The Pre-Columbian Americas

AN AGE OF ACCELERATING CONNECTIONS (600 – 1450)

MESOAMERICA

THE ANDES

NORTH AMERICA

• Following the Olmec, Mesoamerican (Central

Mexico / parts of Central America) history is divided into 2 periods:

– Classic era (600-900)

• Teotihuacan

• Maya

– Post Classic era (900-1500)

• Toltecs

• Aztecs

MESOAMERICA

Teotihuacan (reached its height around 600)

• Around 200,000 inhabitants, largest city in the Americas (larger than many European & Asian cities).

• Polytheistic, had enormous pyramids dedicated to gods (ex: Quetzalcoatl). Human sacrifices also took place.

• Most inhabitants worked in agriculture although some regional trade did take place.

• They drained swamps, built terraces into hillside, and constructed chinampas (floating gardens, small artificial islands for farming).

• Commoners lived in apartment like stone buildings.

• Elites controlled the taxation and commerce. Their wealthy status was reflected in their dress, diet, and separate housing quarters.

• However, there was no single ruler, instead of a dynasty Teotihuacan was ruled by alliances forged among elite families.

• It is assumed conflict amongst the elites brought a mismanagement of resources and a breakdown of public order.

Maya

• Same time as Teotihuacan, but further south.

• The Mayan people of this region shared a culture, but were never unified politically. Instead rival Mayan kingdoms led by hereditary rulers competed for regional dominance.

• Maya living near urban area drained swamps and built elevated fields for agriculture.

• Nearly every household planted a garden for additional dietary needs.

• They built high pyramids and decorated palaces surrounding open plazas.

• Things were built without the aid of wheels, pulleys, or metal tools. (levers & stone tools were used).

• Rulers and elites served both religious and political roles. They decorated their bodies(paint, tattoos) and wore elaborate costumes(animal skins, feathers) to project secular power and divine sanction.

• In war, the Mayans sought secure captives as opposed to territory. Forced labor and sacrifice of victims took place.

• Women were essential to the household economy (tending gardens, weaving), and occasionally elite women participated in religious rituals, and it has been reported that two women ruled kingdoms.

• However, Maya society was patrilineal.

• The Maya made advancements in mathematics (concept of zero) and the calendar.

• They had a hieroglyphic style of writing.

What happened?

• “There is growing consensus that the population expansion led to environmental degradation and declining agricultural productivity, which, in turn, provoked social conflict and warfare.”

Toltecs

• Located from central Mexico down to Central America, they created the first conquest state based largely on military power.

• Their decoration / art was more violent than earlier Mesoamericans.

• Two chieftains / kings ruled the Toltec, however this division of responsibility led to rivalry and to their downfall. Northern invaders (Aztecs) eventually overcame them.

Aztecs

• According to legend the Aztecs were told (by a god?) to create a civilization where they came across an eagle, holding a snake, while sitting on a cactus. They found that in central Mexico.

• The Aztecs will come into prominence aroundthe year 1200 C.E.

• They constructed twin capitals, Tenochtitlan andTlatelolco near modern day Mexico City.

• The island capital was designed so that canalsand streets intersected at right angles (i.e. by 1500

CE there were 500,000 inhabitants).

Quick Video

Rise of Aztecs

• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gxN3he3p 354

• Politically a monarchical system was established, however rulers did not have absolute power and successors were chosen by a council (from the ruling lineage).

• Territorial expansion and conquest allowed the warrior elite to seize land and peasant labor as spoils of war.

• A class system was in existence, with great inequalities in wealth and power.

• Commoners lived in small dwellings and had a limited diet, whereas elites lived in large two story homes and consumed a diet of animal protein. (In marriage: commoners were monogamous, nobles were polygamous).

• At their height the Aztecs had a population around 22 million and an efficiently organized labor system capable of expanding agricultural lands to feed their people.

• For example, they built dikes to separate salt water from fresh and constructed chinampas.

• The Aztecs imposed atribute system onconquered peoples(cotton cloth, luxury items, etc.)

and also took people tosacrifice (they were

polytheistic).

• Although not new, theydramatically increasedthe scale of humansacrifice (often war captives,

slaves, and criminals).

• “Northern Peoples” is a term coined for the early inhabitants of North America. Most of which came into prominence around 900 C.E.

NORTH AMERICA

• The Northern Peoples can be categorized as Pueblo (American SW) and Moundbuilderslocated around the Mississippi River.

Pueblo cultures:

Hohokam

• Located in Southern Arizona

• Strongly influenced by Mesoamerican cultures (pottery, turquoise mosaics)

• Constructed elaborate irrigation projects which exhibits the probable centralization of political power (someone has to organize all those workers!)

Anasazi

• Located in the desert regions of the AmericanWest (four corners region).

• Established an economy based on maize,beans, and squash which allowed theformation of larger villages (population around

15,000).

• They built “kivas” (underground buildings).

• After 900 C.E. they began to construct largemulti-story residential and ritual centers; eachtown had a central plaza.

• Hunting, trade, and the need to maintainirrigation projects drew men away from thevillages, thus women were responsible forchildcare, specializing in crafts, and alsoassisting in agricultural tasks.

• Long droughts and increased conflict mostlikely caused by the lack of arable land tosustain large numbers of people are cited asreasons for their collapse.

Mound Builders / Mississippians

• Located in the eastern portion of the modernU.S. they built large mounds for elite burials.

• Originally the early mound builders dependedupon hunting and gathering (limited farming), butincreased trading contacts with other societiesintroduced maize, beans, and squash tomoundbuilder groups like the Hopewell.

• Similar to most North American societies, theMississippians were political organized as achiefdom.

• A hereditary chief would serve as the secularand religious leader for thousands of people.

• Increases in agricultural productivity broughtabout larger populations and the expansion oftrade.

• Major towns also served as trading centers (bow& arrows, flint, crops, crafts).

• Cahokia (near modern day Illinois) was the mostinfluential mound builder center (site of the largest

mound, they controlled secondary towns, fostered extensivetrade).

• Population pressures & deforestationundermined Cahokia’s vitality – smaller centersremained.

• “Andean Civilizations” is a term used to describe the societies that formed in South America along the Andes Mountains.

THE ANDES / SOUTH AMERICA

• Due to the harsh environment, these societieswere forced to develop productive agriculturaltechniques and an effective administrativestructure.

• For example:– they discovered how to freeze-dry vegetables and meats

– Terracing of hillsides, construction of irrigation projects

– They used the llama to link coastal and mountainouseconomies, and built roads

– The use of Khipus (knotted color cords) to maintainrecords

– The use of the mit’a (rotational labor draft) for takingcare of llama herds, field work, and irrigationprojects.

Moche

• Although they did not construct a formalempire they did dominate the north coastal region of Peru.

They built massive irrigation works and a complex set of canals.

The maintained large herds of llamas & alpacas to transport goods, use as meat, and textile production.

• Moche society was highly stratified and class divisions were present (elites had better homes, more elaborate clothing, adorned with gold).

• Women (including elites) devoted time to weaving and held a special role in the production of textiles.

• Natural disasters are cited for their decline.

Tiwanaku

• Located in the Andean highlands, modern dayBolivia.

• They drained marshes for agriculture.

• Used stone masonry.• The Wari were another Andean group.

Inca

• The Incasdeveloped a vastimperial state alongthe Andes thatencompassed morethan 6 millionpeople (some

estimates range it ashigh as 9 or 13 million).

• The Incas were originally organized as a chiefdom, but over time strong rulers consolidated power.

• Using a professional militarythey conquered distantterritories and increasedforced exchanges / tradewith other groups (local rulers

were left in place, however their heirswere often sent to Cuzco).

• Cuzco was the imperial capital (30,000 people, much

less than Tenochtitlan’s 150k).

• Incas heavily depended upon llamas fortransportation, meat, and clothing.

• Women were responsible for weaving.

• The mit’a system was used – such as with roadbuilding (13,000 miles of road!). Roads enabledeasier administration.

• They were polytheistic, worship of the Sun god.Temples were built and animal sacrifices tookplace (human sacrifice almost nonexistent).

• Prior to the arrival of Europeans, civil war andthe resentment of conquered peopleweakened the Incan state.

Polynesian People

Over the span of 800 years, Polynesians explored 16 million square miles of ocean and settled on every habitable island in the Pacific.

They brought their world view with them when they arrived in Hawai`i by voyaging canoe from the southern Pacific (primarily the Marquesas), settling the islands circa 300-600 AD.

After they arrived in Hawai’i, the stories and chants they brought from western Polynesia soon grew to include events and details derived from their new home.

The travelers also brought with them an array of plants and animals, including taro, ti, kukui, noni, olona, `uala (sweet potato), wauke, chickens, pigs and dogs.

A second wave of Polynesian migrations took place circa 1000-1300 AD with voyagers traveling back and forth between Hawai`i and the Society Islands

The population of the islands increased rapidly and chiefs undertook the building of large public works projects such as fish ponds, taro terraces, irrigation systems and heiau (temples).

After 1300, long distance voyaging ceased, and Hawaiian culture and society continued to develop along its unique path.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tuJk_a4iWj0