THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

PART 1

CHAPTER 11

Nervous System

Figure 11.1

Nervous System

The master controlling and communicating system of the body

Functions

Sensory input – monitoring stimuli occurring inside and outside the body

Integration – interpretation of sensory input

Motor output – response to stimuli by activating effector organs

Organization of the Nervous System

Central nervous system (CNS)

Brain and spinal cord

Integration and command center

Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

Paired spinal and cranial nerves

Carries messages to and from the spinal cord and brain

5Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Levels of Organization

Sensory (afferent) division

Sensory afferent fibers – carry impulses from skin, skeletal muscles, and joints to the brain

Visceral afferent fibers – transmit impulses from visceral organs to the brain

Motor (efferent) division

Transmits impulses from the CNS to effector organs

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Two Functional Divisions

Somatic nervous system

Conscious control of skeletal muscles

Autonomic nervous system (ANS)

Regulates smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands

Divisions – sympathetic and parasympathetic

Motor Division: Two Main Parts

sensorynerves

axons ofmotor nerves

somaticsubdivision

(motor functions)

autonomicsubdivision

(visceralfunctions)

sympathetic

Peripheral Nervous System

para-sympathetic

CentralNervousSystem

brain

spinalcord

AFFERENT EFFERENT

Autonomic nervous system (ANS)

The two principal cell types of the nervous system are:

Neurons – excitable cells that transmit electrical signals

Supporting cells – cells that surround and wrap neurons

Histology of Nerve Tissue

The supporting cells (neuroglia or glial cells):

Provide a supportive scaffolding for neurons

Segregate and insulate neurons

Guide young neurons to the proper connections

Promote health and growth

Supporting Cells: Neuroglia

Most abundant, versatile, and highly branched glial cells

They cling to neurons and their synaptic endings, and cover capillaries

Functionally, they:

Support and brace neurons

Anchor neurons to their nutrient supplies

Guide migration of young neurons

Control the chemical environment

Astrocytes

Astrocytes

Figure 11.3a

Microglia – small, ovoid cells with spiny processes

Phagocytes that monitor the health of neurons

Ependymal cells – range in shape from squamous to columnar

They line the central cavities of the brain and spinal column

Microglia and Ependymal Cells

Microglia and Ependymal Cells

Figure 11.3b, c

Oligodendrocytes – branched cells that wrap CNS nerve fibers

Schwann cells (neurolemmocytes) – surround fibers of the PNS

Satellite cells surround neuron cell bodies with ganglia

Oligodendrocytes, Schwann Cells, and Satellite Cells

Figure 11.3d, e

Oligodendrocytes, Schwann Cells, and Satellite Cells

Structural units of the nervous system

Composed of a body, axon, and dendrites

Long-lived, amitotic, and have a high metabolic rate

Their plasma membrane functions in:

Electrical signaling

Cell-to-cell signaling during development

Neurons (Nerve Cells)

blood vessels

outer connective tissue of one nerve

unsheathed node axon

myelin sheath

many neurons bundled together inside a connective tissue sheath

axon of one neuron

axon

axon endings

cell body

dendrites

axon

cell bodyaxon

endingperipheral axon

receptor endings

Sensory NeuronMotor NeuronInterneuron

cell body

Neurons (Nerve Cells)

Figure 11.4b

Contains the nucleus and a nucleolus

Is the major biosynthetic center

Is the focal point for the outgrowth of neuronal processes

Has no centrioles (hence its amitotic nature)

Has well-developed Nissl bodies (rough ER)

Contains an axon hillock – cone-shaped area from which axons arise

Nerve Cell Body (Perikaryon or Soma)

Armlike extensions from the soma

Called tracts in the CNS and nerves in the PNS

There are two types: axons and dendrites

Processes

Short, tapering, and diffusely branched processes

They are the receptive, or input, regions of the neuron

Electrical signals are conveyed as graded potentials (not action potentials)

Dendrites of Motor Neurons

Slender processes of uniform diameter arising from the hillock

Long axons are called nerve fibers

Usually there is only one unbranched axon per neuron

Rare branches, if present, are called axon collaterals

Axonal terminal – branched terminus of an axon

Axons: Structure

Generate and transmit action potentials

Secrete neurotransmitters from the axonal terminals

Movement along axons occurs in two ways

Anterograde — toward axonal terminal

Retrograde — away from axonal terminal

Axons: Function

Whitish, fatty (protein-lipoid), segmented sheath around most long axons

It functions to:

Protect the axon

Electrically insulate fibers from one another

Increase the speed of nerve impulse transmission

Myelin Sheath

Formed by Schwann cells in the PNS

A Schwann cell:

Envelopes an axon in a trough

Encloses the axon with its plasma membrane

Has concentric layers of membrane that make up the myelin sheath

Neurilemma – remaining nucleus and cytoplasm of a Schwann cell

Myelin Sheath and Neurilemma: Formation

Schwann cell

 

Myelin Sheath and Neurilemma: Formation

Figure 11.5a-c

Gaps in the myelin sheath between adjacent Schwann cells

They are the sites where axon collaterals can emerge

Nodes of Ranvier (Neurofibral Nodes)

A Schwann cell surrounds nerve fibers but coiling does not take place

Schwann cells partially enclose 15 or more axons

Unmyelinated Axons

Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis ALS

Both myelinated and unmyelinated fibers are present

Myelin sheaths are formed by oligodendrocytes

Nodes of Ranvier are widely spaced

There is no neurilemma

Axons of the CNS

White matter – dense collections of myelinated fibers

Gray matter – mostly soma and unmyelinated fibers

Regions of the Brain and Spinal Cord

Structural:

Multipolar — three or more processes

Bipolar — two processes (axon and dendrite)

Unipolar — single, short process

Neuron Classification

Functional:

Sensory (afferent) — transmit impulses toward the CNS

Motor (efferent) — carry impulses away from the CNS

Interneurons (association neurons) — shuttle signals through CNS pathways

Neuron Classification

Comparison of Structural Classes of Neurons

Table 11.1.1

Comparison of Structural Classes of Neurons

Table 11.1.2

Comparison of Structural Classes of Neurons

Table 11.1.3