized that interning offered them the opportunity to not only apply what they

learned in the classroom, but also to reinforce their understanding of public relations theories.

During their internships, students were also expected to be able to confront problems that arose.

Sometimes, they were put in situations where they were forced to cope with crisis, and this acted

as a learning experience. Again, S4 noted that:

It was really interesting to see, in times of change, how communication is the backbone for a lot of people and how we really are the voice that takes in a lot of information and then we have to spit out a strategy or we have to spit out something that is going to neutralize the situation. (S4)

101

New situations allowed students to not only test themselves, but to test the industry they were in

and decide for themselves if it was the one that they wanted to work in post-graduation.

During the internship experience, students realized that learning is continuous and

extends beyond the classroom. Real-world practice offers them a chance to learn as they go, and

with this, they became aware of what skills they also lacked, such as numeracy and time

management.

Learning. Learning on the job came in a variety of forms: learning to cope with

situations, learning to cope with tight deadlines, learning to adjust to a different work-life

balance, and learning to put knowledge into practice. One student described their struggle with

learning to manage their motivation with an unpaid internship when they had financial

obligations (S8). Half (n = 4) of the participating students were similarly in unpaid internships.

Moreover, the student (S8) described growing their emotional intelligence in the workplace and

understanding that reading the room was important to what they were doing. They were

handling multiple social media accounts, and that “was handling a lot of information. They’d

give me different documents to look through, different sites to go through to find ideas, and for

evaluation I’d deal with numbers” (S8).

In reviewing the course outlines I kept track of the mathematical and statistical skills

required in each course; however, when I interviewed the faculty, I was not aware of what the

students said about the quantitative curriculum. Learning to deal with numbers came as a

repeated issue commented on by the students. All eight of the students felt unprepared to deal

with the mathematical areas of their job, and they felt that learning on the job lacked the fluidity

that learning in the classroom does. For example, S8 noted that: “the numbers, I wish that we

learned that more (about numbers) in school” (S8).

102

Additionally, another student commented that other students “learned a lot about the

different terminology” (S4). Overall, students “learned a lot about communication, how we

engage with audiences” (S8). They were taught how to measure engagement, use different

programs, and learn different disciplines in order to complete projects. Students also perceived

that the skills they acquired from their internships were transferable and this was reflected by

what students S7 and S1 shared with us, “I feel a lot of the skills we learned are transferable in

some way or another” (S7) and “I think pretty much everything I learned would qualify as

transferable skills” (S1).

Employer Interviews. Employers noted the importance that real world experience had

on the experience of the students, and how many personal and professional strides students took

on the job. They were proud of the learning that students did on the job, and thought it provided

great benefit to the shaping of the students’ education.

Real world experience. Employers recognized the challenges that students faced when

entering a real-world workplace and saw the development in their students as they progressed

through their internship. They noticed that students could connect their workplace to their

classroom and adapt to the demands. The “hands on experience” (E6) allowed “for a young

person to see what it's like in the real world” (E3). School settings are much different than an

actual workplace, and employer E1 noted that:

the interpersonal social skills are different in a real work setting, because professors are probably more coaching and learning and giving back, whereas in a work setting there are instructions and when they're not, kind of, met, they need to be addressed immediately and quickly, and mistakes can't happen in a real life setting because it affects bottom line, production, the whole chain of events. So, I think it's a much less lackadaisical environment. I think they learn a lot of things that they don't learn in school. Because in school they have a whole day to complete…an activity, or an assignment. (E1)

To my surprise another employer stated that:

103

I find that the students tend to come in without a lot of experience. So, the internship is more of a mentorship than an actual internship, in my view. So, a lot of times it's really exposing them to the first time working in an office. So, I would say sometimes they come in not really even knowing, you know, certain office culture, and do's and don'ts and that sort of thing. So, it can almost be quite basic, some of the things that we need to sort of orient them to before we are even touching on the actual material and the tasks that we assign them. So that's kind of been my experience. I don't generally... I have to really approach that way because if I approach it thinking someone's going to come in with skills that are really going to - they're going to hit the ground, they're going to be able to take it and meet it, then that's not usually how it is. In terms of the transferable skills, just on the job we really give a robust range of opportunities to learn on the job. (E2)

All eight employers recalled that students came with little experience, and in most cases,

it was the student’s “first time that they (were) exposed to doing something in the field of their

study” (E2). Internships act as a “great base” (E1) and a “great foundation for the ladder” (E1),

giving students a “piece of the real world” (E1).

One employer (E8) noted that the students “get thrown into the water, deep water. We

make sure they don't drown. But if they don't have a thick skin, if they don't have a desire to

experience real agency experience, they're going to flee”. This acts as both an experience and a

learning lesson. Students “try different areas of agency life” (E8), while “actually seeing what

they're learning in class being put into practice” (2); for example, an employer E2 conveyed

that:

So, a lot of the concepts that they would have been taught, they’re seeing how it plays out in real-world settings. And I think that's more meaningful than anything, because I think just the exposure to having that experience is also helpful from the point of view of letting them know what what's important for them to focus on and whether this is a career path for them. It gives them a sense of what a day in the life is like, so that you can probably pick your path or know where it is that you're going to fit, ultimately, through that experience as well. Because I think sometimes, they might come in with certain perceptions of what they think they're going to be doing and then they find out that oh well you know it requires this much more skill that they would not necessarily be as good at. So, they might start rethinking things.

Another employer (E3) mentioned that the internship “prepared them because they had

to do it. It gave them an easy way without any consequences to jump in and try things” (E3). If

104

students failed, they would be supported, which is something that doesn’t happen in the real

world but does occur during the internship (E3).

Employers noted the enthusiasm that some of their students had:

I would say that there was an excitement for her to be able to apply what she was learning in school through a textbook and apply those skills - and not talking about the skills in particular but be able to apply something that she's learning into the real world and to see the results of it. I think that, to me, is the single most important experience someone can have in relation to business and learning. (E4)

Learning. All eight employers noted that the students took great strides in their personal

development, and that they “learned a lot” (E5); moreover, “they came a long way too, just in

the way that they handled themselves” (E5). Another employer (E4) conveyed the experiential

learning experience as:

to have a thought or an idea or to learn something and apply it in the real world and just see that come to life, it opens doors for people, including her. Then someone realizes that they're able to manifest their dreams and ideas into something that is real in the real world. I mean, it's a life changing, life altering experience. And for her, I know she definitely felt it. I just I feel like it was - not getting into skills and the things that she was doing on a daily, but more so the experience overall for her I feel was a very positive and I feel like she was receptive to it and she understood it.

Faculty Interviews. The four participating faculty found that students greatly benefited

from work integrated learning during their internship and found that it extended into the

classroom during the students’ fourth year. One faculty member (F1) believed that the internship

component added to the personal, professional, and intellectual growth of their students allowing

them to develop their employability skills before graduating. The experiential nature of the

internship, “applying what they're learning . . . keeps them interested and motivated . . . and it

also helps them know what they like and what they don't like”, said F1.

Another faculty member (F3) conveyed that:

Students come back looking more presentable and polished. I know that's a subtle difference, but it does make a big difference and they come back and see how people act and look in a professional environment. They mimic that. They come back, and they

105

respect that. So that by the time they go to apply for a job, they already understand how they should talk, how they should look, how they should act in very subtle ways. But you really do see a difference when they come back.

That faculty member (F3) found that when the students return for their fourth year, “they just

seem to have made a quantum leap in their maturity and their judgment. So certainly, there's a

noticeable difference before and after” the internship. Students were reported to be more mature,

more focused, and more prepared to graduate and work in the real word.

The students experienced growth “in personnel management, in their ability to

demonstrate positive attitudes and behaviours, the ability to be responsible, the ability to be

adaptable, the ability to learn continuously, and the ability to work safely” commented F4. One

faculty member contrasted the difference between students who are doubted by their employers

at the beginning of their internship compared to those who are given a lot of responsibility as

follows:

With some internships, where it takes a little while for the employer to build trust in the student, and the student might be doing some more menial jobs at the beginning. And it takes a little bit longer to go into it. Some students just get thrown into it right away. So, they have, I think, those are the ones that give them a truly amazing experience. (F2)

During the internship, the focus is “more on tactics, because at that stage, I'm not sure

that they would be invited to strategize” (F1). However, learning to implement tactical measures

resulted in gaining a greater base of knowledge. “In terms of the knowledge, it helps them

contextualize knowledge” said F4. This faculty member stated that putting theory into practice is

important:

In our field, in public relations, you need to understand how this stuff is applied before it starts to make any sense. So, I think integrating - whether that's having a real client in stratcomm or having a writing assignment that has you interviewing somebody in person or having a real event to organize is going to contribute to your knowledge and your skills in much the same way. You're developing those things, and I think mostly, it impacts your attitude. Because what I notice is that when we're doing anything that is work integrated learning, the attitude is much better. They are much more motivated, they are much more inspired, they put their better foot forward in terms of the quality of work they produce. So, I'd say that I think there are various ways to teach people concepts, and I think that skills can be developed in a number of ways, but I think that

106

very little inspires students more than understanding why this information matters to them for the future. And so, when you put things in a context of work and this will get you a job, all of a sudden, their faces light up, and they do put the effort in that you so wish they would on so many other days. (F4)

In the Workplace. The internship acted as a site for participating students to explore

their knowledge bases and grow their personal and employability skills. Students learnt what it

meant to be “professional and attentive” (F4) and to “attend work” (F1).

In terms of their lived experiences, I think that the internship process gives them a good feeling for what the profession is about. I think that sometimes the students come back and say "I didn't really like X. I didn't like agency, or I didn't like non-profit, or I didn't like whatever." And we often say to them "Well, that's good." It's just as useful to know what you don't like as what you do like and sometimes takes them a while to wrap their heads around that. I think part of their lived experience has been finding what they like and don't like. (F4)

Another member of the faculty reported that:

I can’t see how you (can) have a program without an internship. It would be, because everything that they're learning in class now, they're finally getting to do it in practice and somehow that authenticity or how real the lessons that they learn in school become real. They become solid, and they become unquestionable when they truly experience it themselves in the internship. (F2).

Moreover, F4 stated that:

The overriding impression that faculty get is that the internship is a very favourable and positive experience, and that students get a lot. I mean, we notice the results of that experience in the following semester. When they're bringing experience and knowledge into the classroom, and I think that that's a real testament to the learning that takes place. (F4)

The learning of terminology on the job reflects both the industry, the changing marketplace, and

the organization that the student interned in (F1) and also the terminology learned or not learned

in the curriculum. Learning of the appropriate terminology on the job is important for students,

and acts as a supplement to their formal education, allowing them to improve on aspects that

they struggled with before. Participant F4 continued, however,

I think for many; the lived experience of workplace expectations is a bit surprising. However, all of them do work in some capacity part time, or whatever. So, I think that it

107

was just the notion that maybe they're not paying you, because sometimes they're not being paid, or they're not being paid a lot for their internship. The sense that the obligation remains a full-time professional obligation whether they're paying you full time or not. And I think sometimes that was an issue for them to wrap their heads around.

A faculty member believed that the internship component

is so valuable in every way, and that’s also the way I teach is to try to grease the wheel for them in every way. And that’s sort of the feedback from what you're looking at it from an experiential point of view and looking at it from that co-op internship perspective. (F1)

A faculty member recognized that certain students are able to obtain job offers from their

internships for post-graduation and even hold a part-time position during their fourth year of

school. “In terms of the employment, a lot of students actually go back to where they interned.

And, as you know, work there” (F3.) Another faculty member conveyed that students “had a

guaranteed job upon graduation. And that all emanated from their successful internship” (F4).

For many, “that's a powerful testament to the value of the internship” (F4).

Interpretation of Findings for Research Question 3 Related to the Literature

Reviewed. Although the variance between what is taught in class and what is experienced in

real-world practice is unavoidable, the internship experience provides an environment for

students to be responsible, take ownership of their learning, which pushes them to also address

areas in which they can improve in, and think about their future career goals. The literature

highlights that experiential learning has grown in popularity and is seen as a vital component to

education in the 21st century (Deardorff, et al., 2012). Moreover, Coco (2000) indicates

internships are an opportunity for both employers and students to test each other out for a future

position. Students use their internships to test out not only a company, but the sector and

industry - it is an opportunity to taste-test in a way. Post-internship, the Bachelor of Public

Relations students go back to school for a fourth and final year, which makes it a great

opportunity to course correct or to gain the experience needed before graduation to position

108

oneself for the right career path and or future education based on my experience (Hunt, 1987).

While some students chose certain internships, it is the internship that helps them decide if that

is the right field of public relations for them or not, they are then able to use their final year and

thesis to focus on a different aspect of public relations they may prefer to pursue post-

graduation.

Furthermore, students indicated that they were able to bridge the gap between technical

skills related to their field and soft skills through the experience of the internship. This is

beneficial because the skills that recent graduates are purported to be missing are not technical

skills, but soft skills such as leadership, problem-solving, communication and teamwork

capabilities (Andreas, 2018). Muhamad (2012) asserted that employers want to hire graduates

who have not only technical skills or vocational skills, directly connected to their qualifications,

but also essential transferable skills. Students indicated the benefits of both classroom learning

and experiential learning - educational institutions must rely only on both conventional

education coupled with experiential learning for the future workforce to learn “how” to apply

that knowledge; this can only be acquired through experiential learning opportunities

(Muhamad, 2012). He suggested that cognitive abilities are not enough; the ability to do work

relies on one’s ability to adapt to a flexible workforce, which is constantly changing. To do this

one must develop those transferable skills, is integral for an academic program because it

develops not only work skills but also the transferrable/ soft skills necessary for understanding

the work environment (Gault & Duey, 2010).

Interpretation of Findings for Research Question 3 Related to the Theoretical

Framework. Although there are many types of experiential learning activities, a curricular

internship is a highly effective learning pedagogy (Green & Farazmand, 2012). An internship by

way of Kolb’s (1984) experiential learning theory is a teaching technique that offers significant

opportunities for students and benefits for employers (Stretch & Harp 1991). Learning paired

109

with the work placement period of an internship is proven to provide higher quality education

and career preparation for students as compared to learning without (Gault, Redington &

Schlager, 2000). The positive aspects and benefits of a highly effective education and on the job

training for students and employers are grounded in Kolb’s (1984) Cycle of Experiential

Learning. Consequently, it is important that internship programs are grounded in experiential

learning theory and provide deep learning, which is intrinsically motivated, integrative,

reflective and dynamic; and involves engagement and the ability to derive meaning and

underlying structure in order to graduate employable students (Borredon, Defayette & Baker,

2011; Warburton, 2003; Borredon, Defayett, Baker & Kolb, 2011). Little et al. (2001) indicates,

“Kolb’s learning cycle provides a conceptual framework for creating a theoretical base for

internships” (p. 444) which lends itself to the development of soft skills and a better

understanding of the type of career a student would like to pursue post-graduation.

Research Question 4 asked, “What do they perceive to be the issues/challenges that need to be

considered in facilitating the development of employability skills of students in the internship

experiences?”

Themes that I identified in the analysis for this question revolved around the lack of

structure in the internship experience, students having different skillsets and backgrounds, and

the inconsistency in the internship experience that students experienced in different workplaces

and situations.

Student Interviews. A lack of organization in some of the participating internship

workplaces contributed to issues in the development of students’ employability skills while on

the job. Student S2 discussed how the organization wasn’t “necessarily sure where (their job)

was going to be when (they) had applied” (S2). Other students discussed how their tasks ranged

in such variety that they didn’t have the opportunity to fully develop certain skills before being

asked to move onto the next task (S5, S6). Moreover, the lack of updated course information

110

during the PR program contributed to a gap between their knowledge and what was expected of

the students on the job. All students noted that this included a lack of training in social media,

and a greater emphasis on traditional public relations policy compared to the more widely

practiced lifestyle public relations theory, stagnated certain students. However, it also acted as a

growing opportunity.

Employer Interviews. According to the participating employers, students came into the

internship with a different skillset in some areas than what was required, such as a lack of

intuitive know-how, and lacked the communication skills required to succeed. An employer

noted that:

They're not coming in with that actual knowledge of what they actually need to do and how to execute it. They need to be sort of guided with more oversight than if they came in with that experience. So, I think that the practical application of what they're learning maybe needs to focus more on that. And I know they're learning theory and probably other things that are useful, but I think that the tangible skill where they're actually coming in to execute on specific things, that's where they kind of need to - That, to me, is where the gap is. And sometimes they come in with their own experience, not necessarily from their coursework which is helpful but – and I also find that even some minor exposure to some element is not usually enough for them to come in and feel confident about what they're supposed to execute on. (E2)

Internships may end up being a “catch-up” period for students instead of simply a

learning experience, which challenges the notion that the internship itself acts to develop the

employability skills of the students. For example:

a lot of students conveyed that they were they were good at social media, and they were okay at it. And photography and video. But I think taking one course is not really sufficient. So maybe those three things. You know, social media for your own personal use versus business use is very different. So, I think that could be refined. (E1)

Moreover, employers mentioned that students came with different expectations that

didn’t match the reality of what public relations really is.

I feel like there are still fallacies, false notion that PR is doctoring, or messaging, or positioning a company and not realizing that public relations people are actually corporate life coaches that help companies to behave in a more sustainable way. (E8)

111

A lack of clear expectation and direction proved to be a challenge for students and

employers alike. Furthermore, a lack of structure in the internship experience allowed for great

variation in the experiences that students were attaining. An employer also noted that “it's

unfortunate that (the internship) is not a little longer …. I think that in order to get comfortable,

work your way up, understand, and be doing some of the things you may be at first were

learning, having a little bit more time would be nice” (E6).

Faculty Interviews. Faculty members recognized that “given the nature of experiential

learning, the (interning) experience isn't consistent” (F3), which may lead to issues facilitating

the development of employability skills. Depending on the organization and industry the student

interns in, the experience varies. A lack of consistency in the experience puts certain students at

an advantage and others at a disadvantage.

Table 11 shows a comparison of the themes identified in the responses of students,

employers, and faculty for research question #4. Since the data were qualitative, as derived from

semi-structured interview questions, it is not possible to identity the strength of the concern

about these issues only whether or not they were mentioned by the several groups of

participants. Only students mentioned that a lack of structure in the experience was a challenge.

All participants mentioned that students coming in with different skillsets was an issue and was

found challenging. Only faculty mentioned the inconsistency in the internship experience from

student to student. Only employers noted that students had a lack of intuitive know-how about

them. All participations found that communication skills were an issue.

112

Table 11: Comparison of Themes Identified in the Responses of Participants for RQ#4 Research Question #4 asked, “What do they perceive to be the issues/challenges that need to be considered in facilitating the development of employability skills of students in the internship experiences?”

Themes Students Employers Faculty

Lack of structure in the experience Mentioned Not Mentioned Not mentioned

Different skillsets Mentioned Mentioned Mentioned

Inconsistency in the internship experience Not Mentioned Not mentioned Mentioned

Lack of intuitive know-how Not Mentioned Mentioned Not mentioned

Communication skills Mentioned Mentioned Mentioned

Legend: Mentioned by participants as an issue/challenge that needed to be considered in facilitating the development of employability skills of students in the internship experiences. Not mentioned implies the issue was not mentioned by specified participants.

Interpretation of Findings for Research Question 4 related to the Literature

Reviewed. In the past, internship experiences would have led to more concrete benefits for firms

as students would generally be hired post-internship and so the return on investment for the

firms would be higher. However, Cohen observed that today’s internships are much less

structured leading to more variance in experience and skill, and students are not necessarily kept

on post-internship by the firm (Spradlin, 2009. This was consistent with the findings noted by

students, employers and faculty that the internship can be unstructured and inconsistent, and that

students may wish to pursue work with other firms’ post-graduation. Yet, this was inconsistent

with prior work done by Borredon, Defayette and Baker (2011) and Warburton (2003) that

showed the opposite. Although this was noted by participants as an issue, it may not necessarily

have translated into a negative experience to the students. Instead, it may have offered students

the opportunity to explore the diversity of the profession early in their career path and rather

than receive the same experience and training as their classmates each student experience is

113

unique to them. Unstructured and inconsistent is a reasonable reflection of the real workplace;

therefore, although this was seen as a negative issue, it can be viewed as a positive aspect as

well as students are given the opportunity to rise up to the occasion and meet the demands of

their employers. Consistent with the literature - Hildreth (1951), Alpert, Heaney and Kuhn

(2009), Meredith & Burkle (2008), Helyer and Lee (2013), and D’Gravel (2011) - is the

expectations of the employers to hire work ready interns and that the internship bridges the gap

between what is taught in the classroom and what is needed for the internship and as well

gainful employment post-graduation.

Interpretation of Findings for Research Question 4 Related to the Theoretical

framework. From its introduction in 1984, Kolb’s four-stage learning cycle model has been

used in a variety of disciplines and experiential learning as discussed by Alpert, Heaney and

Kuhn (2009) is the link that bridges the gap between education, work and personal development

(Kolb, 1984). Although Kolb’s cycle is depicted as four distinct phases, he does acknowledge

that in real life it is not that clean – that learners move back and forth between stages - and the

experience phase can consist of variations within that phase – not just one organized, structured

experience. The findings that the experience phase in the internships is varied and may be

unstructured and fragmented is consistent with that aspect of his model.

Research Question 5 asked, “As identified by participants, what, if any sector specific skills,

should be added to the program curriculum and/or internship experience to facilitate securement

of gainful employment by students upon graduation from the Honours Bachelor of Public

Relations program?”

There were consistent findings among all three groups of participants regarding what

sector specific skills should be added to the program curriculum. They revolved around the use

of quantitative skills (which include both math skills and skills with interpreting statistics),

114

technology, time management, graphic design, and videography. Also noted was the gap in

education between what skills the employers expected of students and the skills that students

actually came with.

Student Interviews. All eight of the students emphasized the role that numbers, data,

and technology played in their internships, and their partial inability to meet the expectations of

those tasks. The lack of numerical literacy for students came up in all interviews, including

students, faculty, and employers. One student (S7) noted that:

I think anybody who doesn’t have a math or science background is going to be . . out of (their) depth at first. The words are different than numbers. Having a vague understanding is a nice place to start but it’s not enough. (S7)

Another student recalled struggling “with reading those numbers” (S8) and wishing they

“had a better understanding of what the numbers mean” (S8). Another student struggled enough

with the “financial stuff” (S1) that they felt inadequate in many tasks. The workplace is “fast

paced and having a better understanding about the actual numerical side of things is going to be

able to give you not only a better perspective but a better ability to communicate to people”

(S7).

Students also noted that they felt that they hadn’t been educated well enough in media

relations. One student noted that their media relations training “wasn't robust enough” (S4) and

didn’t fit the requirements of the internship (S6). Another student noted that they had done

“extensive media outreach” (S7) in their internship, and that they struggled learning on the job

without a solid basis.

All eight student interviewees discussed technology and its value in the workplace. For

instance, S6 stated:

Technology is progressing fast, and there’s going to be new technology you may not understand. For example, in 2000 there was no Instagram or Snapchat, but now they’re some of the biggest storytelling tools, out there. You have to be able to adapt, learn, and master extremely fast. Generations a couple of years below me are going to have technology I may not even understand. Being able to work with things coming out and

115

not losing your brand or brand messaging is going to be huge. In new platforms, you may not communicate the same way as on Facebook, or Snapchat, so you have to be able to learn and adapt. (S6)

During the internship, students recognized the shift that’s occurring in the PR industry.

One student noted that their “biggest transferable skill that I gained would be the use of Google

Analytics” (S2). This student commented:

That was a big learning curve for me because we did talk about it in class and it was seen as an overview basically because we didn't have the access to specific organizations' analytics that we could look at. And I basically taught myself how to do it kind of on the spot because there was no one else in the room who knew it, either. I ended up sharing that information with everyone else and creating research documents to help other people set up their campaigns properly and set up their websites in order to track future initiatives. And I think that's a big skill that will carry forward. It's a mixture of self-teaching, where to find information, and actually being able to practice and learn from analytics and translate it back into what the organization is doing. (S2)

Seven of the eight students noted that they lacked the videography skills, storytelling

skills, and graphic design skills that their employer expected of them (S2). This was also

commented on by the employers who noted that students lacked the social media skills they

believed they had. There is a difference between social media for personal use and that for

business purposes, and students were ill-equipped to handle that (S8). One student felt

constrained by their lack of graphic design skills and commented that: “I felt I couldn't do as

much as I wanted to” (S4), and “I feel if I had more knowledge about how to create

infographics, how to make like short videos, it could’ve really helped” (S4). Interns were

expected to have photography and visual skills, “for the social media age” (S4), given the

number of visual stimuli in the organization’s campaigns. The learning of multimedia skills was

perceived by all eight students to be “absolutely necessary” (S5) before graduation. Another

student expressed that they had to learn to become storytellers (S8) while another student

struggled to fit the role of both storyteller and producer (S5). Moreover, in terms of social

media, data are key.

116

Students expressed interest in knowing “what kinds of key words and phrases are most

effective” (S6) in optimizing search engine results. S6 believes additional courses such as

“psychology-based classes” would help students understand more about the public and their

client, and a marketing class focused on current trends would also be helpful (S6). Students also

noted that they didn’t “have as much training in the social aspect of PR as (they) did with

traditional PR” (S1).

Traditional PR is going to still be around, but we should do more marketing or search engine stuff or social media. Whenever a crisis happens you hear a company puts out a Facebook message or a tweet, so I feel our class was too traditional. I need to learn what’s more effective in social media and what are the consumer trends currently. (S6)

The development of communication skills in an age of social media also arose in

conversation with the students: “You want to be able to show your clients or whoever how

important it is to maintain an organic voice not a robotic regurgitation of info (S7). Students also

mentioned that they felt they lacked interpersonal skills. Student S7 also said:

I don’t know if you can teach interpersonal skills. Public speaking is one thing, but just having confidence to introduce yourself to people in the office, that are higher up, or feeling like it's not your place. I think finding the sweet spot of making sure you don’t go too far and making sure you have an open personality, and not only do you feel comfortable, but people can come to you when they need something or whatever. Making sure you put yourself out there at every point, it’s not something you can do in class necessarily.

Employer Interviews. To be better prepared to secure gainful employment upon

graduation, employers recommended students should advance their communication skills, their

confidence, their use of technology, their creativity, and their research abilities. To be well-

rounded, students must strive to bridge the skills gap between what they brought with them to

their internship and what had been expected of them by their employers. Employers believed

that there was a skills gap between what students were learning in their schooling and what was

expected in the internship. “It's an understandable gap, but it's a gap that I think an internship

program tries to fill” (E4). Employer E2 explained:

117

I think that they're going to need to continue to have strong writing and communication skills. So, from the writing perspective, I think having a diverse range of abilities - so different types of communication is going to be key. And also understanding those trends, as well, because the different ways that people are digesting communication or that are digesting content. Things are changing with technology, as well. So sometimes in the past where people would read a 10-page report, maybe they're not doing that anymore. Maybe they want an infographic, or they need something which is in video format or something that's using media to convey messaging. So, I think that's really key. That they, kind of, have exposure to these different ways of connecting with audiences and obviously attention to detail is critical. As I mentioned, I think that that's kind of lacking and I'm not sure if it's because of the fast-paced online media consumption that we're all so used to now. But that needs to be stressed as important, as well. I think that there needs to be some attention to that. Yeah, and graphics. (E2)

I identified concerns about the preparation of interns related to the following themes

based on the employers’ input:

Technology. Exposure to the types of technology used in the industry would be

extremely helpful for students. For example, one employer, E2, believed that case study work

using technology would provide more real, tangible skills for students. His main idea was that

students should be able to use technology with: “(a)ll (of) the platforms that we use in this field.

They were exposed to . . .project management, media monitoring, web site maintenance, and

there is (sic) newsletter dissemination tools, there's also the media aspects of that too” (E2).

Employer E5 and employer E6 mentioned that technology skills should be the backbone of the

students’ social media skills. Moreover, employer E8 noted directly that students lacked

knowledge of PR software, something that he viewed as essential. Technology changes rapidly,

and students must adhere to the current trends, and most importantly, understand what they

mean, what they want, and what they will later imply for both the organization and the client.

Learning how to use PR platforms in a classroom setting would provide a boost for their

employability skills post-graduation.

118

Self-motivation. An employer felt that students lacked a “sense of urgency” (E3),

“weren’t self-starters (E3), and “they needed to have everything laid out” (E3) for them. “They

really needed detailed lines of how to do A, how to do B. You had to really, really hover over

them. They couldn't take an idea and run with it. They needed to be guided” (E3). Another

employer mentioned that “students lacked motivation and time management” (E4), “whereas the

motivation for her is different in the sense that she's interested in this and she likes it but she's

also checking a box for school” (E4). Employer E5 found that their student was lacking in

responsibility, professionalism, and maturity. Another employer, E2, inquired whether students

would be able to take any courses for soft skills:

I think a lot of that is missing just in terms of how the intern receives information and how you communicate in a relationship where you need to be able to assess your capacity and to be able to provide feedback in an honest way and not - it should be okay to say no when necessary and be honest. And I guess how you can operate a work setting. . . .I really do think a lot of the soft skills are missing. (E2)

Underdeveloped Skills. Some employers felt that students lacked certain skills. For

example, a lack of education in investor relations proved to be problematic for an employer

(E4). Moreover, Employer E4 found that “there's just certain things that can't be taught, and that

is team dynamics, and office politics”. Mentioned by three of the eight employers (37.5%) was

the need for increased understanding of research methodologies. For example, an employer

stated that students:

will need to improve their research abilities. That means researching the opinions, the attitudes and the behaviours of publics. Publics could mean employees, neighbors, consumers, media . . . They will need to know more about databases and analytics, how to deal with big data. (E8)

While all four faculty members agreed that students were weak in analyzing data and concluded

that the program did not emphasize working with numbers enough, none of the faculty

commented on the broader research methodology skills that E8 referred to.

119

E8 also discussed the need for communication skills on emerging media platforms,

stating that students “will need to know different writing, how to write for different media. They

will need to know how to do video editing. . . and sound editing” (E8). Furthermore, some

employers also felt that students lacked the creativity required to succeed in the industry.

“People need to be more creative in their language, in their descriptions, in their campaigns”

(E1). Students “were just following textbook, but they weren't thinking outside the box” (E7).

Additionally, students lacked the writing skills that were expected of them. On a final note, one

employer mentioned the students’ need for greater understanding of the real world:

I think being well-rounded is a little bit better than being specialized, when it comes to the way things are going. Because having a general understanding of the world and culture and linguistics and every subject is a little bit better for you than being specialized in one particular vein, …. I find especially in PR, knowing a little bit about a lot of things can help you in a lot of ways. (E6)

Faculty Interviews. The themes that emerged out of the faculty interviews revolved

around quantitative skills, writing skills, the teaching of technology skills, and visual

communication skills.

Quantitative skills. All four faculty found that students had issues analyzing data and

working with numbers (F1, F2, F3, F4). “I find that that our program doesn't emphasize (the

ability to use numbers) and some of the students are lacking basic skills in that area. And then,

when they go on an internship, it doesn't come out either” (F3). In the future, the industry will

shift, and data mining and big data will dominate, and there “will be more pressure to keep up

with the overload of information” (F2). Students will be expected to learn to “track results, look

at data, (and) interpret data” (F3). All four faculty agreed that the Humber curriculum “could do

a better job on the numbers” (F4). Faculty F1 noted that students would be required:

A strong comfort level with stats and metrics and analytics . . . (a)nything connected to data surrounding performance. . . there's going to be an expectation of not just data. Let me clarify, not just a numbers-based assessment, but a strong sense of accountability for performance. Like how to measure success and having appropriate means to measure

120

success, whether that's through number and data or it's through qualitative approaches. They're going to need that. (F1)

Writing skills. Faculty also commented that the students’ writing abilities need to

improve given the advanced level of writing skill required to succeed in a PR position said F2.

And F3 clarified: “I think the writing is never going to go away. Think that's going to continue

to be very important” (F3) in the industry. Faculty F1 noted that students lacked the proper

writing skills, and that improvement could only be seen depending on what they were asked to

write. “Are they being asked to write from scratch, or are they being asked to edit? And it

depends, is it the annual reports? Is it something complicated? Is it just writing new sentences,

editing? So, it depends, right?” (F1). Moreover, Faculty F1 noted that the students’ courses

required them to write in a “spectrum of courses” (F1) during their degrees. F4 noted that “(i)n

terms of our business, continuing to be good communicators and writers. Understanding how to

craft messages is not going to stop. And they're going to have to know how to do that on

platforms that we might not recognize yet” (F4).

Business Skills. Faculty F3 noted directly that “general business skills are going to be

more important” (F3) for students looking to succeed in their careers. “(T)his notion of just

communicating for the sake of communicating, which is already part, a large part disappeared, I

think is going to completely disappear. It's going to be… How is this work contributing to the

bottom line? How is this work contributing to key business goals?” (F3). Students may lack the

business savviness that is required to keep up the industry. Teaching general business skills was

noted as just as important as teaching writing skills, in the way that students are taught to write

during writing labs at Humber (F1).

Technology skills. In contrast to the employer’s responses, faculty found that it’s

difficult to teach the technology used in the workplace given the variation across industry:

121

I know that there's always some feedback, like specific technologies for measurement tools. That's all been something that students come back and say, "I wish I knew Fusion better," or whatever app they're using at their workplace that they don't know the metrics around. And that's always difficult for us to manage, because we can't anticipate everything that's out there in the field. (F4)

Visual communication skills. One faculty member (F4) shared their opinion that

students needed “much more training in visual communication. Skills in visual storytelling”

(F4). Moreover,

The visual, also - and I don't think this is unique for the next eight years, I think it will be ongoing - is the ability to constantly be adapting to the new technologies that are coming, because it's changing so quickly that every five years there's going to be lots of different things they have to know. Lifelong learning is going to be the standard. (F4)

On the next page, Table 12 depicts a summary comparison of the themes identified by

the responses of the participants for research question #5, and their need to be added to/ or

worked on during the program. Quantitative skills, technology skills, self-motivation guidance,

graphic design skills, and videography skills were all noted by students and employers as

something to be added to/worked on during the program curriculum. Faculty members only

noted that quantitative skills and technology skills should be added to the curriculum.

Interpretation for Findings for Research Question 5 Related to the Literature

Reviewed. It is evident based on the input of students, employers and faculty that there are

skills gaps in the areas of: quantitative skills, technology, time management, and visual

storytelling. These data are consistent with what I found in the Canadian literature; and

according to the participants, the skills are necessary both now and, in the future, (Stuckey &

Munro, 2013; Weingarten, Hicks, Jonker, Smith, & Arnold, 2015). In Ontario, the responsibility

for addressing

122

Table 12: Comparison of Themes Identified in the Responses of Participants for RQ#5

Research Question #5 asked, “As identified by participants, what, if any sector specific skills, should be added to the program curriculum and/or internship experience to facilitate securement of gainful employment by students upon graduation from the Honours Bachelor of Public Relations program?”

Themes Students Employers Faculty

Quantitative Skills

Should be added to program curriculum

Should be added to program curriculum

Should be added to program curriculum

Technology Should be added to program curriculum

Should be added to program curriculum

Should be added to program curriculum

Self-motivation Should be worked on during program curriculum

Should worked on during program curriculum Not mentioned

Graphic Design Should be added to program curriculum

Should be added to program curriculum Not mentioned

Videography Should be added to program curriculum

Should be added to program curriculum Not mentioned

*Quantitative skills include number skills, data analysis and interpretation, and general mathematical and statistical knowledge.

a skills gap rests with educational institutions, specifically the Colleges of Applied Arts and

Technology because of their vocational mandate. We can’t know with certainty what the jobs of

the future will look like; however, what we do know is that they will require a post-secondary

education, that is relevant to the fast paced, changing landscape of the economy (Miner, 2012).

Post-secondary institutions need to address the mismatch of interns and graduates’ skills (or lack

of skills) with current and available jobs. If these issues are not addressed, new graduates may

be the wrong fit for their employers as they may be insufficiently trained for employment needs

(Miner, 2010). Similar to Kolb’s cycle of experiential learning, the program coordinator, faculty,

internship facilitator and professor should review and reflect the curriculum based on intern and

employer feedback to ensure that what the students are being taught in the classroom is in fact

what employers expect from an intern. My findings were consistent with the literature.

123

Interpretation for Findings for Research Question 5 Related to the Theoretical

Framework. Kolb’s cycle of experiential learning is beneficial for all parties involved in the

experiential learning eco-system, students, employers and the post-secondary institution. The

ability to (1) experience, (2) reflect, (3) think and (4) act allows students to highlight their

individual gaps for improvement (Kolb & Kolb, 2008). The employer evaluation is used as a

tool go through the same process whereby providing feedback to the student as well as the

institution with regards to the areas the student was prepared for and the areas of improvement.

As the institution has access to the students’ reflections and employers’ evaluations, the

institution can take itself through Kolb’s process to identify the gaps and issues in the process

and the internship as a whole to reevaluate current curriculum and revise future curriculum. By

approaching experiential learning by way of Kolb’s experiential learning model, this both

provides the experience and opportunity to reflect on the experience which in turn provides deep

learning both from a subject matter perspective as well as individual self for the student,

employer, and institution.

Summary of Findings in Chapter Four

In summary, in the interviews, students commented on the job benefits, the differences

between classroom instruction and the workplace, and the constant learning they did on the job.

Employers were pleased to note the real-world experience and education that students attained

on the job while faculty members found that students greatly benefited from work integrated

learning during their internship and found that it extended into the classroom during the

students’ fourth year.

Based on the findings reported in chapter four, although the course material leading up to

the internship is structured to meet the needs of the students the actual internship, in-field

experience of the students was semi-structured, somewhat inconsistent, and very dependent on

the industry, site and the employer of the student placements. Students were able to practice

124

skills they had learned in a classroom setting, learn new skills related to public relations, and

they were exposed to different skills they hope to learn, hone, and practice prior to graduation.

The students had time to reflect upon their thesis topics and gained soft skills based on their

experience working in an office setting. Students, employers and faculty all discussed the

fundamental, personal management and teamwork skills as indicated in the Conference Board of

Canada Employability 2000+Report (2000).

In Chapter Five, I conclude the study with implications for policy and practice for

experiential learning curriculum and program development and suggestions for further research.

125

Chapter Five: Conclusions and Implications

In this thesis, I explored the effect of internship experiential learning on the development

of professional employability skills in students in the Honours Baccalaureate Program in Public

Relations at Humber College Institute for Technology and Advanced Learning (ITAL), and the

value of internship-based experiential learning on the development of professional employability

skills. The research was based on interviews with students, employers and faculty; and,

documents analysis of the Conference Board of Canada 2000+ report and the PEQB Ontario

Qualifications Framework and course outlines.

In this chapter, I discuss conclusions based on my interpretation of the research data with

respect to the theoretical framework that grounds this study, and the literature reviewed. I begin

with a summary of the conclusions, followed by some insights relevant to the participants’

perspectives of the internship experience by identifying personal and professional employability

skills that students, employers, and faculty recognized as being met by students to qualify for

graduation and/or what was needed to succeed in a career in public relations. Finally, I discuss

the implications of the findings for theory development, policy and practice, and further

research.

Conclusions

In my literature review, I found a paucity of scholarly and research literature related to

experiential learning in the public relations field with a focus on the connection between the

internship and job readiness based on curriculum and government mandates. In phase one of my

research, I explored relevant documents that ground the program that was the focus of my study

through document analysis of the Employability Skills 2000+ document, Ontario Qualifications

Framework, PEQAB Program Standards, 37 course outlines from Humber’s Honours Bachelor

126

of Public Relations program, and interviews with participating students, internship employers,

and faculty members.

The Employability Skills 2000+ was published by the Conference Board of Canada to

describe the employability skills, attitudes, and behaviours that are necessary in today’s working

world. The skills were listed to provide a common ground for three different skills: fundamental

skills, personal management skills and teamwork skills. They acted as a baseline for my data

analysis of student, employer, and faculty interviews.

The OQF outlines all necessary requirements for graduation, and expectations.

Specifically looking at the Baccalaureate/Bachelor’s Degree: Honours in the document, the

information was used to analyze interviews by manually documenting key ideas and then

comparing them to interview responses. My analysis of the PEQAB Standards allowed me to

establish a baseline for what standards the Ontario government requires of students. The

PEQAB Standards require a broad range of knowledge from several bodies of skills to advance

new ideas and theories, and to challenge previously held assumptions and methods by students.

My analysis of the 37 course outlines from the Humber College ITAL Honours Bachelor

of Public Relations program focused on the essential employability skills mentioned in the

course outlines. All of these documents became a reference framework for the questions asked

and analysis of the interview data.

Participating students self-reported great value on the development of their employability

skills and several behavioural changes as a result of their internship experiential learning

experience. These changes were associated with personal skills, such as their confidence in the

workplace, their adaptability on the job, time management, and recognizing the importance of

professionalism and ethics in the workplace. Under the supervision and mentorship of faculty

members, the internship forced students to take control of their learning. This low level of

guidance is consistent with stage three of Kolb’s experiential learning cycle (Figure 2, Chapter

127

Two p. 27), which lends itself to the development of employability skills through the internship

experience. Kolb’s framework applied to the internship experience encourages students to take

control of their learning through consciously moving through the stages of experiencing,

reflecting, discussing and applying changes as time and tasks evolve. This sense of flexibility

and adaptability is an employability skill that will position students for the current and future

workforce.

Internship work integrated benefits focused around the students’ ability to adapt to the

workplace, and their ability to put public relations theory into practice. Students conveyed that

the positive benefits of their internships were reflected in their newfound respect for

professionalism and their expanding knowledge base. Although the variance between what was

taught in class and what was experienced in real-world practice was unavoidable, the internship

experiences provided the environment for students to be responsible, taking ownership of their

learning, which pushed them to also address areas of improvement and think about their future

career goals. Furthermore, students indicated that they were able to bridge the gap between

technical skills related to their field and soft skills through the experience of the internship.

The internship supervisor and supporting faculty supervised the internships based on the

guidelines set out by Humber College ITAL. Consistent with the literature, it was noted by

students, employers and faculty that the internship can be unstructured and varying, with

students coming in with different skillsets and backgrounds, and a lack of a baseline internship

experience.

There were consistent findings regarding what sector specific skills should be added to

the program curriculum. They revolved around the use of technology, numeracy, time

management and visual storytelling. Also noted was the gap in education between what skills

the employers expected of students and the skills that students actually came with. This datum

corroborates the Canadian literature, with the gap between education and what is needed for a

128

job widening. Post-secondary institutions need to address the mismatch of interns and graduates’

skills (or lack of skills) with current and available jobs, which may position new graduates as the

wrong fit for employers because they are insufficiently trained for continuously changing

employment needs. Similar to Kolb’s cycle of experiential learning (Figure 2, Chapter Two, p.

27), the program coordinator, faculty and internship facilitator/professor should review and

reflect the curriculum based on intern and employer feedback to ensure that what the students

are being taught in the classroom is in fact what employers expect from them.

Implications for Theory

Based on my findings and my personal experience as a public relations professional

(Hunt. 1987), I situate the key elements of my study within the confines of the four stages of

Kolb’s experiential learning cycle (Figure 2, Chapter Two, p. 27).

What I learned from the students, employers, and faculty in my study was that internship

experiential learning is subject to several factors – the employers, the variation among internship

sites, the student’s motivation and the student’s personality. Due to the unstructured and

inconsistent nature of internship experiential learning, the students’ professional and personal

development self-reported by students and observed by faculty and co-op employers can be

positive or negative. Eventually, it is expected that students’ internship experiences (Stage 1 in

Kolb’s experiential learning cycle, Figure 2, Chapter Two, p. 27), will be an incorporation of

confidence, personal and career-related discovery and learning.

After completion of the 14-week internship (Stage 1 of Kolb’s experiential learning

cycle, Figure 2, Chapter Two, p. 27), students self-reflected on their experience (Stage 2 of

Kolb’s experiential learning cycle, Figure 2, Chapter Two, p. 27), recognizing that their

experiences were influenced greatly by the internship employers and internship sites. Moreover,

each individual student came to the internship with a different set of motivation, personality, and

learning style. This in turn might have set a baseline of to what degree their internship

129

experiential learning would develop their professional and personal development. These aspects

have direct effect on how students incorporate their public relations theory to practice (in Stage

3 of Kolb’s experiential learning cycle, Figure 2, Chapter Two, p. 27) and apply their learning

from previous internship to future experiential learning opportunities and in turn employment (in

Stage 4 of Kolb’s experiential learning cycle, Figure 2, Chapter Two, p. 27). As the experiential

learning occurred during a period of employment, students were given tasks by their employers

to complete. Students who have passion and are highly motivated can easily surpass their more

passive counterparts, by engaging with their role at a higher level. E4 indicated the intern had a

personal passion, which motivated the intern to take initiative, which allowed the employer to

trust the intern with more responsibility, so they excelled more quickly than past interns.

When students are back in school following their internship, it is common for them to

share their co-op experiences with other students and faculty members (in Stage 3 of Kolb’s

experiential learning cycle, Figure 2, Chapter Two, p. 27). It’s important for faculty members to

check in with the students and take the opportunity to adjust the alignment of classroom

knowledge and students’ internship experiential learning. Both faculty and students should be

fully aware of the inconsistences and irregularities of the internships, and students should be

encouraged to rise up and meet the demands of their role. By engaging with their jobs, students

are able to better gauge how work in their field is conducted, and if they find the profession well

suited for them.

Implications for Policy and Practice

Based on this research and my interpretation of findings, the next section outlines some

implications for policy and practice for the Honours Baccalaureate Program in Public Relations

at Humber College Institute for Technology and Advanced Learning ITAL.

My research findings produced informative data on what can be improved during the

students’ progression in the Honours Baccalaureate Program in Public Relations at Humber

130

College Institute for Technology and Advanced Learning (ITAL) in preparation for the

internship experience. The data provides a larger framework for what internship experiential

learning can improve on, both on the end of the educational institution, the student, and the

employer. Critical skills can be improved by education institutions in the long run, and in the

short run, students can attempt to develop themselves in a path of personal and professional

growth.

Moreover, the unstructured nature of the internship was identified as an issue for the

students; however, it is a good representation of the workplace, and it’s critical to acknowledge

the potential discrepancy between what was taught in class and what was being done in real

practice. The unstructured nature allowed for students to work and develop with fewer directions

than previous, adding to their confidence. Therefore, the experience - reflection of the

experience, and the ability to build from the experience, together with the ongoing guidance of

the faculty pre-internship, during the internship and post-internship - should always be

encouraged. However, modifications could be made by post-secondary institutions in their

requirements for what designates an internship. A more structured framework for internship

expectations, on behalf of the institutions, may lead to a more consistent internship experience

for students. Post-secondary institutions must ensure they are part of the cycle of experiential

learning by adapting and updating curriculum to ensure businesses see a return on their

investment while taking part in the internship programs of post-secondary institutions.

Additionally, concerns in regard to “negligent deadlines” (E8), identified by the employers, have

implications for faculty and for the curriculum. I suggest that the program may want to consider

mimicking the real-world deadline expectations for academic work, especially in an industry

that relies on them in an effort to prepare the students.

One of the concerns shared by all three groups of participants was an inadequacy in the

students’ communication skills. Communication skills were established as essential skills by the

131

Employability Skills 2000+ document, the Ontario Qualifications Framework, the PEQAB

Program Standards, and 37 course outlines from Humber’s Honours Bachelor of Public

Relations program. Moreover, my findings show that students lacked the proper numeracy

skills, technology skills, time management skills, and visual storytelling skills that employers

expected of them. Numeracy skills were found in the document analysis, but the other skills

listed were not included. These are all topics that are covered in courses, but not at the level

required by employers. Generally, the Honours Baccalaureate Program in Public Relations at

Humber College is focused more on employment post-graduation but failed to provide some of

the necessary teaching that employers might be looking for.

Moreover, the lack of updated course information during the schooling contributed to a

gap between knowledge base of students and what was expected of the students on the job. A

lack of training in digital and social media, with a greater emphasis on traditional public

relations policy compared to the more widely practiced lifestyle public relations theory,

stagnated certain students. The findings from this study seem to suggest that there is a gap

between employer expectations and what students came prepared with. This was particularly an

issue with PR terminology, within the current PR environment. Furthermore, one student (S6)

noted that “psychology-based classes” would help students understand more about the public

and their client, and a marketing class focused on current trends would also be helpful so that

students would know “what kinds of key words and phrases are most effective” (S6) in

optimizing search engine results. Students also noted that they didn’t “have as much training in

the social aspect of PR as (they) did with traditional PR” (S1). I suggest that an education based

on the skills necessary for career success should take precedence over an education based on

theoretical public relation practices. Student and employer feedback is available at the end of

each internship cycle annually, and the public relations and communications industry in general

is rapidly changing – the data and information exists to make real-time practical changes to the

132

program to grow with student, employer and market needs. Restructuring existing courses to

fulfill the current job market requirements should become a practice, and not a theory for post-

secondary institutions. With data readily available the addition of new material and or courses

into the curriculum and program are feasible options. One of the benefits and advantages of a

applied degree is that each course provides both theory as well as hands on experience;

therefore, new material and or courses could be applied effectively with this in mind. Optimally,

each course should emphasize public relations theory and practical hands on experience, if not,

students should be forewarned that their “practical” degree in PR is simply an “academic”

degree in PR.

The lack of numeracy skills that the students displayed was a major problem for

employers. This raised questions about admission requirements and curriculum. The students

that were part of this study entered the program with grade 12 University (U) level math;

however, that requirement has since been dropped. The requirement was dropped as grade 11 U

level math was deemed sufficient to progress through the degree (Humber, 2015). My findings

suggest that the requirement for grade 12 U level math should be revisited both for the benefit of

the students and for the employers. The lack of quantitative skills displayed by the students was

alarming to not only the employers and faculty, but to the students themselves. Employers’

expectations of students’ quantitative skills far exceeded their actual skillset and posed a

significant disadvantage to both students and employers.

I think that all post-secondary education should have a component of experiential

learning in their program. It increases the employability of the student, while increasing their

learning of materials and knowledge. Students report positive self-growth and career

development, and faculty note the increased confidence in the manner in which students act and

feel about the profession. Students were able to develop past their academic skillsets and bridge

the gap between their education and what was required of them on the job. Many students

133

gained skills that were discussed in the study’s document analysis through the internship

experience versus the academic setting. The standards of the documents were not met at a solely

academic setting; however, the students were able to reach past that during their internship

experiential learning. Employers were satisfied with their results, and it added to the overall

local economy. Overall, the internship experiential learning was found to provide value to the

employer, with certain students being prepped to return following graduation.

Implications for Further Research

Due to the gap in Canadian-centric experiential learning literature focused on the field of

public relations with the possibility to expand the topic to the communications and media

sectors, there is a significant opportunity for future researchers who are interested in this topic to

make a valuable contribution to this area. Research in experiential learning in the labour market

can even have legal aspects – with focus on lawmaking, policymaking, and the role of

government in the internship experience.

My research addressed only students at the case study site when they were in their fourth

year just after they completed their internship but prior to graduation. My research was based

specifically on their experience and responses to their internship at a specific point in time.

Based on this study I cannot assess the influence of the internship on the span of the career, their

success, or even how they feel about their experience in the future. It was not feasible to take the

study one step further to validate whether the internship enabled these students from the Humber

College Bachelor of Public Relations program to obtain relevant employment more readily upon

graduation because of increased employability skills gained through the experiential learning

component of the program, because the students must go back to school for their fourth and final

year and this study was conducted during the Winter of 2018. Therefore, a major implication for

further research is a longitudinal study needs to be done to assess the long-term impact of the

internship experience on graduates in their careers in this field, but this was beyond the scope of

134

my study. Their opinions could change and see the internship in a more positive - or even a

more negative light – as they progress through their career. It is possible that students’

observations were based on recollections of their biases to a certain degree. A possible way to

decrease this potential bias is to conduct a longitudinal study where the researcher would follow

the students from the beginning of the curriculum, check in with the participants during their

internship, document the findings, and check in with them following their internship, and

analyze the results for the entire four-year public relations program.

Therefore, even a follow-up study could be conducted based on my research to see if

student’s internship experiences have any influences on their continuous professional

development and career development. Especially, in regard to how they interact with interns in

the future, when they, themselves, are the employer. The follow-up study might choose to ask

faculty about their opinions regarding PEQAB’s version of quality assurance, or the ministry’s

insistence on system-wide standardization, or maybe liaison between the college and employers.

Furthermore, this study did not compare the match to mis-match ratio of graduate employment

for the case study program with that of other similar programs that do not have an internship

requirement.

Moreover, there is room for improvement in the literature on the necessary skill sets

students need and the ones they have when they graduate. During the study, students found

themselves inadequate in certain areas of the public relations profession. The discrepancy

between these two should be reduced, and research should be based on empirical evidence. A

suggested study could even be based on my data of the skills that students were missing. A

researcher could conduct a longitudinal study on students who chose to improve those skills,

measuring their aptitude for the topic at the onset of their discovery of the inadequacy, and at the

end of their schooling, when they graduate.

135

Future research should look into the number of students who change career paths after

doing an internship in their chosen field. Experiential learning may provide an avenue for

exploration that leads the student to the destination of switching career paths. Given how

common it is for students to change degree majors during their time in post-secondary

education, the internship process may prove to be in incentive for change. An observational

study that monitors changes in the degree majors following an internship would be highly

beneficial for educational institutions.

More research should be conducted on student learning style on the job and the

internship experience. Internships are subjected to several underlying factors, such as student’s

motivation, student’s learning style, the perception that the student has on the employer, and

most importantly, student’s personality. These personal traits might affect the degree of

professional and personal development in students. A longitudinal study, or a study based in

psychology, could see if there is association between student learning styles and internship

experiences.

Additionally, more research should be conducted on the peer-to-peer interactions among

public relations students. Communication between students that work in a sociable field is

important not only for personal growth, but for professional growth. The driving force of Kolb’s

experiential learning cycle in students is ongoing self-assessments and reflections. In students,

reflection on areas that they see themselves lacking in should be further explored in order to

facilitate professional and personal development. Student-to-student interactions during the

internship, and post-internship, in the classroom are important for their perspective of how their

internship progressed and what they learned. In the classroom, and outside of it, students usually

share their internship experiences with their peers. This relates directly to Stage three of Kolb’s

framework of experiential learning (Figure 2, Chapter Two, p. 27). Students may have engaged

with experiential learning with other interns at their internship site and had multiple

136

opportunities to self-reflect and interact with their peers throughout their internship experiences.

Moreover, greater communication between students would allow them to increase their

professional communication skills – skills that they were found to be lacking. Increased

communication between PR students would also result in greater social networks for said

students once they start their professional careers. This in turn could lead them to progress

through their career at a much greater pace, especially in the public relations environment.

An increase of academic literature related to experiential learning across Canada would

help build meaningful programs that flow through Kolb’s cycle of experiential learning which

will allow for all the stakeholders to work together to design, execute and manage experiential

learning programs that close the skills gap for students upon graduation. Since the completion of

my research, the program has moved into a common first-year model; therefore, it would be

interesting to re-conduct this study with a new group of students that are part of the common

first-year as a comparison.

Another implication for further research might be that faculty should be invited to review

the themes identified in the findings and then re-interviewed to assess whether the perceptions of

the interns or employers were aligned with theirs or not, and what the implications for the

program might be or not.

In summary, I suggest that further research focus on reducing bias in responses by

performing longitudinal studies, investigating the legal aspects of the internship experiential

learning process, studies based in career and degree changes following the internship, studies

observing and finding the necessary solution to decreasing the skillset gaps, student learning

style and the internship experience, and peer-to-peer interactions. It would be worthwhile to

investigate these topics within the realm of internship experiential learning in Canadian

undergraduate education as well.

137

Conclusion

Based on the interviews with the students, employers, and faculty members, I found that

the value of the experiential learning program through participation in an internship is different

for everyone, no two students are alike, no two work places are alike, and that there is a level of

subjectivity in each scenario. While students believed that they gained self-confidence and

achieved a level of both career- and self-discovery during their internship placements, their

professional and personal development could primarily be driven by their own motivation and

personality. On the other hand, faculty members regarded that the employers and the internship

sites did play a role in influencing students’ individual development. These structural

differences are where inconsistencies lie in the experience that students went through.

Despite the unstructured nature of the internships, where students might have come with

different skillsets than what was expected of them, it was evident that an internship did offer

students the opportunity to explore the diversity of the public relations profession. By exploring

the diversity of the profession, students were able to see theory put into practice, and have a

taste for what awaits them post-graduation. Moreover, they are now able to take ownership of

their learning and re-adjust their courses for their final year of post-secondary education in order

to meet the demands of the workplace. Faculty members can now supplement their teaching

with skills that students indicated they lacked in order to reinforce and re-align the information

and skills acquired in the classroom and those in real-world practice. In the long run, educational

institutions can take more steps to realign students’ skills with the skills that employers seek

from their workers.

In conclusion, throughout my research, I was able to represent an internship experience

as a structure integrated into the four stages of Kolb’s experiential learning cycle through the

experiences of students from the Humber ITAL Public Relations program during their summer

internship between their third and fourth year of the program. My analysis of the transcripts

138

taken from interviews with the participating students, employers, faculty members, and data

analysis from government documents and Humber PR course outlines allowed me to reach a

consensus on the internship component of the program. My results found positive benefits

arising from the internship for students; yet, showed the reality of the gap between

employability skills and course curriculum for the Humber ITAL Public Relations program. I

believe, nevertheless, that an internship experiential component is both an essential and an ideal

curricular model for public relations students that wish to better assert and position themselves

for success in field of public relations. A rigorous, faculty supervised internship should become

a baseline for all public relations programs as it enables students to mature and have a taste for

their chosen profession without fully committing. In a way, the internship acts as a taste-tester,

and students are able to try different fields and roles without much at stake. Overall, internships

provide safe and healthy environments for experiential learning.

Contributions to the Field. The thesis addresses a gap in the scholarly literature and

research on work-integrated learning related specifically to PR programs in Ontario. Moreover,

it examines the readiness of Ontario public relations students entering the workforce with

respect to essential employability skills. It also brings to light the expectations of public

relations employers and the struggles that students’ face during internships.

Since the MTCU and PEQAB standards apply to all honours baccalaureate programs in

Ontario (see pages 17, 18 & 37) this suggests that the findings of this case study are

generalizable to the five other honours baccalaureate Public Relations programs in this province.

Furthermore, the thesis findings are informative for any educational program that includes work-

integrated experiential learning, especially in the form of internships. And, my research provides

guidance for evaluation of the efficacy of work-integrated experiential learning. I hope to see

more research being conducted on the topic by other researchers in the field.

139

References

Adès, J. (2012). Conference Board of Canada. Today’s high youth unemployment: A solution for skill shortages? Retrieved from http://www.conferenceboard.ca/economics/hot_eco_topics/default/12-02-29/today_s_high_youth_unemployment_a_solution_for_skill_shortages.aspx

Alpert, F., Heaney, J., & Kuhn, K. L. (2009). Internships in marketing: Goals, structures and assessment – Student, company and academic perspectives. Australasian Marketing Journal, 17(1), 36-45. doi:10.1016/j.ausmj.2009.01.003

Andreas, S. (2018). Effects of the decline in social capital on college graduates’ soft

skills. Industry and Higher Education, 32(1), 47-56.

Armstrong, S. J., & Fukami, C.V. (Eds.). (2009). The SAGE handbook of management learning, education and development. SAGE.

Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral

change. Psychological Review, 84(2), 191-215. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.84.2.191

Beard, C., & Wilson, J. P. (2013). Experiential learning: A handbook for education, training and coaching. London: Kogan Page Publishers.

Beard, D. F. (2007). Assessment of internship experiences and accounting core competencies. Accounting Education: An International Journal, 16(2), 207–220. doi:10.1080/ 09639280701234625.

Becker, C. H. (2009). Student values and research: Are millennials really changing the future of reference and research? Journal of Library Administration, 49(4), 341-364. doi:10.1080/01930820902832454

Becker, G. (1964). Human capital; a theoretical and empirical analysis, with special reference to education. New York: NBER.

Ben-Porath, Y. (1967). The production of human capital and the life cycle of earnings. Journal of Political Economy, 75(4), 352-365. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/1828596

Bennett, N., Dunne, E., & Carré, C. (2000). Skills development in higher education and

employment. London: Taylor & Francis

Bernard, A., & Branch, A. S. (2013). Unemployment dynamics among Canada's youth. Ottawa, ON: Statistics Canada. Retrieved from http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/11-626-x/11-626-x2013024-eng.pdf

140

Bloom, M., & Kitagawa, K. (1999). Conference Board of Canada. Understanding employability skills. Retrieved from http://www.accc.ca/wp-content/uploads/archive/es- ce/257_99.pdf

Boden, R., & Nedeva, M. (2010). Employing discourse: Universities and graduate ‘employability’. Journal of Education Policy, 25(1), 37-54. doi: 10.1080/02680930903349489

Borenstein, J. (2011). Robots and the changing workforce. AI & Society, 26(1), 87-93.

doi:http://dx.doi.org.myaccess.library.utoronto.ca/10.1007/s00146-009-0227-0

Boyko, L. (2012). MKT151 – Integrated marketing communications (syllabus). Toronto: Humber School of Media Studies and Information Technology.

Breunig, C. (2009). Teaching Dewey's experience and education experientially. In Stremba, Bob; Bisson, Christian A. Teaching Adventure Education: Best Practices. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Borredon, L., Deffayet, S., Baker, A., & Kolb, D. (2011). Enhancing deep learning: Lessons from the introduction of learning teams in management education in France. Journal of Management Education, 35(3), 324- 350. doi:10.1177/1052562910368652

Castillo-Montoya, M. (2016). Preparing for interview research: The interview protocol refinement framework. The Qualitative Report, 21 (5), 811-831.

CEWIL Canada (2005). Co-operative education manual a guide to planning and implementing co-operative education programs in post-secondary institutions. Retrieved from: https://www.cewilcanada.ca/_Library/_documents/coopmanual.pdf

CEWIL Canada. (2018). Accreditation. Retrieved from http://www.cewilcanada.ca/accreditation.html

CEWIL Canada. (2019). Co-operative education definition. Retrieved from

https://www.cewilcanada.ca/co-op-defined.html

Clark, J., & White, G. W. (2010). Experiential learning: A definitive edge in the job market. American Journal of Business Education, 3(2), 115. ISSN: 1942-2504

Coco, M. (2000, Spring). Internships: A try before you buy arrangement. SAM Advanced

Management Journal, 65(2), 41. Retrieved from http://link.galegroup.com.myaccess.library.utoronto.ca/apps/doc/A62205446/AONE?u=utoronto_main&sid=AONE&xid=f7dcd5a6

Colleoni, E. (2013). CSR communication strategies for organizational legitimacy in social media. Corporate Communications: an international journal, 18(2), 228-248.

Conference Board of Canada (2000). Employability skills 2000+. Retrieved from

141

http://www.conferenceboard.ca/topics/education/learning-tools/employability-skills.aspx Conference Board of Canada. (2018). Employability skills. Retrieved from

https://www.conferenceboard.ca/edu/employability-skills.aspx

Conference Board of Canada. (2016). Canada’s labour markets to tighten after 2016. https://www.conferenceboard.ca/press/newsrelease/12-04-18/Canada_s_Labour_Markets_to_Tighten_After_2016.aspx

Conklin, T. (2013). Making it personal: The importance of student experience in creating autonomy-supportive classrooms for millennial learners. Journal of Management Education, 37(4), 499-538. doi:10.1177/1052562912456296

Cook, S. J., Stokes, A., & Parker, R. S. (2015). A 20-year examination of the perceptions of business school interns: A longitudinal case study. Journal of Education for Business, 90(2), 103-110.doi:10.1080/08832323.2014.988201

Cooper, L., Orrell, J., & Bowden, M. (2010). Work integrated learning: A guide to effective practice. New York: Routledge.

Creswell, J. W. (2014). A concise introduction to mixed methods research. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.

Creswell, J.W. & Miller, D.L. (2000). Determining validity in qualitative inquiry. Theory Into Practice, 39, 124-130.doi: 10.1207/s15430421tip3903_2

D'Gravel, D. (2011). Internships and small business: A fruitful union? A conceptual approach. Journal of Management Policy and Practice, 12(2), 27-43. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/876865221?accountid=14771

Daley, B. J. (2000). Learning in professional practice. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 2000: 33-42. doi:10.1002/ace.8604

Deardorff, D. K., de Wit, H., & Heyl, J. D. (Eds.). (2012). The SAGE handbook of international higher education. Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications.

DiLorenzo-Aiss, J. & Mathisen R.E. (1996). Marketing higher education: Models of marketing

internship programs as tools for the recruitment and retention of undergraduate majors. Journal of Marketing for Higher Education, 7(1), 71-84. doi:10.1300/J050v07n01_06

Ducatel, K. (1998). Learning and skills in the knowledge economy (No. 98-2). DRUID Working

Paper Series.

Edelman, L.F., Manolova. T.S., & Brush. C.G. (2008). Entrepreneurship education: Correspondence between practices of nascent entrepreneurs and textbook prescriptions for success. Learning and Education 7(1), 56-70. Briarcliff, NY: Academy of Management. doi:10.5665/AMLE2008.31413862

142

Esper, T.L., Ellinger, A.E., Stank, T.P., & Flint, D.J. (2010) Demand and supply integration: a conceptual framework of value creation through knowledge management. Journal of the Academy of marketing Science, 38(1), 5-18.

Fallows, S., & Steven, C. (2013). Integrating key skills in higher education: Employability,

transferable skills and learning for life. London: Routledge.

Fusch, P. I., & Ness, L. R. (2015). Are we there yet? Data saturation in qualitative research. The Qualitative Report, 20(9), 1408.

Füssl, K. H. (2006). Pestalozzi in Dewey’s Realm? Bauhaus Master Josef Albers among the German speaking emigrés’ colony at Black Mountain College (1933–1949). Paedagogica historica, 42(1-2), 77-92.Gaber, J., & Gaber, S. L. (2010). Using face validity to recognize empirical community observations. Evaluation and Program Planning, 33(2), 138-146.

Garrison, D. R., and T. Anderson. 2011. E-learning in the 21st century: A framework for research and practice, 2nd ed. London: RoutledgeFalmer.

Gault, J., Leach, E., & Duey, M. (2010). Effects of business internships on job marketability:

The employers' perspective. Education + Training, 52(1), 76-88. doi:10.1108/00400911011017690

Gault, J., Redington, J., & Schlager, T. (2000). Undergraduate business internships and career success: Are they related? Journal of Marketing Education, 22(1), 45-53. doi:10.1177/0273475300221006

Gentry, J. W. (1990). What is experiential learning? Guide to business gaming and experiential learning. Association for Business Simulation and Experiential Learning (ABSEL).

Gerjets, P. H., & Hesse, F. W. (2004). When are powerful learning environments effective? The

role of learner activities and of students’ conceptions of educational technology. International Journal of Educational Research, 41, 445-465.

Gerken, M., Rienties, B., Giesbers, B., & Könings, K. D. (2012). Enhancing the academic internship learning experience for business education—A critical review and future directions. In Learning at the crossroads of theory and practice (pp. 7-22). Amsterdam: Springer Netherlands.

Gibbons, R., & Waldman, M. (2004). Task-specific human capital. The American Economic Review, 94(2), 203-207. Retrieved from http://myaccess.library.utoronto.ca/login?url=https://search-proquest-com.myaccess.library.utoronto.ca/docview/233024832?accountid=14771

Glaser, Barney G. (1965). The constant comparative method of qualitative analysis. Social

Problems, 12(4), 436-445. http://www.jstor.org/stable/798843 .

143

Government of Canada. (2015). 5124 Professional Occupations in Public Relations and Communications. Retrieved from http://www30.rhdcc.gc.ca/CNP/English/NOC/2006/Profile.aspx?val=0&val1=5124

Government of Ontario. (2019). Essential Employability Skills. Retrieved from http://www.tcu.gov.on.ca/pepg/audiences/colleges/progstan/essential.html

Government of Ontario. (2009). Postsecondary Education Quality and Assessment Board: Quality of Ontario college degrees. Retrieved from http://www.peqab.ca/QualityONCollegeDegrees.html

Government of Ontario. (2019). Ontario Qualifications Framework. Retrieved from http://www.tcu.gov.on.ca/pepg/programs/oqf/certificate11.html

Green, R. D., & Farazmand, F. A. (2012). Experiential learning: The internship and live-case

study relationship. Business Education & Accreditation, 4(1), 13-23. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1268715076?accountid=14771

Guest, G., Bunce, A., & Johnson, L. (2006). How many interviews are enough? An experiment with data saturation and variability. Field Methods, 18(1), 59-82. doi:10.1177/1525822X05279903

Guest, Greg (2012). Applied thematic analysis. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage.

Güera, M. R. (2013). Improving human performance: Industry factors influencing the ability to

perform. Knowledge Management & E-Learning, 5(1), 66. Retrieved from http://myaccess.library.utoronto.ca/login?url=https://search-proquest-com.myaccess.library.utoronto.ca/docview/1955098123?accountid=14771

Gupta, P., Burns, D. J., & Schiferl, J. S. (2010). An exploration of student satisfaction with

internship experiences in marketing. Business Education & Administration, 2(1), 27-37. Retrieved from http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1871152

Hall, P. A., & Soskice, D. (2001). Varieties of capitalism: The institutional foundations of

comparative advantage. Oxford University Press.

Hammerman, D.R., Hammerman W.M., & E.L. Hammerman. (2001). Teaching in the outdoors. Danville, IL: Interstate.

Harvey, L. (2003). Transitions from higher education to work: A briefing paper prepared by Lee Harvey, with advice from ESECT and LTSN Generic Centre colleagues. Retrieved from http://www.qualityresearchinternational.com/esecttools/esectpubs/harveytransitions.pdf

Helyer, R., & Lee, D. (2014). The role of work experience in the future employability of higher education graduates. Higher Education Quarterly, 68(3), 348-372. doi: 10.1111/hequ.12055

144

Helyer, R., & Lee, D. (2014). The role of work experience in the future employability of higher education graduates. Higher Education Quarterly, 68(3), 348-372.Doi: 10.1111/hequ.12055

Henderson, P. (2015). Unpaid internships still demand action for exploiting young: The Canadian Press. Retrieved from http://www.thecanadianpress.com/english/online/OnlineFullStory.aspx?filename=DOR-MNNCP.e99d8c1b6e2a4eb697fbd50d7acdbf30.CPKEY2008111303&newsitemid=34952378&languageid=1

Herring, M. (2014). The Internship Generation. The Economist. Retrieved From http://www.economist.com/news/international/21615612-temporary-unregulated-and-often-unpaid-internship-has-become-route

Hildreth, G. (1951). The role of experiential learning in the education of teachers. Journal of Teacher Education, 2(3), 180-184.

Ho, K.T.C. (2016). Experiential learning in undergraduate pharmacy curriculum: A case study of co-operative experience of pharmacy students. Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/1807/73015

Humber College News. (2018). We Have Been Teaching the Art of Storytelling for 50 years!

Retrieved from https://mediastudies.humber.ca/news-events/50th-anniversary-celebrations.html

Hunt, D. E. (1987). Beginning with ourselves in practice, theory, and human affairs. Cambridge,

MA: Brookline Books.

Hynes, B., & Richardson, I. (2007). Entrepreneurship education: A mechanism for engaging and exchanging with the small business sector. Education+ Training, 49(8/9), 732-744. ISSN: 0040-0912

Jennings, C., & Wargnier, J. (2010). Experiential learning-a way to develop agile minds in the knowledge economy? Development and Learning in Organizations: An International Journal, 24(3), 14-16. doi: 10.1108/14777281011037245

Karp, T., & Maloney, P. (2013). Exciting young students in grades K-8 about STEM through an

afterschool robotics challenge. American Journal of Engineering Education, 4(1), 39-54. doi: http://dx.doi.org.myaccess.library.utoronto.ca/10.19030/ajee.v4i1.7857

Kerlinger, F. N. (1973). Foundations of behavioural research: Educational, psychological and sociological inquiry. New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston.

Kickul, J., Griffiths, M., & Bacq, S. (2010). The boundary-less classroom: Extending social innovation and impact learning to the field. Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development, 17(4), 652-663. doi:10.1108/14626001011088787

Knight, P., & Yorke, M. (2000). Skills plus: Tuning the undergraduate curriculum. Skills plus

Project Report. doi: 10.1080/13583883.2002.9967084

145

Knight, P. T., & Yorke, M. (2002). Employability through the curriculum. Tertiary Education and Management, 8(4), 261-27 doi:10.1080/13583883.2002.9967084 Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential Learning: Experience as the source of learning and

development. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Kolb, A., & Kolb, D. A. (2008). Experiential learning theory, a dynamic, holistic approach to management learning, education and development. Department of Organizational Behavior, Case Western Reserve University. Cleveland, Ohio: Western Reserve University Working Paper.

Kolb, D. A., Boyatzis, R. E., & Mainemelis, C. (2001). Experiential learning theory: Previous

research and new directions. In R. J. Sternberg and L. F. Zhang (eds.), Perspectives on cognitive learning and thinking styles (pp.227–247). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Kolb, D. A. (2014). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Financial Times Press.

Kounios, J., & Beeman, M. (2009). The Aha! Moment the cognitive neuroscience of insight. Current directions in psychological science, 18(4), 210-216.

Lave, J., & Wenger E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral

participation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Lawshe, C.H. (1975). A quantitative approach to content validity. Personnel Psychology, 28, 563–575. doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.1975.tb01393.x

Lewis, L. H. and Williams, C. J. (1994). Experiential learning: Past and present. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 1994: 5-16. doi:10.1002/ace.36719946203

Lin, Z., Sweet, R., & Anisef, P. (2003). Consequences and policy implications for university

students who have chosen liberal or vocational education in Canada: Labour market outcomes and employability skills. Higher Education Policy, 16(1), 55-85. doi:10.1057

Little, B., Moon, S., Pierce, D., Harvey, L., & Marlow-Hayne, N. (2001). Nature and extent of undergraduates’ work experience. CIHE/DFES, London. Long, A. A. (2002). Epictetus: A stoic and Socratic guide to life. Oxford University Press. Lupton, D. K. (1979). A nomenclature for experiential education. Alternative Higher Education,

3(3): 135-144.

Maertz Jr, C. P., Stoeberl, A. P., & Marks, J. (2014). Building successful internships: Lessons from the research for interns, schools, and employers. Career Development International, 19(1), 123-142. doi: 10.1108/CDI-03-2013-0025

146

Manuelli, R. E., & Seshadri, A. (2014). Human capital and the wealth of nations. The American Economic Review, 104(9), 2736-2762. doi:http://dx.doi.org.myaccess.library.utoronto.ca/10.1257/aer.104.9.2736

Maxwell, J. A. (2012). Qualitative research design: An interactive approach (Vol. 41).

Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications. McGuinness, S., Pouliakas., & Redmond, P. (2017). How useful is the concept of skills?

Mismatch?, IZA Discussion Papers 10786, Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA). Retrieved from https://www.iza.org/publications/dp/10786/how-useful-is-the-concept-of-skills-mismatch

McKnight, Z. (2013). Unpaid interns: Toronto college students clean tubs for nothing:

The Toronto Star. Retrieved from http://fortune.com/2015/01/29/unpaid-internships-legalbattle/http://www.thestar.com/news/gta/2013/10/14/unpaid_interns_toronto_college_students_clean_tubs_for_nothing.html

McNamara, C. (2009). General guidelines for conducting interviews. Retrieved from http://managementhelp.org/businessresearch/interviews.htm

McQuaid, R. W., & Lindsay, C. (2005). The concept of employability. Urban studies, 42(2), 197-219. doi: 10.1080/0042098042000316100

Meredith. S., Burkle. M., 2008. Building bridges between university and industry: theory and practice. Education and Training 50 (3), 199-215. doi:10.1108/00400910810873982

Miettinen, R. (2000). The concept of experiential learning and John Dewey’s theory of reflective thought and action. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 19(1), 54-72. doi: 10.1080/026013700293458

Mincer, Jacob. (1975). Education, experience, and the distribution of earnings and employment. In F. Thomas Juster (Ed.), Education, Income, and Human Behavior (pp. 71-94). Cambridge, MA: NBER.

Miner, R. (2010). People without jobs without people: Canada’s labour market future. Miner and Miner Consulting, Toronto, Ontario. Retrieved from http://www.collegesontario.org/research/research_reports/people-without-jobs-jobs-without-people-final.pdf

Miner, R. (2012). Jobs of the future: Options and opportunities. Miner Management Consultants. Retrieved from http://www.minerandminer.ca/data/Jobs_of_the_Future_Final.pdf

Miner, R. (2014). The great Canadian skills mismatch: People without jobs, jobs without people and more. Miner Management Consultants. Retrieved from http://www.minerandminer.ca/data/Miner_March_2014_final(2).pdf

Ministry of Training Colleges and Universities (2009). Ontario Qualifications Framework. Retrieved from http://www.tcu.gov.on.ca/pepg/programs/oqf/certificate11.html

147

Muhamad, S. (2012). Graduate employability and transferable skills: A review. Advances in

Natural and Applied Sciences, 6(6), 882+. Retrieved from http://link.galegroup.com.myaccess.library.utoronto.ca/apps/doc/A366866410/AONE?u=utoronto_main&sid=AONE&xid=33859488

Munter, J. (2002). Linking community and classroom in higher education: Service learning and

study. Journal of Nonprofit & Public-Sector Marketing, 10 (2), 151-164. doi: 10.1300/J054v10n02_09

Murphy, P., & Knemeyer, A. (2002). Logistics internships: Employer perspectives. Transportation Journal. 41. 16-26.

Nash, Chelsea. (2018). Ontario Government Work-Integrated Learning Mandate: What does this mean for Faculty, Community, and Students? Retrieved from https://carleton.ca/communityfirst/2018/ontario-government-work-integrated-learning-mandate-what-does-this-mean-for-faculty-community-and-students/

O'Neill, N. (2010). Internships as a high-impact practice: Some reflections on quality. Peer

Review, 12(4), 4+. Retrieved from http://go.galegroup.com.myaccess.library.utoronto.ca/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CA245740014&v=2.1&u=utoronto_main&it=r&p=AONE&sw=w&asid=350c7a9046f89218cabda62e10eb1a9e

Oschinski M., & Wyonch, R. (2017). Future shock? The impact of automation on Canada's

labour market. Retrieved from https://www.cdhowe.org/sites/default/files/attachments/research_papers/mixed/Update_Commentary%20472%20web.pdf

Page, M. (1990). Active Learning: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives. Parilla, P. F., & Hesser, G. W. (1998). Internships and the sociological perspective: Applying

principles of experiential learning. Teaching Sociology, 26(4), 310. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/223525521?accountid=14771

Patacsil, F., & S. Tablatin, C. (2017). Exploring the importance of soft and hard skills as perceived by IT internship students and industry: A gap analysis. Journal of Technology and Science Education, 7(3), 347-368. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.3926/jotse.271

Perlin, R. (2012). Intern nation: How to earn nothing and learn little in the brave new economy. New York: Verso Books.

Phelps, E.S. (1970). Microeconomic foundations of employment and inflation theory. New York: Norton.

Philipps, L., Turcotte, J., Nichols, L. (2016). The downsides of post-secondary co-op work placements. Globe and Mail. Retrieved from https://www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/rob-commentary/the-downsides-of-post-secondary-co-op-work placements/article32536934/

148

Plato. (2010). Plato’s apology of Socrates. Retrieved from:

http://www.sjsu.edu/people/james.lindahl/courses/Phil70A/s3/apology.pdf

Province of Ontario. (2016). Building the workforce of tomorrow: A shared responsibility. Retrieved from https://www.ontario.ca/page/building-workforce-tomorrow-shared-responsibility

Post-Secondary Education Quality Assessment Board (2010). Handbook for Ontario colleges. Retrieved from http://www.peqab.ca/Publications/Handbooks%20Guidelines/2016HNDBKCAAT.pdf

Radermacher, A., Walia, G., & Knudson, D. (2014, May). Investigating the skill gap between graduating students and industry expectations. In Companion Proceedings of the 36th international conference on software engineering (pp. 291 – 300). ACM. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1145/2591062.2591159

Perlin, R., (2012) Intern nation: How to earn nothing and learn little in the brave new economy.

Verso Books.

Satariano, W. A., & Rogers, S. J., (1979). Undergraduate internships: Problems and prospects. ProQuest, 6(4), 355-372. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.myaccess.library.utoronto.ca/stable/1317224?pq-origsite=summon&seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents

Sattler, P., & Peters, J. (2013). Work integrated learning in Ontario’s post-secondary sector:

The experience of Ontario graduates. Toronto: Higher Education Quality Council of Ontario. Retrieved from http://www.heqco.ca/SiteCollectionDocuments/WIL_Experience_ON_Graduates_ENG.pdf

Service Canada (2015). Professional Occupations in Public Relations and Communications.

Retrieved from http://www.servicecanada.gc.ca/eng/qc/job_futures/statistics/5124.shtml

Silber, K. (2014). Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/biography/Johann-Heinrich-Pestalozzi

Shade, L. R., & Jacobson, J. (2015). Hungry for the job: gender, unpaid internships, and the creative industries. The Sociological Review, 63(S1), 188-205. doi: 10.1111/1467-954X.12249

Shearer, R. L., Gregg, A., & Joo, K. P. (2015). Deep learning in distance education: Are we achieving the goal? American Journal of Distance Education, 29(2), 126- 134. doi:10.1080/08923647.2015.1023637

Simkovic, M. (2013). Risk-based student loans. Washington and Lee Law Review, 70(1), 527- 648. Retrieved from https://scholarlycommons.law.wlu.edu/wlulr/vol70/iss1/8

149

Simpson, D. J., & Jackson, M. J. (2003). John Dewey's view of the curriculum in the child and the curriculum. Education and Culture, 19(2), 23-27. ISSN 0013-1857

Smith, A. (1776) 1976a. An inquiry into the nature and causes of the wealth of nations, ed.

R. R. Campbell, A. S. Skinner, and W. B. Todd. Oxford: Clarendon.

Smith, T. E., & Knapp, C. E. (Eds.). (2011). Sourcebook of experiential education: Key thinkers and their contributions. London: Routledge.

Soëtard, M. (1994). Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi. Prospects. (Paris, UNESCO: International Bureau of Education), 24(1-2), 297–310.

Spradlin, J. I., (2009). The evolution of interns. Retrieved from http://www.forbes.com/2009/04/27/intern-history-apprenticeship-leadership- careers-jobs.html.

Sternberg, R. J., & Zhang, L. F. (Eds.). (2014). Perspectives on thinking, learning, and cognitive styles. London: Routledge.

Stewart, M., & Fields, D. (2014). Conference Board of Canada. Federal budget 2014–15: Stay tuned for next year. Retrieved from http://www.conferenceboard.ca/topics/economics/budgets/federal_2014.aspx

Stirling, A., Kerr, G., Banwell, J., MacPherson, E., Bandealy, A., & Battaglia, A. (2014). What is an internship? Inventory and analysis of “internship” opportunities Available to Ontario Postsecondary Students. The Higher Education Quality Council of Ontario, 1-43. Retrieved from http://static.pseupdate.mior.ca.s3.amazonaws.com/media/links/Internship_ENG.pdf

Stirling, A., Kerr, G., Banwell, J., MacPherson, E., & Heron, A. (2016). A practical guide for work-integrated learning: effective practices to enhance the educational quality of structured work experiences offered through colleges and universities. Higher Education Quality Council of Ontario.

Stirling, A., Kerr, G., MacPherson, E., Banwell, J., Bandealy, A., & Battaglia, A. (2017). Do

Postsecondary Internships Address the Four Learning Modes of Experiential Learning Theory? An Exploration through Document Analysis. Canadian Journal of Higher Education, 47(1), 27-48.

Stonehouse, P., Allison, P., & Carr, D. (2011). Aristotle, Plato, and Socrates: Ancient Greek

perspectives on experiential learning. In E. Smith & C. E. Knapp (Eds.), Sourcebook of experiential education: Key thinkers and their contributions, 18-25. London: Routledge.

Statistics Canada (2015). Labour force survey February 2015. Retrieved from http://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/150313/dq150313a-eng.html

Stratton, Micheal T., and Mark Julien. "Xtranormal learning for millennials: An innovative tool

for group projects." Journal of Management Education 38.2 (2014): 259-281.

150

Stretch, S. & Harp, S. 1991. Retail internships: An experiential learning challenge. Marketing Education Review, (1) pp. 66-75. ISSN: 1052-8008

Stuckey, J., & Munro, D. (2013). The Cost of Ontario’s Skills Gap. Conference Board of Canada. Retrieved from http://www.collegesontario.org/Need_to_Make_Skills_Work_Report_June_2013.pdf

Subramaniam, N., & Freudenberg, B. (2007). Preparing accounting students for success in the professional environment: Enhancing self-efficacy through a work integrated learning programme. Asia-Pacific journal of cooperative education, 8(1), 77-92. Retrieved from http://simplelink.library.utoronto.ca/url.cfm/491202

Thornton Moore, D. (2010). Forms and issues in experiential learning. New Directions for

Teaching and Learning, 124, 3-13.

To, Grace. (2017). Breaking down the difference between internships, co-ops and practicums. Retrieved from https://westerngazette.ca/news/breaking-down-the-difference-between-internships-co-ops-and-practicums/article_fe9085fc-1964-11e7-944d-47cb33ebf8a6.html

Triantafillidou, A., & Yannas, P. (2014). How public relations agencies in Greece respond to digital trends. Public Relations Review, 40(5), 815-817.

University of Waterloo. Experiential learning. Lectures: A venerable tradition. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://uwaterloo.ca/centre-for-teaching-excellence/support/integrative-learning/experiential-learning

Uldam, J. (2016). Corporate management of visibility and the fantasy of the post-political: Social media and surveillance. New Media & Society, 18(2), 201-219.

Van Ours, J. C. (2015). The Great Recession was not so great. Journal of Labour Economics,

34, 1-12.doi: 10.1016/j.labeco.2015.02.001

Velez, G.S., & Giner, G.R. (2015). Effects of business internships on students, employers, and higher education institutions: A systematic review. Journal of Employment Counseling, 52, 121-130.

Verick, S., (2009). Who is hit hardest during a financial crisis? The vulnerability of young men and women to unemployment in an economic downturn. IZA Discussion Paper 4359. Bonn: Germany. Retrieved from https://d-nb.info/997902027/34

Walters, D., & Zarifa, D. (2008). Earnings and employment outcomes for male and female post- secondary graduates of co-op and non-co-op programmes. Journal of Vocational Education & Training, 60(4), 377-399. doi:10.1080/13636820802591863

Warburton, K. (2003). Learning of foraging skills by fish. Fish and Fisheries, 4: 203-215. doi:10.1046/j.1467-2979.2003.00125.x

151

Weingarten, H. P., Hicks, M., Jonker, L., Smith, C., & Arnold, H. (2015). Canadian post- secondary performance: IMPACT 2015. Retrieved from http://www.heqco.ca/SiteCollectionDocuments/HEQCO_Canadian_Postsecondary_Performance_Impact2015.pdf

Wiencierz, Christian, and Ulrike Röttger. "The use of big data in corporate

communication." Corporate Communications: An International Journal 22.3(2017): 258-272.

Williams, A.C. (2015). Soft skills perceived by students and employers as relevant

employability skills. Minneapolis: Walden University. Retrieved from http://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2426&context=dissertations

Wilson, T. (2012) A review of business-university collaboration. Retrieved from https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/32383/12-

610-wilson-review-business-university-collaboration.pdf

Wilson, F.R., & Schmusky, D.D. (2012) Recalculation of the critical values for Lawshe’s content validity ratio. Measurement and Evaluation in Counselling & Development, 45(3), 197-210. doi:1177/0748175612440286

Wittekind, A., Raeder, S., & Grote, G. (2010). A longitudinal study of determinants of perceived employability. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 31(4), 566-586.doi: 10.1002/job.646

152

Appendix A: Request for Administrative Consent (Email) From Humber College ITAL

President Whitaker & Approval Letter

November 3, 2017

Hello Athena.

Thanks for your email and I am glad to hear your studies are progressing.

I have consulted with the appropriate folks here and we are fine with Humber being named in

the study as you request.

Best of luck with your research.

Chris

153

Appendix B: Recruitment Script (Email) sent to Students by the Researcher

Subject Line: Invitation to Participate in an Important Research Study

Dear Students:

I am conducting a research study titled: The Role of Experiential Learning Internships in

developing Job Ready Graduates in the Field of Public Relations: A Case Study of the Humber

College ITAL Bachelor of Public Relations Program. This study is part of the requirement for

me to complete my Ph.D. degree program at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education of the

University of Toronto (OISE/U of T), Canada. My Thesis Supervisor is Dr. Katharine Janzen,

in the Leadership, Higher and Adult Education Department OISE/University of Toronto.

The purpose of the research study is to explore, describe and identify the implications of the

perceptions of students, internship employers, and faculty regarding the benefits and challenges

of the experience with respect to employability skills students have attained after their

internship. The findings will increase our understanding of the internship experience and may

help redesign future curriculum to ensure students successfully achieve employment ready

skills.

For this reason, I am inviting you to participate in this study because your perceptions as a

student in the internship experience in that program will provide valuable insights regarding the

benefits and challenges of this experiential learning component of your program. Attached is an

Invitation to Participate and Informed Consent Form for Students (Appendix C). If after having

read that document you are willing to participate in this important study, please contact me by

any means and I will negotiate a mutually agreed upon time to have a call for the interview.

Please let me, my Thesis Supervisor, Dr. Katharine Janzen (katharine.janzen@utoronto.ca,

phone 416.978-1232) or Jasteena Dhillon, REB Chair, Humber College,

(Jasteena.dhillon@humber.ca ) know if you have any questions.

Thank-you. I look forward to hearing from you.

Sincere thanks,

Athena D’Amato, Athena.damato@mail.utoronto.ca 416.818.4418

154

Appendix C: Recruitment Script (Email) sent to the Faculty by the Researcher

Subject Line: Invitation to Participate in an Important Research Study

Dear (name of faculty):

I am conducting a research study titled: The Role of Experiential Learning Internships in

developing Job Ready Graduates in the Field of Public Relations: A Case Study of the Humber

College ITAL Bachelor of Public Relations Program. This study is part of the requirement for

me to complete my Ph.D. degree program at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education of the

University of Toronto (OISE/U of T), Canada. My Thesis Supervisor is Dr. Katharine Janzen,

in the Leadership, Higher and Adult Education Department OISE/University of Toronto.

The purpose of the research study is to explore, describe and identify the implications of the

perceptions of students, internship employers, and faculty regarding the benefits and challenges

of the experience with respect to employability skills students have attained at the conclusion of

their internship. The findings will increase our understanding of the internship experience and

may help redesign future curriculum to ensure students successfully achieve employment ready

skills.

For this reason, I am inviting you to participate in this study because your perceptions as a full-

time teacher in the internship experience in that program will provide valuable insights

regarding the benefits and challenges of this experiential learning component of the program.

Attached is an Invitation to Participate and Informed Consent Form for Faculty (Appendix E). If

after you have read that document you are willing to participate in this important study, please

contact me by any means and I will negotiate a mutually agreed upon time to have a call for the

interview.

Please let me, my Thesis Supervisor, Dr. Katharine Janzen (Katharine.janzen@utoronto.ca,

phone 416.978-1232) or Jasteena Dhillon, REB Chair, Humber College,

(Jasteena.dhillon@humber.ca ) know if you have any questions.

Thank-you. I look forward to hearing from you. Sincere thanks,

Athena D’Amato, Athena.damato@mail.utoronto.ca 416.818.4418

155

Appendix D: Recruitment Script (Email) sent to the Internship Employers

Recruitment Script (Email) to be sent to the Internship Employers by the Research Assistant on

behalf of the Researcher

Subject Line: The Role of Experiential Learning Internships in Developing Job Ready

Graduates in the Field of Public Relations: A Humber College Study of the ITAL Bachelor of

Public Relations (Athena D’Amato)

Body: Dear (insert name here),

On behalf of the Researcher, I am inviting you to participate in a research study being conducted

by Athena D’Amato, part-time Professor at Humber College ITAL. The objective of the

research study is to explore, describe and identify the implications of the perceptions of students,

internships employers, and faculty regarding the benefits and challenges of the experience with

respect to employability skills students have attained at the conclusion of their internship. The

findings will increase our understanding of the internship experience and may help redesign

future curriculum to ensure students successfully achieve employment ready skills.

This study is part of the requirement for Athena D’Amato to complete her Ph.D. degree program

at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education of the University of Toronto (OISE/U of T),

Canada. Athena’s Thesis Supervisor is Dr. Katharine Janzen, in the Leadership, Higher and

Adult Education Department OISE/University of Toronto. Please let Athena, Dr. Janzen or

Jasteena Dhillon (jasteena.dhillon.ca) know if you have any questions about the study.

If after you read the attached Invitation to Participate and Consent Form (Appendix D) you

would be willing to participate in this study, please let me (name to be determined) know by

email (email address to be determined) and I will negotiate a time for the call for the interview.

Sincere thanks,

Amanda Murray, Research Assistant

researchassistantbpr@gmail.com

156

Appendix E: Invitation to Participate and Informed Consent Form for Students

OISE ONTARIO INSTITUTE FOR STUDIES IN EDUCATION

UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO

Date: TBD

Title of Study: The Role of Experiential Learning Internships in Developing Job Ready

Graduates in the Field of Public Relations: A Humber College Study of the ITAL Bachelor of

Public Relations

Researcher: Athena D’Amato

Thesis Supervisor: Dr. Katharine Janzen

Invitation to participate

I am inviting you to participate in this study to be conducted by me as a Ph.D. candidate

in the Higher Education program in the Leadership, Higher and Adult Education Department at

OISE/University of Toronto. The thesis is in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a Ph.D.

degree. The study will be conducted under the supervision of Dr. Katharine Janzen at OISE/U of

T.

The purpose of this study is to explore and describe the perceptions of students, faculty

and internship employers regarding the benefits and challenges of the internship experience with

respect to employability skills that students have attained in their internship. The findings will

increase our understanding of the internship experience and identify implications for future

curricula to facilitate the achievement of employment-ready skills and successful completion of

the program.

157

As a 2017 third-year student in the Humber College ITAL, Bachelor of Public Relations

internship program, you are invited to participate in this research study as described below. In

appreciation of your participation, you will receive a $10 gift certificate to Starbucks.

What does participation in this study involve?

If you agree to participate in this study you will be asked to complete a 25-minute semi-

structured interview, which will be audio-recorded with your specific consent and conducted by

the Researcher. The audio-recording will be erased immediately after the interview is

transcribed. You will have an opportunity to review the transcript of your interview and make

any changes you wish before your input is analyzed.

The interview will include questions on your perceptions related to:

the internship experience

employability skills

During the interview you may choose to decline to answer any question(s) that you do

not wish to answer, and you can withdraw your participation at any time by leaving the

interview without explanation or penalty, or by letting me know by any means after the

interview. If you withdraw before the data are aggregated, all the information you provided will

be deleted from the study and not included in the study findings. After data aggregation is begun

it will no longer be possible to delete your input.

The Researcher will assign a number code to the transcript and will keep the list linking

the name on your consent form with the assigned code confidential and secure at all times; I am

the only one who will have access to that list. All digital information will be kept on a personal

password-protected computer and encrypted consistent with the policies of the University of

Toronto. At no time will anyone other than the Researcher have any access to any non-coded

confidential data. Only non-identifiable codes will be used for any reporting of these findings in

appropriate publications or professional conferences. However, because this is a unique

program, individuals who are deeply familiar with this program and internship placements may

be able to identify participants.

Are there any risks anticipated for participation in this study?

158

There are no physical or psychological risks anticipated from participating in this study.

Because the Public Relations program that is the focus of this study is unique to Humber

College/ITAL it is not possible to anonymize the college or program. For this reason, there is a

small chance that others who have an intimate knowledge of this program may be able to

identify participants despite the use of codes only. This may cause students who did not perform

well in their placement to feel an unlikely but slight discomfort in reporting their perceptions. If

students feel uncomfortable they are encouraged to contact the researcher Athena D’Amato,

Thesis Supervisor Dr. Katharine Janzen or Humber College REB Chair Jasteena Dhillon in

addition Humber College offers counseling services at wegotyou.humber.ca.

Are there any benefits for participating in this study?

Participation or non-participation in this study will have no impact on your progress in

the program now or the future. While there is no direct benefit to you from participating in this

study, it will contribute to our understanding of the focus of the study.

What If I have questions?

If you agree to participate in this study, you will have an opportunity to ask any

questions before you are asked to sign the consent and before the interview begins. If you have

any questions about the study that are not addressed here, please contact me Athena D’Amato at

(416.818.4418 or Athena.damato@mail.utoronto.ca), my Thesis Supervisor, Dr. Katharine

Janzen at (katharine.janzen@utoronto.ca or by phone 417 978-1232) at any time.

If you have any questions with regards to your rights as a research participant in this

study, please contact the Research Ethics Board at the University of Toronto 416.946.3273 or

ethics.review@utoronto.ca or the REB Chair of Humber College jasteena.dhillon@humber.ca.

The research study you will be participating in may be reviewed for quality assurance to make

sure that the required laws and guidelines are followed. If chosen, (a) representative(s) of the

Human Research Ethics Program (HREP) may access study-related data and/or consent

materials as part of the review. All information accessed by the HREP will be upheld to the

same level of confidentiality that has been stated by the research team.

159

If you would like to participate in this study, please let me know by any means and I will be in

touch with you to arrange for a mutually agreeable time for the phone interview.

By signing this consent form you confirm the following:

I am aware of why and how this study is being conducted.

All of my questions with regards to the study have been answered.

I am participating in this study of my own free will; participation or the lack of participation will

not impact my progress in this program now or in the future.

I understand my responses will be anonymous; only non-identifiable participant codes will be

used.

I understand that because this is a unique program, individuals who are deeply familiar with this

program and internship placements may be able to identify participants.

I am free to not answer any question(s) that I do not wish to answer, and I may withdraw from

this study at any time. If I withdraw before data aggregation has begun, all information I provide

will be deleted and not included in the study.

There are no anticipated psychological or physical risks associated with participation in this

study.

There is no direct benefit to me in participating in this study.

I understand that all data collected by will be kept confidential, secure and encrypted; only the

Researcher and Thesis Supervisor will have access to the anonymous data.

I understand that all the data will be destroyed two years after completion of the thesis.

Thank-you.

With full knowledge of all foregoing, I agree, of my own free will, to participate in this study.

[ ] YES [ ] NO

160

I agree to have my interview audio-recorded.

[ ] YES [ ] NO

I agree to the use of anonymous quotations (identified by code only) in any reporting of the

findings

[ ] YES [ ] NO

Participant Name (please print): ______________________________

Participant Signature: ______________________________

Date: ____________________________

Please keep a copy of this consent form for your file.

161

Appendix F: Invitation to Participate and Informed Consent Form for Internship

OISE ONTARIO INSTITUTE FOR STUDIES IN EDUCATION

UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO

Date:…..

Title of Study: The Role of Experiential Learning Internships in Developing Job Ready

Graduates in the Field of Public Relations: A Humber College Study of the ITAL Bachelor of

Public Relations

Researcher: Athena D’Amato

Thesis Supervisor: Dr. Katharine Janzen

Invitation to participate

On behalf of Athena D’Amato, I am inviting you to participate in this study to be

conducted by Athena who is a Ph.D. candidate in the Higher Education program in the

Leadership, Higher and Adult Education Department at OISE/University of Toronto. The thesis

is in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a Ph.D. degree. The study will be conducted

under the supervision of Dr. Katharine Janzen at OISE/U of T.

The purpose of this study is to explore and describe the perceptions of students, faculty

and internship employers regarding the benefits and challenges of the internship experience with

respect to employability skills that students have attained in their internship. The findings will

increase our understanding of the internship experience and identify implications for future

curricula to facilitate the achievement of employment skills.

As an internship host of a third-year student in the 2017 Humber College ITAL,

Bachelor of Public Relations internship program you are invited to participate in this research

162

study. Your participation will provide a deeper understanding of the current needs of the

marketplace to ensure students are employment ready upon completion of their program of

study. The study will help to identify the type and level of employability skills students have

attained after their internship and may identify implications for future curriculum to enable

students to meet the needs of the economy and employers, as well as the government mandate

upon graduation.

You will be asked to complete a 25-30 minute semi-structured interview, which will be

audio recorded with your specific consent, and conducted on behalf of the researcher by a

Research Assistant, who has signed a confidentiality statement. The interview will include

questions on your perspectives of the efficacy and challenges of the internship experience and

students’ employability skills.

Participation in this study is entirely voluntary. You may choose to decline to answer any

questions that you do not wish to answer, and you can withdraw your participation at any time

by leaving the interview without explanation or by contacting the Research Assistant by any

means after the interview. If you withdraw before data aggregation is begun, the information

you have provided will be deleted and not included in the study. However, once data

aggregation is begun it will not be possible to remove your data.

Participants will be non-identifiable and only participant codes will be used in any

reporting of the findings. However, because this is a unique program, individuals who are

deeply familiar with this program and internship placements may be able to identify participants.

Audio-recordings will be erased immediately after the interview is transcribed. All hard copies

will be kept confidential and secure by the Research Assistant in a locked desk drawer, and

digital data will be kept on the Research Assistant’s password-protected computer and encrypted

consistent with University of Toronto policy. All data will be destroyed completely two years

after completion of the thesis.

There are no risks or direct benefits anticipated from participating in this study. If you

agree to participate in this study, you will have an opportunity to ask any questions before you

are asked to sign the consent and before the interview begins. If you have any questions about

the study that are not addressed here, please contact Athena D’Amato at 416.818.4418

163

or athena.damato@mail.utoronto.ca or her Thesis Supervisor, Dr. Katharine Janzen at

katharine.janzen@utoronto.ca or by phone 417 978-1232 at any time.

If you have any questions with regards to your rights as a research participant in this

study, please contact the Research Ethics Board at the University of Toronto 416.946.3273 or

ethics.review@utoronto.ca or the REB Chair of Humber College jasteena.dhillon@humber.ca.

Please note that, the research study you will be participating in may be reviewed for

quality assurance to make sure that the required laws and guidelines are followed. If chosen, (a)

representative(s) of the Human Research Ethics Program (HREP) may access study-related data

and/or consent materials as part of the review. All information accessed by the HREP will be

upheld to the same level of confidentiality that has been stated by the research team.

If you would like to participate in this study, please let me know by email to [address of

RA TBD] and I will be in touch with you to arrange for a mutually agreeable time for the phone

interview.

By signing this consent form you confirm the following:

I am aware of why and how this study is being conducted.

All my questions with regards to the study have been answered.

I am participating in this study of my own free will.

I understand my responses will be anonymous; only non-identifiable participant codes will be

used.

I understand that because this is a unique program, individuals who are deeply familiar with this

program and internship placements may be able to identify participants.

I am free to not answer any question(s) that I do not wish to answer, and I may withdraw from

this study at any time. If I withdraw before data aggregation has begun, all information I provide

will be deleted and not included in the study.

There are no anticipated psychological or physical risks associated with participation in this

study.

164

There is no direct benefit to me in participating in this study.

I understand that all data collected by the Research Assistant will be kept confidential, secure

and encrypted; the Researcher and her Thesis Supervisor will have access to the anonymous

data.

I understand that all the data will be destroyed two years after completion of the thesis.

With full knowledge of all foregoing, I agree, of my own free will, to participate in this study.

[ ] YES [ ] NO

I agree to have my participation in the interview audio recorded.

[ ] YES [ ] NO

I agree to the use of anonymous quotations in any reporting of the findings of this study.

[ ] YES [ ] NO

Participant Name (please print): _________________ Participant Signature:

__________________

Date: ____________________________

Please keep a copy of this consent form for your files.

165

Appendix G: Invitation to Participate and Informed Consent Form for Faculty

OISE ONTARIO INSTITUTE FOR STUDIES IN EDUCATION

UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO

Date: …..

Title of Study: The Role of Experiential Learning Internships in Developing Job Ready

Graduates in the Field of Public Relations: A Humber College Study of the ITAL Bachelor of

Public Relations

Researcher: Athena D’Amato

Thesis Supervisor: Dr. Katharine Janzen

Invitation to participate

I am inviting you to participate in this study to be conducted by me as a Ph.D. candidate

in the Higher Education program in the Leadership, Higher and Adult Education Department at

OISE/University of Toronto. The thesis is in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a PhD

degree. The study will be conducted under the supervision of Dr. Katharine Janzen at OISE/U of

T.

The purpose of this study is to explore and describe the perceptions of students, faculty

and internship employers regarding the benefits and challenges of the internship experience with

respect to employability skills that students have attained in their internship. The findings will

increase our understanding of the internship experience and identify implications for future

curricula to facilitate the achievement of employment skills.

As a full-time faculty member who has taught third-year students in the 2017 Humber

College ITAL, Bachelor of Public Relations internship program you are invited to participate in

this research study. Your participation will provide a deeper understanding of the current needs

166

of the marketplace to ensure students are employment ready upon completion of their program

of study. The study will help to identify the type and level of employability skills students have

attained after their internship and may identify implications for future curriculum to enable

students to meet the needs of the economy and employers as well as the government mandate

upon graduation.

You will be asked to complete a 25-minute semi-structured interview, which will be

audio recorded with your specific consent, and conducted on behalf by the Researcher who has

signed a confidentiality agreement. The interview will include questions on your perspectives of

the efficacy and challenges of the internship experience and students’ employability skills.

Participation in this study is entirely voluntary. You may choose to decline to answer any

questions that you do not wish to answer, and you can withdraw your participation at any time

by leaving the interview without explanation or contacting me by any means after the interview.

If you withdraw before data aggregation is begun, the information you have provided will be

deleted and not included in the study. However, once data aggregation is begun it will not be

possible to remove your data.

Participants will be non-identifiable and only participant codes will be used in any

reporting of the findings. However, because this is a unique program, individuals who are

deeply familiar with this program and internship placements may be able to identify participants.

Audio-recordings will be erased immediately after the interview is transcribed. The Researcher

will assign a number code to the transcript and will keep the list linking the name on your

consent form with the assigned code confidential and secure at all times; I am the only one who

will have access to that list. All digital information will be kept on a personal password-

protected computer and encrypted consistent with the policies of the University of Toronto. At

no time will anyone other than the Researcher have any access to any non-coded confidential

data. Only non-identifiable codes will be used for any reporting of these findings in appropriate

publications or professional conferences. All data will be destroyed completely two years after

completion of the thesis.

There are no risks or direct benefits anticipated from participating in this study.

If you agree to participate in this study, you will have an opportunity to ask any

questions before you are asked to sign the consent and before the interview will begin. If you

167

have any questions about the study that are not addressed here, please contact me (Athena

D’Amato at 416.818.4418 or Athena.damato@mail.utoronto.ca) or my Thesis Supervisor, Dr.

Katharine Janzen at katharine.janzen@utoronto.ca or by phone 417 978-1232 at any time.

If you have any questions with regards to your rights as a research participant in this

study, please contact the Research Ethics Board at the University of Toronto 416.946.3273 or

ethics.review@utoronto.ca or the REB Chair of Humber College jasteena.dhillon@humber.ca.

Please note that the research study you will be participating in may be reviewed for quality

assurance to make sure that the required laws and guidelines are followed. If chosen, (a)

representative(s) of the Human Research Ethics Program (HREP) may access study-related data

and/or consent materials as part of the review. All information accessed by the HREP will be

upheld to the same level of confidentiality that has been stated by the research team.

If you would like to participate in this study, please let me know by any means and I will be in

touch with you to arrange for a mutually agreeable time for the phone interview.

By signing this consent form you confirm the following:

I am aware of why and how this study is being conducted.

All my questions with regards to the study have been answered.

I am participating in this study of my own free will.

I understand my responses will be anonymous; only non-identifiable participant codes will be

used.

I understand that because this is a unique program, individuals who are deeply familiar with this

program and internship placements may be able to identify participants.

I am free to not answer any question(s) that I do not wish to answer, and I may withdraw from

this study at any time. If I withdraw before data aggregation has begun, all information I provide

will be deleted and not included in the study.

There are no anticipated psychological or physical risks associated with participation in this

study.

168

There is no direct benefit to me in participating in this study.

I understand that all data collected will be kept confidential, secure and encrypted; only I (as the

Researcher) and my Thesis Supervisor will have access to the anonymous data.

I understand that all the data will be destroyed two years after completion of the thesis.

With full knowledge of all foregoing, I agree, of my own free will, to participate in this study.

[ ] YES [ ] NO

I agree to have my participation in the focus audio recorded.

[ ] YES [ ] NO

I agree to the use of anonymous quotations in any reporting of the finding of this study

[ ] YES [ ] NO

Participant Name (please print): ______________ Participant Signature: _________________

Date: ____________________________

Please keep a copy of this consent form for your files.

169

Appendix H: Semi-Structured Interview Guide for Student Interviews

(Approximately 25 minutes)

Review the terms of the Informed Consent, answer questions and ask consenting students to sign

the form before questions begin.

Note: Non-leading probes will be used as appropriate to gain a deeper understanding of the

responses.

Participants: Humber College ITAL, Honours Bachelor of Public Relations, 2017 Internship

Cohort.

Researcher: Athena D’Amato, PhD candidate in Higher Education at OISE/U of T

Interviewer: The Researcher

Institution: Department of Leadership, Higher and Adult Education, OISE, University of

Toronto

Thesis Supervisor: Dr. Katharine Janzen

Length of the Interview: approximately 25 minutes

Discussion topics on:

The lived experience of the 14-week, 420-hour Public Relations Internship

Interview topics on:

What did you learn from your internship? Ask about the six objectives outlined and examined

by the Canadian Public Relations Society of Canada Public Relations Knowledge Exam;

commonly understood public relations theories and practices

communications strategies and tactics appropriate for business situations faced by the host

internship company

170

distinguish between correct and incorrect terms and processes typically used in public relations,

corporate communications and marketing communications

employ appropriate editing skills to create error-free copy

clearly and correctly express concepts and arguments in writing

analyze a described workplace situation and apply sound judgment in creating an appropriate

solution

What did you learn about yourself (i.e. personal, professional and intellectual growth) through

your internship experience?

Transferable skills of work integrated learning; internship:

How does a curricular internship experience influence the employability skills of the Bachelor

of Public Relations Students identified in the Conference Board of Canada – Employability

Skills 2000+? Ask about the three sections identified in the Conference Board of Canada

Employability 2000+ report including;

Fundamental Skills

Personal Management Skills

Teamwork Skills

What skills that you learned in the classroom were transferable to the internship/workplace?

What skills did you learn and or need on your internship that were not taught in the classroom?

What skills must you acquire prior to graduation?

In your opinion, what are the skills needed for a role in the Public Relations sector in 2025?

Work integrated learning and preparation for entry-to-practice in Public Relations in Canada:

How did you find your experiential learning internship in preparing you for a career in public

relations including;

171

Knowledge

Skills

Attitudes

How did you find your experiential learning internship in preparing you for the final year in

your public relations program including the thesis component?

Is there a skills gap or skills mismatch? Please explain why or why not and the skills you will

need to acquire prior to being successful in this field?

Demographic information

Gender of student

Age Range

Description of anonymized work setting

Description of remuneration provided as part of the compensation for the work completed while

on the internship

172

Appendix I: Semi-Structured Interview Guide for Internship Employers

(Approximately 25 – 30 minutes)

Review the terms of the Informed Consent, answer questions and ask consenting employer to

sign the form before questions begin.

Note: Non-leading probes will be used as appropriate to gain a deeper understanding of the

responses.

Participants: Internship Sponsors/Employers of 2017 internship cohort students in the Humber

College ITAL, Honours Bachelor of Public Relations program

Researcher: Athena D’Amato, Ph. D candidate in Higher Education at OISE/U of T

Interviewer: Neutral third-party Research Assistant (TBD) (confidentiality agreement to be

signed) on behalf of the Researcher

Institution: Department of Leadership, Higher and Adult Education, OISE, University of

Toronto

Thesis Supervisor: Dr. Katharine Janzen

Length of the Interview: approximately 25 - 30 minutes

Discussion topics on:

Students’ lived internship experience:

Describe your perspectives of students’ lived experiences during the internship term.

What necessary skills did your student come to you with?

What transferable skills was your student missing?

What sector specific skills, was your student missing and or need to be improved upon before

graduation?

173

What are the skills that your internship student developed or built upon at your work setting?

Ask about the six objectives outlined and examined by the Canadian Public Relations Society of

Canada Public Relations Knowledge Exam;

commonly understood public relations theories and practices

communications strategies and tactics appropriate for business situations faced by your company

distinguish between correct and incorrect terms and processes typically used in public relations,

corporate communications and marketing communications

employ appropriate editing skills to create error-free copy

clearly and correctly express concepts and arguments in writing

analyze a described workplace situation and apply sound judgment in creating an appropriate

solution

Did you see any personal development (i.e. personal, professional or intellectual growth) in your

internship student throughout his/her internship term with you? Provide examples.

Transferable skills of work integrated learning; internship:

How does a curricular internship experience influence employability skills of the Bachelor of

Public Relations Students identified in the Conference Board of Canada – Employability Skills

2000+? Ask about the three sections identified in the Conference Board of Canada

Employability 2000+ report including;

Fundamental Skills

Personal Management Skills

Teamwork Skills

What transferable skills did you see the student acquire from your workplace?

In your opinion what are the skills needed for a role in the Public Relations sector in 2025?

Work integrated learning and preparation for entry-to-practice in Public Relations in Canada:

174

How did you find the internship in preparing the student for a career in public relations

including;

Knowledge

Skills

Attitudes

Is there a skills gap or skills mismatch? Please explain why or why not and the skills the student

will need to acquire prior to being successful in this field?

Demographic information

Gender of internship employer

Age Range

Years of practice

Description of his/her work setting (anonymized)

Description of the student compensation structure and why.

175

Appendix J: Semi-Structured Interview Guide for Faculty Interviews

(Approximately 25 minutes)

Review the terms of the Informed Consent, answer questions and ask consenting faculty to sign

the form before questions begin.

Note: Non-Full-time faculty teaching in the Humber College ITAL, Honours Bachelor of Public

Relations, 2017 program

Interviewer: the Researcher

Length of the Interview: approximately 25 minutes

Discussion topics on:

Students’ lived experiences of the internship experience.

Tell me your perspectives of students’ lived experiences during the internship term. What do

you think about students in developing the following skills during their internship term? Ask

about the six objectives outlined and examined by the Canadian Public Relations Society of

Canada Public Relations Knowledge Exam;

commonly understood public relations theories and practices

communications strategies and tactics appropriate for business situations faced by your company

distinguish between correct and incorrect terms and processes typically used in public relations,

corporate communications and marketing communications

employ appropriate editing skills to create error-free copy

clearly and correctly express concepts and arguments in writing

analyze a described workplace situation and apply sound judgment in creating an appropriate

solution

176

The curriculum is progressive in finishing with the thesis project. Do you think the internship

component adds to the personal, professional development, intellectual growth and

employability skills of the student? Provide examples.

Transferable skills of work integrated learning; internship:

How does a curricular internship experience influence employability skills of the Bachelor of

Public Relations Students identified in the Conference Board of Canada – Employability Skills

2000+? Ask about the three sections identified in the Conference Board of Canada

Employability 2000+ report including;

Fundamental Skills

Personal Management Skills

Teamwork Skills

What transferable skills do you see students acquire from the internship experience?

In your opinion what are the skills needed for a role in the Public Relations sector in 2025?

Work integrated learning and preparation for entry-to-practice in Public Relations in Canada:

How did you find the internship in preparing the student for a career in public relations

including;

Knowledge

Skills Attitudes Demographic information Years of teaching Subjects that they are responsible to teach at school Does he/she support student internship placements? In what capacity? Please elaborate.

177

Appendix K: Lawshe’s Content Validity Index

Review the background survey and then complete the following Content Validity Index (CVI). The CVI was developed by C. H. Lawshe for the purpose of validating the reliability of a research instrument among subject matter expert raters (SMEs) to determine whether each survey question is relevant to the hypothesis or research question being investigated.

Research Question: Embedded remediation is effective for academic performance in first semester Practical Nursing courses for the remedial group.

1. Is the knowledge measured by this item _______________________ to the research question?

� essential � useful but not essential � not necessary

2. Is the knowledge measured by this item _______________________ to the research question?

� essential � useful but not essential � not necessary

3. Is the knowledge measured by this item _______________________ to the research question?

� essential � useful but not essential � not necessary

4. Is the knowledge measured by this item _______________________ to the research question?

� essential � useful but not essential � not necessary

5. Is the knowledge measured by this item _______________________ to the research question?

� essential � useful but not essential � not necessary

6. Is the knowledge measured by this item _______________________ to the research question?

178

� essential � useful but not essential � not necessary

7. Is the knowledge measured by this item _______________________ to the research question?

� essential � useful but not essential � not necessary

8. Is the knowledge measured by this item _______________________ to the research question?

� essential � useful but not essential � not necessary

9. Is the knowledge measured by this item _______________________ to the research question?

� essential � useful but not essential � not necessary

10. Is the knowledge measured by this item ______________________ to the research question?

� essential � useful but not essential � not necessary

11. Is the knowledge measured by this item ______________________ to the research question?

� essential � useful but not essential � not necessary

12. Is the knowledge measured by this item ______________________ to the research question?

� essential � useful but not essential � not necessary

13. Is the knowledge measured by this item ______________________ to the research question?

� essential � useful but not essential � not necessary

179

14. Is the knowledge measured by this item ______________________ to the research question?

� essential � useful but not essential � not necessary

15. Is the knowledge measured by this item ______________________ to the research question?

� essential � useful but not essential � not necessary

16. Is the knowledge measured by this item ______________________ to the research question?

� essential � useful but not essential � not necessary

17. Is the knowledge measured by this item ______________________ to the research question?

� essential � useful but not essential � not necessary

18. Is the knowledge measured by this item ______________________ to the research question?

� essential � useful but not essential � not necessary

19. Is the knowledge measured by this item ______________________ to the research question?

� essential � useful but not essential � not necessary

20. Is the knowledge measured by this item ______________________ to the research question?

� essential � useful but not essential � not necessary

180

21. Is the knowledge measured by this item ______________________ to the research question?

� essential � useful but not essential � not necessary

22. Is the knowledge measured by this item ______________________ to the research question?

� essential � useful but not essential � not necessary

23. Is the knowledge measured by this item ______________________ to the research question?

� essential � useful but not essential � not necessary

24. Is the knowledge measured by this item ______________________ to the research question?

� essential � useful but not essential � not necessary

25. Is the knowledge measured by this item ______________________ to the research question?

� essential � useful but not essential � not necessary

Additional Comments: ___________________________________________________________

Subject Matter Expert Rater Information

Name: _________________________________Signature: ____________________________

Department: ____________________________Job Title: ______________________________

181

Place of Employment: ___________________________________________________________

Date: ________________________________________

182

Appendix L: Research Assistant / Transcriber Confidentiality Agreement

183

184

185

Appendix M: Research Assistant Confidentiality Form

186

187

188

Appendix N: Encryption Protocol

All digital data will be kept on a personal password protected computer and encrypted

consistent with the University Of Toronto Policies here:

http://www.research.utoronto.ca/wp-

content/uploads/documents/2013/05/datasecurity1.pdf

189

Appendix O: Request to Adapt Interview Guide Consent (Email)

from Creator Certina Ho

190

Appendix P: Table 3. Employability Skills as Outlined by the Conference Board of Canada

in Employability Skills 2000

Fund

amen

tal S

kills

Communicate

• read and understand information presented in a variety of forms (e.g., words, graphs, charts, diagrams)

• write and speak so others pay attention and understand • listen and ask questions to understand and appreciate the points of

view of others • share information using a range of information and communications

technologies (e.g., voice, e-mail, computers) • use relevant scientific, technological, and mathematical knowledge

and skills to explain or clarify ideas

Manage Information

• locate, gather, and organize information using appropriate technology and information systems

• access, analyze, and apply knowledge and skills from various disciplines (e.g., the arts, languages, science, technology, mathematics, social sciences, and the humanities)

Use Numbers

• decide what needs to be measured or calculated • observe and record data using appropriate methods, tools, and

technology • make estimates and verify calculations

Think and Solve Problems

• assess situations and identify problems • seek different points of view and evaluate them based on facts • recognize the human, interpersonal, technical, scientific, and

mathematical dimensions of a problem • identify the root cause of a problem • be creative and innovative in exploring possible solutions • readily use science, technology, and mathematics as ways to think,

gain, and share knowledge, solve problems, and make decisions • evaluate solutions to make recommendations or decisions • implement solutions • check to see if a solution works, and act on opportunities for

improvement

Pers

onal

Man

agem

ent S

kills

Demonstrate Positive Attitudes and Behaviours

• feel good about yourself and be confident • deal with people, problems, and situations with honesty, integrity, and

personal ethics • recognize your own and other people’s good efforts • take care of your personal health • show interest, initiative, and effort

Be Responsible

• set goals and priorities balancing work and personal life • plan and manage time, money, and other resources to achieve goals • assess, weigh, and manage risk • be accountable for your actions and the actions of your group • be socially responsible and contribute to your community

Be Adaptable

• work independently or as part of a team • carry out multiple tasks or projects • be innovative and resourceful: identify and suggest alternative ways

to achieve goals and get the job done • be open and respond constructively to change • learn from your mistakes and accept feedback • cope with uncertainty

Learn Continuously

• be willing to continuously learn and grow • assess personal strengths and areas for development • set your own learning goals • identify and access learning sources and opportunities • plan for and achieve your learning goals

191

Work Safely

• be aware of personal and group health and safety practices and procedures, and act in accordance with them

Team

wor

k Sk

ills

Work with Others

• understand and work within the dynamics of a group • ensure that a team’s purpose and objectives are clear • be flexible: respect, and be open to and supportive of the thoughts,

opinions, and contributions of others in a group • recognize and respect people’s diversity, individual differences, and

perspectives • accept and provide feedback in a constructive and considerate manner • contribute to a team by sharing information and expertise • lead or support when appropriate, motivating a group for high

performance • understand the role of conflict in a group to reach solutions • manage and resolve conflict when appropriate

Participate in Projects and Tasks

• plan, design, or carry out a project or task from start to finish with well-defined objectives and outcomes

• develop a plan, seek feedback, test, revise, and implement • work to agreed-upon quality standards and specifications • select and use appropriate tools and technology for a task or project • adapt to changing requirements and information • continuously monitor the success of a project or task and identify

ways to improve

192

Appendix Q: Table 4: Baccalaureate/Bachelor’s Degree: Honours from The Ontario

Qualifications Framework (OQF)

Dep

th a

nd B

read

th o

f Kno

wle

dge

a) A developed knowledge and critical understanding of the key concepts, methodologies, current advances, theoretical approaches and assumptions in a discipline overall, as well as in a specialized area of a discipline;

b) A developed understanding of many of the major fields in a discipline, including, where appropriate, from an interdisciplinary perspective, and how the fields may intersect with fields in related disciplines;

c) A developed ability to: i. gather, review, evaluate and interpret information; ii. compare the merits of alternate hypotheses or creative options, relevant to one or more of the major fields in a discipline;

d) A developed, detailed knowledge of and experience in research in an area of the discipline;

e) Developed critical thinking and analytical skills inside and outside the discipline; f) The ability to apply learning from one or more areas outside the

Conc

eptu

al &

Met

hodo

logi

cal

Aw

aren

ess/

Rese

arch

and

Scho

lars

hip

a) An understanding of methods of enquiry or creative activity, or both, in their primary area of study that enables the student to:

b) Evaluate the appropriateness of different approaches to solving problems using well established ideas and techniques;

c) Devise and sustain arguments or solve problems using these methods; d) Describe and comment upon particular aspects of current research or equivalent advanced

scholarship.

Com

mun

icat

ion

Skill

s

The ability to communicate information, arguments and analysis accurately and reliably, orally and in writing, to specialist and non-specialist audiences using structured and coherent arguments, and, where appropriate, informed by key concepts and techniques of the discipline.

App

licat

ion

of K

now

ledg

e

a) The ability to review, present and critically evaluate quantitative and qualitative information to:

a. develop lines of argument; b. make sound judgements in accordance with the major theories, concepts and

methods of the subject(s) of study; c. apply underlying concepts, principles, and techniques of analysis, both within

and outside the discipline; d. where appropriate, use this knowledge in the creative process;

b) The ability to use a basic range of established techniques to: a. initiate and undertake critical evaluation of arguments, assumptions, abstract

concepts and information; b. propose solutions; c. frame appropriate questions for the purpose of solving a problem; d. solve a problem or create a new work;

b) The ability to make use of scholarly reviews and primary sources.

193

Prof

essio

nal C

apac

ity/

Aut

onom

y

a) The qualities and transferable skills necessary for further study, employment, community involvement and other activities requiring:

a. the exercise of initiative, personal responsibility and accountability in both personal and group contexts;

b. working reflectively with others; c. decision-making in complex contexts;

b) The ability to manage their own learning in changing circumstances, both within and outside the discipline and to select an appropriate program of further study:

c) Behaviour consistent with academic integrity and social responsibility.

Aw

aren

ess o

f

Lim

its o

f

Kno

wle

dge

An understanding of the limits to their own knowledge and ability, and an appreciation of the uncertainty, ambiguity and limits to knowledge and how this might influence analysis and interpretations.