FREDERICK P. VICTORIA AND SON, INC.NEW YORK

1984

THE MASTER CHAIR-MAKER'S ARTFRANCE 1710-1800

Copvright© 1984

FREDERICK P. VICTORIA AND SON, INC.New York

Editorial Assistance: Grady McClendon

For my Father, who gave me eyes to see.

Olivier Bernier

CONTENTS

INTRODUCfION

"THE CIVILIZED CHAIR"

"CHAIRS: EMBODIMENTS OF STYLE"

Anthony G. Victoria

Mark Hampton

THE EXHIBITION

1. Late Louis XIV ann chair Ca. 17102. Regence caned open ann chair Ca. 17203. Small Regence chaise longue Ca. 17254. Regence caned open ann chair Ca. 17255. Miniature Regence side chair Ca. 17256. Regence caned open ann chair Ca. 17307. Miniature Regence bergere Ca. 17308. Late Regence open ann chair Ca. 17309. Miniature Louis XV chaise longue Ca. 1745

10. Louis XV chaise de voyage Ca. 174511. Miniature Louis XV open ann chair Ca. 174512. Louis XV ann chair ilia reine Ca. 174813. Painted Louis XV chaise d'amour Ca. 175014. Louis XV five-legged desk chair Ca. 175015. Louis XV hair-dressing chair Ca. 175016. Mechanical Louis XV wheel chair Ca. 175017. Louis XV musician's ann chair Ca. 175018. Louis XV open ann chair Ca. 175519. Painted Louis XV corner sofa Ca. 175520. Louis XV ann chair ala reine Ca. 175521. Louis XV painted shaving chair Ca. 175522. Louis XV nursing ann chair Ca. 175823. Late Louis XV hair-dressing chair Ca. 176024. Louis XVI ann chair a la reine Ca. 178025. Miniature Louis XVI ann chair Ca. 178026. Gilded Louis XVImarquise Ca. 178527. Mechanical Louis XVI chaise longue Ca. 178528. Louis Xvl lyre-back canape Ca. 178529. Louis XVI-style bergere en gondole30. Consulate side chair Ca. 179931. Consulate chair in bronze and steel Ca. 1799

GLOSSARY

BIBLIOGRAPHY

INTRODUCTION

This exhibit grew out of a love for chairs and a desire to show some of the manydifferent types which were spawned in the comfort-loving Eighteenth Century.Chairs are, on the one hand, far more complicated to make successfully, that is,comfortably, than case furniture. Even today it is possible to say that there are manygifted cabinet-makers who would be at a loss to make a good chair. Whereas a goodchair-maker can always produce a good chest of drawers. On the other hand, chairswhich one tends to see in museums or read about are often Royal productions:[auteuils d'apparai, literally "parade" or show chairs, which derived at least some oftheir design from the socio-political intentions behind their creation.

It was my hope therefore to show a group ofchairs which were the types lived withand ordered by the "general consuming public" of the Eighteenth Century. Whilethis population certainly was totally different from today's understanding of theterm-princes and nobles and, later in the century, the wealthy middle class-it wasnonetheless composed of individuals who not only sought a particular combinationof style, function and comfort, but who also had the good fortune of living in the firstcentury ever that was totally given over to the very same goals. Chairs, finally, arealso the most personal of all the decorative arts, being designed to hold the humanform. They are therefore a good reflection of the society behind their creation.

With the last point in mind, it is useful to include here a number of facts about thesubject of signatures. The law requiring members of the guilds of menuisiers (essen-tially chair-makers) and ebenistes (cabinet-makers) to sign their works did not takeeffect until August 20, 1751.The proposed law was moreover worked on-perhapsnot continuously since there were other more pressing matters to deal with-formost of the preceding decade. Even before this time, however, new mastercraftsmen did register their names with the guild authorities upon their acceptanceas members. It was not, unfortunately, until 1737that such registration included thedate of each act, a bit of information which would obviously be most useful today.

What did the law of 1751 say on the subject of signatures? Basically, that allmembers of either guild must sign their works and then place them at the dispositionof the Guild Jury which, each quarter, would visit the various members' workshops.If during their review of a master's production, the Jury found that the pieces metGuild standards, it would then place its counter signature, the famous "J.M.E."stamp standing for jurande des menuisiers-ebenistes, next to the master's stamp.

In fact, unless a chair-maker happened also to be a cabinet-maker, one never findsthis stamp on chairs. The reason for this seeming lack of compliance, or reallyenforcement, was not rooted in art but something much more timeless: politico-economics.

Chair-making was almost without exception during the Eighteenth Century themonopoly of Frenchmen and French families of craftsmen. Recite the names of thegreatest of them, and you will see that it is so. The French cabinet-maker was not solucky. The vogue which first appeared during the Regence period for inlaid furnitureand then marquetry-decorated cabinets incited an influx of craftsmen highly skilledin this technique from Germany and the Low Countries. The best of these alwaysgained recognition-and protection from the guild regulations-from the Crownand other highly placed individuals. It is nonetheless true that the stimulus for thelaw of 1751(which had many more aspects to it than the single one Ihave mentioned)was the desire to make access to the Guild more difficult, and therefore control thecompetition being felt by the local ebenistes as a result of this immigration. And so, itwas natural that the menuisier division needed and experienced much less enforce-ment.

Many of the chairs in the exhibit are caned. This fact derives in part from therelatively utilitarian functions for which they were conceived. It was obviously easierto renew a cushion than a fully upholstered seat. Caned chairs first came to Francefrom the Netherlands early in the Seventeenth Century. Caning reeds came from therattan tree and were imported through contacts with the Orient. England becameFrance's major supplier of this material until approximately 1670when Louis XIVbroke off trade relations with the House of Orange as a result of an insult he receivedfrom William of Nassau. According to St. Simon's memoirs, when Louis offered oneof his bastard daughters in marriage, Nassau replied that the House of Orange wasaccustomed to marrying the legitimate daughters of kings. Louis' anger was great;and the break in relations was complete enough that cane was not re-imported untilthe 1720's under the Regent, the Duke of Orleans. Thus, when caning became acommon technique again, it was reported as being something "new" to the Frenchmarket.'

Stories of this nature are endless. My point is that Art History is not an abstraction,but the result of a fascinating interaction of many socio-cultural, politico-economicforces, and therefore Human forces. My hope is that the chairs and their elements inthis exhibit will remind the viewer of the highly individual nature of their creation inthe now classically viewed Eighteenth Century.

ANTHONY G. VICTORIA

1 These facts are taken from [anneau's "Les Sieges."

"THE CIVILIZED CHAIR"OLIVIER BERNIER

Chairs for lolling and chairs on which to sit bolt upright; chairs made to accomo-date the widest of fashionable skirts; chairs from which to watch others gambling;and chairs for being shaved; chairs for every moment and incident of life; chairs togladden the eye. After centuries during which furniture was perfunctory anduncomfortable, at last around 1700, patrons and cabinet-makers understood thatchairs, beautiful and varied, were essential to the good life.

Superb design, masterful carving, a perfect sense of proportions, all that was to bethe norm throughout the Eighteenth Century, so that French furniture earned theadmiration of civilized people everywhere. But there was something else also:courtiers who had been standing at attention, day after day, in the salons ofVersaillessuddenly began to yearn for a little ease. Of course, even under the Sun-King, a fewspecialized pieces had made their appearance. There was the armchair, mounted onthree wheels and with a steering-post in front, which Louis XIVused when he foundhe could no longer walk for hours through his beloved gardens. And the chair withside-walls made for Madame de Maintenon as a protection against the drafts whichspared no room of the royal palaces. But these were exceptions, and stiff, straight-backed chairs remained the rule.

Then, in 1715,the world changed. The new King, Louis XV,was fiveyears old andhis great-uncle the Regent loved pleasure in all its forms. The stiff, high coiffures ofthe last reign vanished to be replaced by soft, short, powdered curls; and heavilyembroidered velvet gave way to ballooning silks. Fifteen years late, the EighteenthCentury had finally arrived. Immediately, new specific rooms, with new, specificfurniture began to appear: small salons for talking and large halls for dancing,boudoirs in which women received their closest friends or their lovers. Even,eventually, dining-rooms cunningly placed near enough the kitchens so that thefood, when it arrived, was still hot. And everywhere new chairs were needed. Moresurprisingly, an altogether new, informal kind of bed was also a novelty. Ever sincethe Middle Ages, great ladies had held court fully dressed but lying on their beds.There was a simple reason for this: only behind the curtains of the alcove could a littlewarmth be found. Now, as rooms grew smaller and more easily heated, chairs of allsorts replaced the bed. In the morning, for instance, every fashionable womanreceived at her toilette. Surrounded by friends and seated at her dressing-table, sheapplied her rouge and had her hair curled while discussing the latest hat, cleverestbook or newest gossip. And if, after that, she wanted a rest, she could move on toone of a variety of chaise tongues which provided an elegant and comfortable substi-tu te for her bed.

As skirts grew ever wider, chairs, too, had to grow; but the ebenistes were not fastenough to prevent the gravest of crises: when the dresses worn by the Princesses ofthe Blood Royal, overflowing their chairs, actually covered part of the Queen's, allagreed that such disrespect was intolerable. So Cardinal de Fleury, the all-powerfulPrime Minister, decreed that an empty chair would henceforth be placed on either

side of her Majesty. The Princesses, aghast, demanded that in compensation, they,too, should be given an empty chair to separate them from the duchesses-whopromptly protested. Never, perhaps, in human history has the width of a chaircaused such bitter disputes.

Although, today, it is almost impossible to look at an Eighteenth Century objectwithout yearning for it, life was also uncomfortable and frequently painful. Even insmaller rooms, the temperature in winter could be very chilly indeed. Medicine,which consisted of bleeding, purging, then bleeding again, normally made everysickness worse. Even the splendid clothes worn by women and men alikewere oftenacutely uncomfortable, heavy and unwieldy. People did actually suffer in order tolook well: it cannot have been much fun, for instance, to sleep sitting up in order notto disturb one's three-feet high hairdo. Even travel, that new pleasure, requiredalmost heroic endurance. Not only did poorly-suspended carriages jolt their wayalong rutted, muddy or dusty roads, but the inns, most everywhere, were filthy,infested with vermin and devoid of even the simplest comfort. It is no wonder that,in every way they could, the artisans tried to improve things by creating an evergreater variety of specialized furniture or inventing a special carriage, the dormeuse,in which, at night, the seats unfolded into a bed.

Of course, all this was the result of long, earnest conferences: you didn't buyfurniture ready-made, in the Eighteenth Century. Instead, you ordered a wood orwax model, then discussed it thoroughly so as to blend the maximum amount ofcomfort with the greatest possible beauty. Even so, there were a few rather oddimprovements, the revolving mantelpiece, for instance. When the marechal deRichelieu, that most persistent of Don Juans, found that his mistress' husband hadsunk so low as to become jealous, he simply bought the house next door, had apassage dug out of the wall separating two chimneys, and covered the hole with ahinged mantelpiece so as to have easy and silent access to the lady's bedroom. Then,as the years passed but his tastes remained unchanged, he ordered himself a specialchair in which to pursue his romantic interests. In the Eighteenth Century, peoplemade love everywhere; Louis XVI, for instance, visited Marie Antoinette in herboudoir about ten in the morning. Thus, a conveniently-designed chair was by nomeans uncommon; but Richelieu went a step further. On his special order, acabinet-maker produced a contrivance that looked likean ordinary chair; but then, atthe flick of a lever, it lengthened itself, the back reclined and the lady found herselfquite unable to resist the marechal's assault.

In the end, however, neither comfort nor beauty had the last word. When theRevolution ended, more had changed than the regime. In the new, more utilitariancentury, chairs were something one sat in, not something one thought about, andthe great ebenistes vanished, never to be replaced. Still, all is not lost. Collectorshave replaced patrons and the Eighteenth Century chair remains a symbol of thatseductive age.

"CHAIRS: EMBODIMENTS OF STYLE"MARK HAMPTON

For many people, chairs are the chief indicators of style changes in the history offurniture, and as a result, these chairs seem to embody the style themselves.

The Renaissance sgabello and the dog-legged chairs found in Egyptian tombs aretypical examples of chairs that an art director, for instance, can use and instantly fixthe period he wants to evoke. The most popular styles of more recent antiquity arealso often identified by chairs. The Queen Anne chair, not the Queen Anne table orthe Queen Anne bed, seems to be loaded with "Queen Anneness". TheChippendale chair, whether a ribbon-back or a ladder-back or that wonderfulcombination of Gothick and Chinoiserie, is usually not too challenging to identify.And the realm of French chairs provides us with the same, easy guidelines.

In this wonderful exhibition, however, we do not find ourselves merely looking atexamples of chairs from different reigns. The chairs shown here illustrate a largenumber of other qualities that perhaps explain why chairs become so packed withstylistic energy in the first place. First of all, these chairs were frequently made forindividual people who had very definite ideas in mind. The use and size of many ofthese chairs were specific, not general requirements. They are intensely humanpieces of furniture. Secondly, the designers of these objects-and they are objectswhich can be picked up and moved around-designed them with an exuberance anda freedom that shows off the craftsmanship and originality of French furnituremakers in the best possible way. They embody everything dear to furniture lovers:style, quality, beauty and even comfort!

1. A late Louis XN arm chair executed in beechwood. Ca. 1710.463/4" (118.5em.) high; 30"(76em.) deep; 27"(68.5em.) wide.

This arm chair reflects a transitional phase between the Louis XN and Regence periods-aphase which had its start even while the King was still alive and continued until shortly afterhis death. The so-called architectural scale of the former period remains. As in earlierexamples, this chair still possesses the high back and broad seat in strongly rectangularforms. Again, the full forward-thrusting arms terminate directly over the front legs. Thislatter design element purportedly owed its demise to the emerging fashion for hoop-skirteddresses, around 1715.1

As evidence of a changing taste, however, the legs are now in cabriolet rather than balusterform. Nor are these legs unified by stretchers as would have been expected only a few yearsearlier. Here, they stand independently and, freed from the strict interpretation of Louis XNdesign criteria, now terminate in fanciful, animal-like hooves. 2

This arm chair has the unusual feature of being carved at the top of the back with a ducalcrown surmounting an as yet unidentified crest. The story of the acquisition of this pieceallows for significant speculation on its historical importance. When purchased, it wasupholstered with Aubusson tapestry coverings bearing the Royal Arms of Louis XVIII.Onecould assume, therefore, that the chair might have been acquired for the Court's use in one ofthe royal residences. This explanation seems unlikely, however, since the prevailing tasteswere rather different.

On the other hand, the chair's upholstery may simply indicate that it had been used in RoyalCouncil chambers since its creation. By a quite fortunate but unexplained turn of events, itmay have survived the drastic vagaries of history and aesthetics. One can speculate thereforethat this arm chair was made originally for one of Louis XN's councilors and was merelyadapted by Louis XVIII'sCourt.

lit should be noted at this time that this chair was gilded at the time of its origin.2The Regence period, approximately 1700-1730,celebrated its freedom from the rigid controls surrounding the Artsin the Louis XIVperiod by punctuating almost every design with imaginative, fantasy-inspired elements. It was ahappv time. And so the chimera and masks which dotted the boiseries and adorned the furniture of the periodwere not meant to frighten but rather provoke the beholder's imagination.

2. A Regence beechwood caned open arm chair, one of a pair. Ca. 1720.35112" (90 em.) high; 26V2" (67 em.) deep; 25V2" (65 em.) wide.Lent by Oalva Brothers, Inc., New York.

The concave backrest is carved almost identically on both the front and back surfaces withvarious scrolls, sgraffito work and stylized scallop-shell motifs.

Exceptionally, the caned seating platform is carved on the edges with oves and on the flatsurfaces with sgraffito work and floral motifs. All four seat rails are fully carved. In addition,the front rail has been designed with a most unusual, if not unique, concave shape which isparalleled by the form of the back seat rail.

The chair rests on four slightly cabriole legs connected by a carved "x" shaped stretcher.

It is very rare to find a chair completely carved on every external surface.

A nearly identical chair is illustrated in Jarry and Deviney's "Le Siege Francais", plates 66and 67.

3. A small Regence chaise longue' executed in beechwood. Ca. 1725.40" (102 cm.i high; 53%" (135.5an.) deep; 30W' (77.5 an.) wide.Ex. Stettiner and Hoentschel collections.

The highly unusual nature of this chaise is visible in its size, and in the extensiveness andvirtuosity of its carving. The seat, supported on sixshort cabriolet legs, projects forward froma steeply pitched back. The distance of this projection, with its graceful, narrowing shape, isfar less than on later examples, such as the Louis XVduchesse a bateau or the duchesse brisee. Asa result, this piece retains a far more individual scale, an important point and one whichprobably influenced its highly developed carved details.

This individual scale is even more distinctly present here than in the few other examples ofthis general type that we can call to mind. For instance, the model sold at Sotheby Parke-Bernet, May 5, 1984, as part of the Wrightsman Collection, lot #205, is fitted with a closedend. Thus, although it retains the airiness conferred by its fully caned construction, it isperhaps psychologically less accomodating to an individual's whims. In like manner, theexample illustrated in Jarry and Deviney's "Le Siege Francais", plate 80, is much heaviervisually, as well as physically, as a result of its all-upholstered back.

In this particular example, one of the most eye-catching carved elements is the spider-webform of the delicate shell motif used as the central element along the seat rail between thelegs. Other noteworthy elements are the remarkable raised details on the shoulders of theback and the fur-like gathers emanating from them. These give the back a tripartite formreminiscent of the earlier Louis XIV period. At the top of the back we see again an exquisiteshell motif, carved and pierced with great precision and dimensionality.

One additional detail merits special note: the presence of carving continuing onto the lowerback rail. Backs of chairs were normally left unembellished, since they were consideredunseen.? In this example, the customer might have intended the chair to be moved todifferent positions in a room, with the result that it could be visible at times from the back.The rear carving and top piercing would therefore prevent the chaise's back from appearingflat and visually uninteresting.

IThe Eighteenth Century chaise longue derives from the Seventeenth Century lit de lour, a relativelv low, narrow davbed having one end of variable height and a matress-like cushion extending to full length. It was the favoritereceiving place of ladies, being located in the smaller and warmer bedroom rather than the vast receiving halls of apalace. Thus a lit de lour offered the same comfort formerly found only in the draped bed itself. For an illustration,see [anneau's "Les Sieges", page 52.

2This is perhaps one explanation for the practice of using different fabric on the backs of iauteuils a la reine . Since thevwere technicallv not to be seen, there was no need to lavish expensive silks or velvets on them.

4. An early Regence caned seat and back open arm chair executed in beechwood. Ca. 1725.38" (96.5em.) high; 233f4" (60 em.) deep; 251Jz" (65em.) wide.Provenance: B. Fabre et Fils, Paris.

This arm chair exhibits many of the classic characteristics of the Regence period. The armshave now withdrawn to the position in which they will primarily remain for the next fiftyyears. The outline of the seat has begun to take on a distinctly trapezoidal shaping, whileretaining the essentially rectilinear form of the preceding period. This' fanning out of theseat's front will continue even more visibly through the rest of the century.

Another transitional detail to be noted is the slightly bow-shaped (arbalette) form of the seat'sfront rail, announcing the standard of the forthcoming Louis XVperiod. Another precursorof this new style can be seen in the back of this piece. While retaining the slightly highershoulders typical of the Louis XIV style, the back is now both shaped and lower. Thesecharacteristics reflect the more "personal" qualities and scale of the growing movementaway from the grandeur of Louis XIV's public halls of state. One must appreciate thehistorical significance of this "humanizing" of the decorative arts. The "Princes of the Blood"were now being challenged to furnish private residences in a personal style as opposed to thehighly political style to which they were accustomed at Court. 1

The individuality of this arm chair derives from the elaborately carved details visible over themajority of its frame. Special notice should be paid to the sinuous, vine-like tendrils on theback's top rail, as well as to the precision of the cross-hatched or checkering details through-out the frame. Observe, as well, the delicately cascading edges of the single and doubleshell-motifs at the top of the back and at the front of the seat.

The shell motif seems to harken back to the glory of the Louis XIVperiod. For the shell,especially the coquille St. Jacques, in those years was frequently stylized to represent the SunKing's symbol.

Finally we see here pierced, or open-work, carving on the front seat and top back rails.Piercing invariably represents an imaginative leap in masterful woodcarving. While notnecessarily functional, such an element represents a daring hand and mind, while oftenconferring surprising lightness and grace to the design. .

1 In many ways, Louis XIV used art both as a means to glorify France, arid therefore himself, and as an extension ofhis intra- and international political ambitions.

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5. A miniature Regence side chair executed in walnut. Ca. 1725.14" (35.5 em.) high; 9" (23em.) deep; 9" (23em.) wide.

All miniature chairs are extremely rare, whether they are a chair-maker's model, a child'schair or a maftrise ( master work ). In most cases, they were not conceived of as having orrequiring the same longevity of the full-scale models, and therefore few survive today.' Inthis example the extremely small size and slight disproportion between back and seatindicate that what we have here was probably intended as a chair-maker's model-anexample which would be shown to potential clients in order that they might visualize moreeasily the final product.

I am not aware of any models which significantly pre-date the present example. This factmay reflect a significant evolution which took place in the consumer population during thelate Louis XIVand Regence periods. As Louis XIVbecame older and less able or desirous (orboth) of maintaining his tight control over the Court and the "Princes of the Blood", therewas a drift away from Versailles and toward Paris in terms of where they might acceptablylive. Thus, there was quite a building boom in Paris in the first quarter of the EighteenthCentury as the nobles put up private residences designed and scaled for their personal use.These personal residences required "personalized" furnishings-not necessarily pre-selected by the artistic or design hierarchy that the King had established, and whichpreviously had maintained control over such matters. The resultant diversity of consumers(which could only grow as time passed) required, if you will, the craftsmen to have modelson hand to show; models which in this context, and which in the previous period of relativelycentralized consumption were unnecessary.

This particular example is very finely carved with shell motifs and stylized shell elementsreflective of its period.

IWax models of specific orders were usuallv produced for the approval of royal patrons. Quite obviously, very fewof these survive.

6. A late Regence caned seat and back open ann chair executed in walnut. Ca. 1730.36314" (93.5em.) high; 28" (71em.) deep; 26" (66em.) wide.Bearing the as yet unidentified "branded" stamp (marque au feu) "Simonton".

In many respects this ann chair represents classic Regence traits of the end of this period.First, while the lack of a stretcher had already been seen with increasing frequency inprevious years, the shaped seat-with its strongly forward-thrusting front rail and shapedsides-is a harbinger of the form typical to the Louis XVperiod. As you can observe, thebasic outline of the seat has taken on the obviously trapezoidal shape which also becomesalmost standard from this point on.

In addition, one sees here a highly original back design. This back is very distinctly cabriolet orcurved in profile. Such shaping became common in the Louis XV period, but can beconsidered most unusual in this degree during the Regence period.

The exceptional detailing on the back features a highly vaulting shell motif at center, flankedby a complicatedly traced design ending in rather strong "shoulders" at the tops of the rearlegs. So too, the lower back rail has been shaped in a most unusual fashion that extends itsmotifs beyond the outlines of the rear legs.

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7. A late Regence miniature bergere executed in beechwood. Ca. 1730.18" (45.5 em.) high; 14W' (37em.) deep; 12" (30.5 em.) wide.Ex: Aveline collection.

The general comments appearing under #5 are valid in this case as well. The form itself ofthis example is quite remarkable, however. The bergere is usually defined as an armchair inwhich the area under the arm and above the seat is upholstered. Most often moreover thebergere is seen with a loose cushion, and sometimes with "wings" (oteilles) projecting fromthe back. In this latter case it is referred to as a bergere aux oreilles.' In any event, the bergere isgenerally thought to have made its appearance in the Parisian market around 1725.2Thus thepresent example may represent one of the very early efforts of this design. 3

IWhen these wings extend the full length of the back, it is referred to as a bergere en confessional. The first bergere enconfessional was reputed to have been made for Madame de Maintenon, the mistress of Louis XIV. While Louisloved company and the witty diversion offered by his chosen ladies, he did not suffer from the cold drafty spaces ofhis Palace. She did. And so a chair with upholstered sides on the back and upholstery under the arms wasconceived to shelter Madame de Maintenon as she faced the warmth of the fireplace.

2Itwas first mentioned in contemporary inventories about 1737and had antecedents in use as early as the beginningof the century in the form of the confessional-type bergere.

3A closely related, full-scale version of this model can be seen in [anneau's "Les Sieges", plate 94.

8. A late Regence caned seat and back open arm chair executed in beechwood. Ca. 1730.38" (96.5 em.) high; 25" (64 em.) deep; 27W' (70 em.) wide.Ex: Brazelton and Netto collections.

With the exception of one other example in this exhibition, #2, this arm chair must beconsidered to be the most unique example of its type. It has all of the attributes previouslymentioned including a shaped-seat outline, carving of the seat's caning frame, a steeplypitched and cabriolet-form back, pierced carving on the front rail, and carving on the backseat rail.

Naturally, the carved details themselves are prolific and extraordinarily delicate. All of thesequalifications then combine unusually harmoniously with the graceful lines of the frame.Notice especially the sweep of the arm, arm post, and side seat rail as shown in the secondillustration. There can be no doubt of the strong individualistic and aesthetic awareness ofboth the menuisier and patron who brought this chair into being.

9. A menuisier's model for a Louis XV chaise longue executed in carved and painted beechwood.Ca. 1745.13%" (35 em.) high; 211/2" (54.5 em.) deep; lOW' (26.5 em.) wide.Ex: Byron Foy collection.

This unusual miniature fulfills its function with graceful simplicity, easily suggesting thefull-scale version of itself. The frame retains its original painted decoration, and -perhapsdue to its extremely small scale-is unembellished and simply moulded. Decisions regard-ing further decorative elements could thus be left to the discretion of the individual client.For a discussion of the chaise longue, refer to #3.

10. A Louis XV carved seat and back traveling side chair, chaise de voyage, executed in canedbeechwood. Ca. 1745.333/4" (85.5 em.) high; 181h" (46 em.) deep; 22" (56 em.) wide.Ex: Carlihan collection.Lent by B. Fabre et Fils, Paris.

Here a perhaps simply classic side chair has been elevated by means of an ingeniouscombination of hooks and hinges to that most personal and rare group of the decorative arts,traveling furniture. The concept of these pieces is most often associated, later in the century,with military campaign furniture. The latter however were most frequently made of metal, afact which was aided by the more rectilinear designs of the Louis XVIand Empire periods.Less specifically utilitarian and more individual examples are known, albeit rarely, through-out the Eighteenth Century.'

The red color decorating this chair is at odds with the naturalistic palette prevalent in theLouis XV period. And yet it would appear that it is original. Perhaps the first traveling ownerof this piece took his cue from the practice in preceding centuries of cleansing furnitureexposed to plague and pestilences with a paint colored by bull's blood (sang de Boeuj).

The stimulus for the development of this class of furniture was in fact more the search forhygiene than for style. Traveling in the Eighteenth Century was not without its risks,especially in the form of the insects which generally infested the roadside way stations.Thus, it was not unusual for the traveler of means to bring along his chair or table in order tominimize his contact with the source of these problems. 2

The origins of traveling seat furniture date back to the Seventeenth Century when a foldingchair having a back and seat of a strong cloth was carried in the luggage of almost all nobles,save the king who always, it seems, had a chair. These traveling, folding seats were knownas perroquets.

ISee the folding Regence traveling table illustrated in the Philipe Weiner Catalogue, #89, and now in the Musee desArts Decoratifs in Paris; or the most unusual traveling combination make-up, tea and bed table, table d'accouchee, byMartin Carlin formerly in the Wrightsman collection and now in the Metropolitan Museum.

2Mv thanks to Mr. Bernier for this information.

11. An early Louis XV miniature open arm chair executed in beechwood and upholstered enchassis. Ca. 1745.17%" (44.5 em.) high; 13W' (34.5 em.) deep; 13"(33 em.) wide.Provenance: Rene WeiHer; Jeremy, Ltd.

This most unusual, small arm chair may well have been a maftrise, or master work. As such itwould have been presented to the Guild Jury as part of the requirements for being receivedas a master menuisier. This possibility is reinforced by extensive and elaborate carving whichembellishes the frame. In addition, and quite remarkably for a miniature, the chair isupholstered en chassis. (See #12)

In certain respects, the precisely carved details present on this chair reflect the influence of itspredecessors. The areas at the center of the front seat and top back rails, and at the tops of thefour legs, are quite reminiscent of the stylized shell motifs of the Regence period. However,the whole frame is now fully moulded and flowingly shaped, indicating a greater emphasison the continuity of the design.

The importance of the development of the fully moulded frame should not be underesti-mated. This chair's design can be seen as a definite departure from the more compart-mentalized sculpture patterns of the Regence and more classical Louis XIV period.Previously, furniture had developed from architectural formulas in which the rectangledominated both basic frame shapes and any decorative embellishments. The design sourceof the Louis XVperiod, on the other hand, was Nature, where lines could bend and flow withthe imagination.

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12. A Louis XVopen ann chair upholstered en chassis and executed in beechwood. Ca. 1748.38" (96.5 an.) high; 29" (74an.) deep; 27' (68.5an.) wide.Signed by Jean-Baptiste Gourdin, Master 1748.

This ann chair was probably painted at the time of its creation, perhaps in similar fashionto the decoration of #13. Today, one can only imagine the naturalistic colors that onceenhanced the vines, leaves and flowers which appear almost everywhere on its frame.

Technically this ann chair is known as a [auteuil a la reine, signifying that it has a flat back. Inthe etiquette of the day, it would have been intended to remain against the wall of a room. Asa result, the shape of this chair was designed as an integral complement to the boiserie andbasic architecture of the room. Practically speaking, this role was helped by the fact that suchann chairs were almost invariably bigger in scale than their curved-back, or cabriolet, counter-parts. They were thus even less likely to be moved about in a room.

Upholstering en chassis was an immensely practical invention, the enjoyment of which,however, was limited to only very rich customers. Basicallythe technique involves attachingthe upholstery not to the frame of the chair itself, but to a group of specially fitted framesdesigned to lie inside the chair's rabbets. While gravity holds down the seat, the arms andback were usually held in place by bolts. This technique allowed the individuals who couldafford such luxury to have seasonal sets of upholstery fabrics woven in Lyon. These wouldbe changed most certainly in winter and summer, or with each passing season if desired.Parisian newspapers would in fact announce when the RoyalHousehold at Versailles wouldchange from one "dress" to another. And of course, anyone owning chairs en chassis wouldthen follow suit. A by-product of this upholstery technique is the wider frontal aspect of theframes of chairs of this type, due to the fact that the rabbets faced rearward instead of forwardas is normally the case. Such widening in scale added to the visual importance of this type ofseat furniture.

Both the collections of the Metropolitan Museum and the Musee de Carnavalet in Paris havealmost identical examples of this chair, although neither is upholstered en chassis. They differin actual design only in the direction that the leaves point on the lower back rail. The othertwo, however, are signed by Michel Gourdin, master 1752, the younger brother of Jean-Baptiste.

13. A Louis XV chaise d'amour executed in beechwood and retaining traces of its originalpolychromed decoration. Ca. 1750.38" (96.5 em.) high; 391f2" (100.5 em.) deep; 26" (66em.) wide.Illustrated in Jarry and Deviney's "Le Siege Francais", plate 97.

At the very outset, I will admit to having fashioned the name for this piece. However, itsunique function required, it seemed, a specific name and one did not exist. This function, Imust also say, was an enigma for a number of years. Then, one day, Gaston Bensimon-oneof the truly great dealers in French furniture in this century-responded with typical Gallicdirectness to an often repeated query. "C'est pour faire l'arnour." In that moment, whatmight have been obvious became so.

Quite apart from its unusual destiny, this piece illustrates a number of important elements ofLouis XV chair design. First, we see that the entire frame is conceived as one continuous,flowing design, with its moulding forming every now and then a backdrop or framework forclumps of carved foliate motifs. The designers of the Louis XV period rejected the archi-tectural rectilinearity of the Louis XIVperiod and elevated Nature as the prime design sourcefor the decorative arts. Thus Nature, with its fluidity and color, represented the finalfulfillment of the fantasy and exotic imagination that enlivened the Regence period.

In this context, the fully moulded frame of this Louis XVchaise functioned as a pathwayalong which the eye was led around the "organic" or curving frame elements. It should benoticed that in the Regence examples we have seen, this visual "pathway" does not exist.There, the carved details are clustered and frequently framed within carved lines on what areoften flat surfaces.

Secondly, this chaise retains a significant amount of its original polychrome decoration.Today one must simply imagine the slightly off-white moulding bordered by reddish brown,now tarnished by age. The carved flowers and leaves were red and green in tone. Theselively colors reflect a palette derived from nature as one would expect in this period.

14. A Louis XVfive-legged desk chair, fauteuil de bureau, executed in painted beechwood.Ca. 1750.4OW' (103 an.) high; 251/2" (65an.) deep; 271f2" (70an.) wide.Another example from the collection of the Musee des Arts Decoratifs, Paris, is illustrated in[anneau's "Les Sieges", page 92.

This is a fine example of the development of the fullymoulded chair frame brought to the forein the Louis XVperiod. Although completely unembellished, this frame maintains a sense ofrhythm and movement throughout its form.

Certainly many chairs were made without important carved details in both this and thesubsequent period. Among them, however, lasting design success was known more fre-quently by the Louis XVexamples. While the eye can quickly encompass the linear designand rectilinear junctures of the Louis XVI models, it is constantly challenged and evensurprised as it travels along the twisting, turning pathways of the subtler Louis XVframe.

Unlike its mate in the Musee des Arts Decoratifs, this chair appears to retain its originalpainted decoration. In addition, this model represents a strong departure from the designformula for the desk chair in vogue until this time. During the Regence period, the desireemerged for a specialized chair for use at a desk. Thus evolved a four-legged, diamondshaped plan characterized by an almost tub shaped back. The sides of the back would sweepforward from a high point over the single rear leg and terminate on arm posts extending upfrom side legs located just forward of the mid-point of the seat. The seat projected forwardresting on a single front leg providing an advantageous sitting position for the occupant.

This design, however successful, retained an inherent, potential instability, especially whenone moved to the side. In the example shown here, however, the traditional leg placementhas been reinterpreted. Now the frontal seat area has been broadened and equipped with anadditional leg for increased stability. The seat continues to project forward to maintain theseating advantage, however. Viewing this chair today, we must appreciate the break withtradition as well as the design ingenuity of such a masterful work.

15. A Louis XVcarved beechwood hair-dressing chair, fauteuil a coiffer. Ca. 1750.341h" (87.5an.) high; 2011.1" (51.5an.) deep; 23"(58.5an.) wide.Ex:David-Weill collection.

The iauieuil a coiffer is generally thought to have first come into being about 1740. It ischaracterized by a back which dips down at the middle of its top most section, the intentionbeing to facilitate the combing out of a lady's long hair.

This particular example has the added interest of having a heart shaped back. The design isrepeated in the shape of the seat, as well as in a slightly raised moulding rimming the caning.It is interesting to contrast this example with another which was formerly in the Carlihancollection and later donated by my father to the Musee des Arts Decoratifs in Paris. Thesimilarities between the two are so strong that there is little doubt they were made by thesame, albeit unknown, hand. A significant difference can be seen, however, in the way thelower back is treated-open in one case and closed in the other. In order to emphasize theheart shape, this romantic design is silhouetted here, certainly an indication of the indi-viduality behind the creation of this chair.

Photograph provided bv the Musee des Arts Decoratifs, Paris

16. A Louis XV carved walnut mechanical invalid's chair, [auteuil de malade. Ca. 1750.45" (114 em.) high; 29" (74 em.) deep; 28Y2" (72.5 em.) wide.Signed "Migeon" (Pierre Migeon), Master 1739.Ex: Poteau collection. Illustrated in Jarry and Deviney's "Le Siege Francais". plate 134.

In order to perform its intended function, this chair is equipped with three wheels and ahand-cranked mechanism on each arm, permitting its occupant to power and direct the chairaccording to his wishes. Migeon, as is the case of a number of French chair-makers, camefrom a family of chair craftsmen. Since he was also recognized for his mechanical skills, it isprobable that he designed both the wood and the metal aspects of this complicated chair.While this may seem to contravene the divisions of skills intended by the various guildclassifications, it was not unusual for both chair and cabinet makers to transgress-althoughnot always with impunity-when their skills allowed. Such versatile craftsmen may havehad the protection of well-placed clients and thus were able to bend guild regulations. Or,they may simply have been willing to take the risk of confiscation of their illegally producedgoods. In this case, it may have been a combination of both the foregoing plus the fact thatthese regulations were less stringently enforced where chair-makers were concerned, whichenabled Migeon to produce this highly unusual chair. I

The arms of this chair are equipped with retractable steel rods intended to serve as supportsfor a tray. The legs are unified by stretchers paralleling the seat rails and providing the addedrigidity necessary to the accomplishment of the chair's function.

ISee introduction.

\.

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17. A Louis XVmusician's ann chair executed in carved walnut. Ca. 1750.32" (80.5 em.) high; 19314" (50 em.) deep; 21" (53.5em.) wide.

Musicians' chairs tend to be characterized by higher than "normal" legs and low backs. Thisexample, which was perhaps intended for a cellist, exhibits the additional feature of havinglegs which pull in and terminate well inside the perimeter described by the seat rail, thusallowing a proper positioning of the cellist's feet. The back and arms are in a sense vestigialelements which were obviously not intended to perform their support or ann-restingfunctions as much as they were to complete the design criteria of an ann chair.

18. A Louis XV open arm chair Ii la reine executed in beechwood. Ca. 1755.35W' (90 em.) high; 253/4" (65.5 em.) deep; 27" (68.5 em.) wide.Signed Nicholas Heurtaut, Master 1755.Ex: Sarah Hunter Kelly collection.

Like #12, this is an arm chair Ii la reine. Its uniqueness derives from its fine carving and fromthe deep, extraordinarily fluid moulding of its frame. The grace of the junctures of the arm,arm post and side rail indicate a craftsman in full mastery of his talent as well as a demanding,sophisticated consumer. Look at the very edge of the moulding on the side of the front legs.The delicate thinness of this detail and the success of the junctures mentioned above areoften the marks of a great chair maker.

19. A carved and painted Louis XVcomer sofa. Ca. 1755.31" (79em.) high; 32" (81em.) deep; 721h" (184em.) wide.

This settee is another good example of the type of seat furniture intended to remain againstthe walls of a room. It thus conformed to the design of the panelling of a room while addingthereby to its architecture. Essentially all seats ala reine (flatback chairs) were so intended. Infact a rather stringent etiquette governing the division of labor among a room's furnishingsleft mobility up to the cabriolet (curved back) seats. These latter moreover derived their namesfrom the highly agile cabriolet carriage. Such chairs were usually somewhat smaller in scaleand therefore lighter than their wall hugging counterparts, a fact which obviously helpedinsure the observance of the so-called etiquette."

This chair also calls to mind the unique type of seat furniture developed by NicholasHeurtaut for the Prince de Beauvau at his Chateau de Sainte-Assise. These pieces wereknown as coin de feu and also had only one arm. Their name implies that they were used oneither side of a fireplace.

In any event, the present example, though unsigned, quite clearly exhibits the hand of amaster craftsman in the wave-like cascade of moulding and flowers which flow on its everyside.

I For an interesting illustration of this etiquette refer to the "Boite Choiseuil" which depicts the salon of the Dukede Choiseuil, Louis XV's foreign minister, in his private house on the Rue de Richelieu in Paris, ca. 1750.

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20. A Louis XVopen arm chair d Lareine executed in carved beechwood. Ca. 1755.37" (94 em.) high; 28W' (74.5 em.) deep; 28W' (74.5em.) wide.Signed "St. Georges" (jean-Etienne St. Georges), Master 1747.

Jean-Etienne St. Georges took over the workshop of his father, Etienne St. Georges, in theyear of his mastership. The latter had died twelve years earlier. However, in accordance withguild regulations, the shop was maintained by his widow; and his son worked as a compagnonuntil he had fulfilled all the guild requirements. Although Jean-Etienne lived until the end ofthe monarchy, examples of his work are few, whether in public or private hands.

Most of his published works are, however, well-designed and proportioned, but simplyshaped frames. This extremely delicately carved chair is therefore unusual and the productof a special order, no other examples of which are known to survive. Note in particular thesweep of the arm through its arm post and into the junction with the seat rail. The deepmoulding of the forward faces of the front legs, as well as the shaping of their rear profiles areindicative of the extra care lavished on this chair's execution.

21. A Louis XV carved and painted beechwood shaving chair, fauteuil a razer. Ca. 1755. (See frontcover illustration also.)491fz" (126 ern.) high; 23W' (60 ern.) deep; 25W' (65 ern.) wide.Ex: Jacques Seligmann, Philipe Weiner, David-Weill, Fabre collections.

From the very first glance, it is obvious that this chair is intended for a unique function. It isequipped with a high, hinged back which, by means of its originally leaf-gilded iron support,permitted three different inclinations of the owner's head to be obtained. To compensate forthe weight thus pitched backwards, the seat of this chair is supported by a fifth leg whichtakes off at a strong angle from the middle of the back rail. The angle and placement of this legallow the chair to deal with the additional stresses resulting from its intended use.

The painted decoration of this chair may well be original. The arms are supported on armposts which terminate directly over the front legs, an unusual feature for a Louis XV periodchair. On the one hand, this arrangement may well have had a functional intention given theuse of the chair. Stylistically, however, it is also consistent with an approaching return tomore classically derived designs. Notice the diminished freedom of application evident inthe floral cartouches carved into the seat rails and top of the hinged back. (See #4.) Thearrangement of these carvings gives full evidence of the stylizing hand of man rather than thefree-flowing brush of nature.

22. A Louis XVcarved and painted beechwood nursing arm chair, [auteuil de nourrice. Ca. 1758.36" (91.5 em.) high; 29" (73.5em.) deep; 211/4" (54em.) wide.Lent by Michel Meyer, Paris.

Like #13, the form of this most unusual arm chair is entirely dictated by its intendedfunction. The steeply pitched back, the slightly lower seat and arm heights, and the canedseat and back construction-all reflect decisions dictated by its role as a chair in which awoman could nurse a child.

All of this functionality did not, of course, interfere with the level of craftsmanship employedin the chair's creation. The fully moulded frame of this unusual chair has few betters in termsof the gracefulness of its shaping.

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23. A late Louis XVcarved beechwood hair-dressing chair, fauteuil a coiffer. Ca. 1760.323/4" (83.5em.) high; 24" (61.5em.) deep; 251/2" (65em.) wide.Ex:Ratteau collection.Illustrated in J. Mottheau's "Les Meubles Usuels, Regence et Louis XV", plate 2.

The sculptural possibilities of the simply moulded Louis XVchair frame are brought to theirfullest development and success in the extraordinary and graceful lines of this chair.

, Whether approaching from the front or back, the eye beholding this unique example of themenuisier's craft is treated to total fluidity and strongly sweeping curves. Notice especiallythe posts supporting the arms and the unique construction of the downward dipping back.

Although unsigned, this chair dates from after the time when technically all productionswere to be stamped. This is another indication of the more rigorous enforcement of the newguild regulations in the cabinet-makers' guild than in the chair-makers' guild.

Despite its anonymity, the name of Louis Delanois, who became a master menuisier in 1761and under whom the great Georges Jacob apprenticed, comes to mind. Although he isassociated most frequently with Louis XVI-styleworks, some of his Louis XV-styleproduc-tions exhibit parallel approaches, especially in the area of arm treatments.

Two elements of this chair give evidence of the mounting pressure for a return to "classi-cism" in design which was at work in the artistic and, perhaps even more significantly, theimportant consumer community during the period. First, the arm-post terminations areonce again directly over the front leg. In the transitional period, between the Louis XVandLouis XVI styles, one of the most difficult problems provoked by the trend away fromcurvilinearity and toward rectilinearity was the successful integration of the essentiallyvertical movement of the arm post and the essentially horizontal movement of the seat rail.By far the most popular solution in the Louis XVIstyle was the one presaged in this model:the termination of the arm post over the front leg. Secondly, the single element of sculpturalembellishment, the small area of carving in the middle of the front rail, is not representativeof nature with flowers and leaves, but rather a simple, classicaloval medallion.

24. A Louis XVIopen arm chair ala reine executed in carved and gilded beechwood. Ca. 1780.37" (94em.) high; 28" (71em.) deep; 27" (69em.) wide.Signed by Jean Boucault, Master 1728.Ex: Chateau de Versailles.Lent by Didier Aaron, Inc., New York.

Jean Boucault died in 1786, making this most elegant arm chair one of the last products of hisextremely long career. Although we know it was intended for royal consumption (itbears the'double "V" brand of the Chateau of Versailles), we do not know the specifics of the orderplaced for it or its intended location in the chateau. While this information is probablycontained in the voluminous inventory of royal furnishings, the inventory number whichcould have guided us to this information was probably painted on the seat webbing of thischair. I Certainly having undergone many re-upholsteries in its life, this key is now lost to us.

Some inferences can be made, however, regarding the intentions for this piece. The carveddetails are obviously princely in their profusion and extraordinary delicacy. However, thescale of the chair seems less publicly kingly than privately so. Perhaps, this piece was madefor Louis XVI's private apartments where he could enjoy it in the calmer company of hisintimate circle.

One final note regarding the carved details of this chair. The reverse spiral twisting fluting ofthe legs of this chair are a design which first appeared in 1769 in works which Louis Delanois(Master 1761) supplied to Madame du Barry.

IStarted ca. 1668 by Colbert, Louis XIV's chief councilor, the inventory of royal furnishings was maintainedthroughout the monarchy and totals approximately 7,200pages.

25. A Louis XVIcarved beechwood miniature arm chair en cabriolet. Ca. 1780.22W' (57em.) high; 14"(35.5em.) deep; IS" (38em.) wide.Singed by Antoine Delaporte, Master 1762.

The size and good proportion of this example indicate that it may have been intended as achild's chair. Regardless it is faithful to the stylistic developments of the time. The armsterminate through their arm posts directly over the front legs in a return to a formula not seenreally since 1715.The armposts themselves are referred to as being en caoet, a design first seenaround 1775and characterized by a shallow concave curve which ends in a short verticallyfluted column directly over the front leg. The shape of the chair itself has also responded tothe dictates of the time, with the front of the seat widening (to compensate for the forward-thrusting arms?) and the seat itself taking on a much more decidedly trapezoidal shape.

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26. A Louis XVIcarved and gilded marquise. Ca. 1785.37" (94em.) high; 27" (68.5 em.) deep; 321fz" (82.5 em.) wide.Lent by Dalva Brothers, Inc., New York.

The marquise entered the menuisier's repertoire around 1740,along with a host of other newmodels destined to provide varied and comfortable seating for the growing world of"company". The receiving of friends and guests was a pastime which grew into a fine artafter the Regence period liberated household and artistic life. This particular model was an

.enlarged bergere in which one or perhaps two intimate friends could squeeze.

The form of this chair is most unusual in that it has concave front and back seat rails and aslightly asymmetrically angled top back rail. This top piece is carved with stylized laurelleafage, beading and reticulated wreath.

The chair's ornamentation is crisply carved and consists of various mouldings with piastreson the arms and raie-de-coeur and beadings elsewhere. The armrests are raised on balustersupports over chamfered comers.

The chair was undoubtedly designed for a very specific place, probably a six- or eight-sidedroom.

27..A Louis XVIpainted beechwood mechanical chaise longue. Ca. 1785.40/1 (101.5 an.) high; 67/1 (170cm.i deep; 29/1 (73.5an.) wide.Signed by Jean-Baptiste Lelarge, Master 1775.A nearly identical wheelchair made by Lelarge for General Pierre Armand Pinoteau isillustrated in [anneau's "Les Sieges", page 155.Lent by Dalva Brothers, Inc., New York.

This chaise is in the form of a normal Louis XVIbergere ala reine with an attachable footrest.However, the entire piece rests on four large brass wheels mounted on polished steelbrackets. It can be self-propelled and steered by turning the handles which are connected byrods and gears to the drive wheels. The back can recline, and below the handles, there arepolished steel retractable supports for a tray.

It is interesting to compare the metal work of this piece with that of the mechanism of itsearlier counterpart, #16. It is possible to see an indication of the technological progress inboth metallurgy and metal-working tools. Here, the still bright finish of the steel (acier)elements points to the ability to alloy larger amounts of nickel, thus allowing a more stainlesssteel-like durability to be achieved. These same metallurgic developments permitted thefashioning of harder and more finely pointed tools. The improvements in precision andability to render delicate details available to the bronze chaser or sculptor in the latter part ofthe Eighteenth Century owe much to this fact. The finish and more exact gearing of thismodel are a parallel result.

28. A Louis XVIcarved and painted beechwood multiple lyre-back canape. Ca. 1785.37" (94em.) high; 23314" (60.5em.) deep; 73W' (187em.) wide.Signed by Georges Jacob, Master 1765.Provenance: Philadelphia Museum of Art; Dwork collection.

Jacob or perhaps his teacher, Louis Delanois, was the originator of the lyre-back voyellehaving a circular seat separated from the back.l Both men kept fairly extensive records oftheir commercial lives. Jacob, however, is the first to mention having made such chairs forthe Crown, in his memoirs for 1788.

The present and unique example may well have been a design exercise made in conjunctionwith his supplying similar side chairs to the Royalhousehold. While no marks are evident tosupport this, the daring exhibited by this model would indicate a consumer demanding thenewest fashion in the decorative arts.

1 A iouette is a side chair designed to be sat in backwards and equipped with an upholstered section at the top of theback. The comfort afforded by this extra upholstery was equally appreciated by the person sitting backward in sucha chair, and bv a person standing behind it and looking over the shoulder of a person sitting facing front. Thesechairs were thus especially favored as gaming chairs, a pastime well-loved by the Crown.

29. A late Louis XVI-style carved and painted tub bergere, bergere en gondole.321fz" (82.5em.) high; 251fz" (65em.) deep; 24" (61em.) wide.

This is a somewhat apologetic inclusion in the exhibit. On the one hand, it is not antique,having been made in France sometime earlier this century. Its interest lies not in its age but inthe fact that its design and even style of upholstery are faithful depictions of the very lateLouis XVI style. Moreover, it is a direct copy of a drawing published by Aubert Parent in1788.1 We have here an exceptionally strong example of the fully developed Etruscan taste infurniture design, a taste staunchly supported and fostered by the influential painter David.

Aubert, as he was known, was an important designer tomemanistes and referred to thisdesign as a "type of gondole bergere-after an antique model." The "antique" he wasreferring to was, obviously, the Italy of antiquity. Although the piece may present traitsassociated at first glance with Empire furniture, it is not stylistically of that period. On theone hand, it is too fanciful and theatrical for it to have successfully carried the "imperialmessage" of the Empire. So too it lacks the sobriety requisite of the earlier Directorate orConsulate periods. It most represents therefore the final burst of the creative strength of theLouis XVIperiod.

ISee illustration of drawing.

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30. A Consulate side chair executed in beechwood veneered in cherry wood, having ebonizeddecorations;' Ca. 1799.341f2" (87.5 an.) high; 28" (71 an.) deep; 23" (58 an.) wide.Signed Jacob Freres, Rue Meslee. 2

The form of this chair is a spectacular combination of curve and line derived from the antiqueexamples brought to light in the discoveries at Herculaneum and Pompeii. The back sweepsback and over while terminating in outward splayed, sabre-form legs. The front legs areknown as being enjarret, or of animal form. This form of front leg was first mentioned in thepress in July of the seventh revolutionary year, or 1799.The thought is that this leg designwas introduced by the artists who accompanied Napoleon on his campaign in Egypt. Theirpharonic derivation is rather evident and plausible in this instance.

IChaise longue« very similar to this piece are illustrated in [anneau's "Les Sieges", plate 327, and Jarry and Deviney's"Le Siege Francais", plate 273.

"Jacob's two sons, Georges and Francois-Honore, took over their father's business in 1796.

31. A Consula te side chair executed in gilded bronze and painted and decora ted steel. Ca. 1799.32" (81 em.) high; 16112" (42 em.) deep; 15" (38 em.) wide.Signed by Hector.Ex: Marcusen collection.

Technically, this remarkable chair should not be included in the exhibit. For, it is not theproduct of a master chair-maker but a master bronzier (bronze worker), one named Hector,about whom nothing is known. Nevertheless, as a truly unique element of seat furniture, Ithought it had to be seen. .

The problem of upholstery is solved in this instance by a loose, boxed cushion supported on aplatform of gut woven through holes in the bronze seat frame. The curved, technicallycabriolet back support is a pierced bronze strap centered by an eagle, obviously derived fromantique Roman designs.

The decoration remaining on the steel legs is most interesting. Having first received a verydark, reddish patination, they have then been decorated at their extremities and where theyjoin with the seat rail by painted gold collars and leafy palmettes. The color selection anddesign choices certainly reflect the "taste for the antique" which had been kindled by thecontinuing fascination with Pompeii and Herculaneum, rediscovered in the first half of theEighteenth Century. This taste, moreover, was strongest in the very end of the Louis XVIperiod and then into the Directorate and Consulate periods, before the imperial personalityof the Empire added its weight to the design choices of the time. When combined with otherelements, such as the much more monarchically inspired Apollo masks mounted on theblocks above the legs, these points tend to reinforce the circa 1799 dating of this chair.

GLOSSARY

BANQUETTE a bench without arms having antecedents dating back to the15th century.

BERGERE a low arm chair having upholstered or caned sides, first seenca. 1725, most often with a loose cushion.

BOUT DE PIED the end of a two- or three-part chaise longue (duchesse briseej.,

CABRIOLET a curvical back arm or side chair, first seen ca. 1740.

CANAPE a long open arm chair, first recorded ca. 1663.

CAUSEUSE a two-seated canape, first seen ca. 1740.

CHAISE DE COMMODITE a large arm chair with wings, first referred to ca. 1692.

CONFESSIONAL a type of bergere with wings extending the full height of theback, first seen in the late 17th century.

CONFIDENT the triangular ends of special canapes and sofas, first seen inthe 18th century.

DIVAN a type of lit-de-repos without back or arms, from the 17th and18th centuries.

DUCHESSE a long, extra-wide bergere, one end having a higher back thanthe other; sometimes in two or three parts; first seen in the 18thcentury and called a chaise longue in the 19th century.

LIT DE JOUR a narrow, bed-like piece with one headboard, from the 17thcentury.

MARQUISE a wide bergere or a half sofa, first seen in the 18th century.

MERIDIENNE a type of sofa having a back which descends from one endtoward the other, ca. 1790.

PERROQUET a folding seat having a back, from the 17th century.

PLOYANT a small folding seat, in use especially at Court from the 16th-18th centuries.

A LA REINE a flat-back side or arm chair (or bergere): first used in the 18thcentury.

SOFA a large seat with a back, having upholstery under the arms;first seen ca. 1648.

SULTANE a large seat having two vertical ends (variant of the Tour-quoise). seen in the late 18th century.

TETE A TETE a type of Causeuse, from ca. 1780.

TOURQUOISE a large seat with two upright ends and sometimes a removableback, from the second half of the 18th century.

VOYELLE a special side chair with upholstery at the top of the back, forsitting on backwards and gaming; designed ca. 1760.

VOYEUSE an arm chair or bergere with an upholstered top back rail forleaning on by a viewer standing behind the seated person;from ca. 1745.

These are free translations from a glossary appearing in [anneau's "Les Sieges".

BIBLIOGRAPHY

The following is a partial list of important books on French Eighteenth Century seat furni-ture. Unfortunately, none, to my knowledge, appears in English.

Erikson, Svend, "Louis Delanois". De Nobele, 1968.Janneau, Guillaume, "Les Sieges". Vincent, Freal et Cie, 1967.[arry, Janneau & Devinoy, "Le Siege en France", Hartmann, 1948.[arry. Madelaine & Devinoy, Pierre, "Les Sieges". Hartmann, 1950.Jarry, Madelaine & Devinoy, Pierre, "Le Siege Francais", Office du Livre, 1973.Lefuel, Hector, "Georges Jacob". Morance, 1923.Lefuel, Hector, "[acob-Desrnalter". Morance, 1925.