TheLitchi

The

Litchi

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONSNew Delhi, India

2012

Gorakh SinghVishal Nath S.D. Pandey

P.K. Ray H.S. Singh

iv A Manual for Litchi ProductionPRODUCTION

THE

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© FAO 2012

AffiliAtions of Authors:

Gorakh SinghHorticulture Commissioner, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi

Vishal Nath Director, National Research Centre for Litchi, Muzaffarpur, Bihar

S.D. PandeyPrincipal Scientist, National Research Centre for Litchi, Muzaffarpur, Bihar

P.K. Ray Professor Horticulture, Rajendra Agricultural University, Pusa, Samastipur, Bihar

H.S. SinghPrincipal Scientist and Head, Central Horticultural Experiment Station, Bhubaneshwar, Odisha

CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1Importance and Distribution ............................................................................................1

CHAPTER 2Climate and Soil ................................................................................................................9 Temperature ................................................................................................................9 Light .........................................................................................................................11 Rainfall ....................................................................................................................11 Relative Humidity .....................................................................................................12 Hailstorms and Frost .................................................................................................12 High Velocity Wind/Hurricane ..................................................................................13 The Ideal Climatic Conditions ..................................................................................13 Soil ..........................................................................................................................14 Soil Organic Matter ...................................................................................................15 Water Table ...............................................................................................................15 Soil pH .....................................................................................................................15 Moisture ....................................................................................................................16 Selecting Site for New Plantations ............................................................................16

CHAPTER 3Cultivars and Genetic Enhancement ............................................................................18 Criteria for Selection of Litchi Varieties ....................................................................19 Desirable Characteristics of a Litchi Cultivar .............................................................20 Fruit Characters ........................................................................................................20 Tree Characters .........................................................................................................22 Classifying Varieties on Vegetative Characters ..........................................................23 Region Specific Varieties ...........................................................................................24

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Commercial Varieties ...............................................................................................24 Varieties Grown in India ...........................................................................................25 Varieties from China and Other Countries ................................................................31 Genetic Enhancement .............................................................................................35

CHAPTER 4Plant Propagation .............................................................................................................38 Asexual Propagation .................................................................................................39 Air Layering ..............................................................................................................40 Stool Layering ..........................................................................................................42 Grafting ....................................................................................................................42 Approach Grafting ...................................................................................................44 Side Grafting ............................................................................................................45 Wedge Grafting .........................................................................................................46 Managing Nursery Stocks .........................................................................................47

CHAPTER 5Establishing the Orchard ................................................................................................48 Land Preparation .....................................................................................................48 Soil Reclamation .......................................................................................................49 Layout ......................................................................................................................49 Planting Methods ......................................................................................................50 Digging Pits ...............................................................................................................52 Pit Filling .................................................................................................................53 Apply Mycorrhiza ......................................................................................................54 Quality of Nursery Stocks ........................................................................................54 Planting Time ..........................................................................................................55 Planting Distance ......................................................................................................55 Planting Saplings .....................................................................................................56 Irrigation ...................................................................................................................57 Mulching ...................................................................................................................57 Drainage ...................................................................................................................58 Tree Guard and Staking ............................................................................................58 Live Fences ..............................................................................................................59 Windbreak ................................................................................................................60 Replanting ................................................................................................................61 Production Systems ..................................................................................................61

Contents vii

CHAPTER 6High Density Planting .....................................................................................................63 Merit of HDP over Normal Planting .........................................................................63 Components of High Density Planting ......................................................................64 Management of High Density Orchards ...................................................................66

CHAPTER 7Care of the Young Orchard ............................................................................................67 Pruning for Training .................................................................................................68 New Evidence on Growth .......................................................................................68 Care of the Young Orchard .....................................................................................69

CHAPTER 8Tree Growth, Flowering and Fruiting ............................................................................75 Growth of Shoots .....................................................................................................75 Juvenile or Non-bearing Stage .................................................................................76 Early Bearing Stage ..................................................................................................77 Young Bearing Orchards ..........................................................................................77 Full Bearing Orchards ...............................................................................................77 Old Declining (senile) Orchards ................................................................................78 Root ........................................................................................................................78 Leaf ..........................................................................................................................79 Vegetative Flushing ...................................................................................................80 Dormancy or Rest period .........................................................................................80 Flowering Period .......................................................................................................81 The Panicle/ Inflorescence .........................................................................................81 Flower .......................................................................................................................82 Flowering .................................................................................................................84 Pollination .................................................................................................................86 Fruit Setting ..............................................................................................................87 The Fruit ...................................................................................................................88 Fruit Growth .............................................................................................................89 Fruit Drop .................................................................................................................90 Fruit Yield .................................................................................................................91

CHAPTER 9Nutritional Requirement .................................................................................................93 How to Know the Nutrients Need? ...........................................................................95 Deficiency Symptoms of Major Nutrients in Litchi ....................................................98

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Micronutrients Deficiency .........................................................................................99 Determining the Need for Micronutrients ................................................................100 Application of Nutrients ..........................................................................................103 Nursery Stocks ........................................................................................................104 Fertilizer Application Rate .......................................................................................106 Time of Fertilizer Application ..................................................................................107 Method of Fertilizer Application .............................................................................108 Foliar Feeding ........................................................................................................109

CHAPTER 10Water Requirements and Irrigation .............................................................................111 The Root Zone .......................................................................................................111 Monitoring Soil Moisture .........................................................................................112 Plant Based Measurement ......................................................................................113 Meteorological Observations ...................................................................................113 Soil-Plant-Atmosphere Continuum ..........................................................................114 Determining Water Requirement ...........................................................................114 Stress Before Flowering .........................................................................................115 Irrigation Scheduling ...............................................................................................115 Irrigation Methods .................................................................................................116 Improving Water-Use Efficiency .............................................................................121 System of Irrigation ................................................................................................121 Mulching ................................................................................................................122

CHAPTER 11Orchard Floor Management .........................................................................................125 Benefits of Proper Orchard Floor Management ......................................................125 Selection of Crop ....................................................................................................126 Factors Determining Choice of Intercrops ...............................................................126 Crop Combination ..................................................................................................127 Filler Fruit Crop based Multi-tier System .................................................................128 Method of Growing ................................................................................................129 Pest Management ....................................................................................................129 Irrigation and Nutrition ...........................................................................................129 Long-term Productivity ...........................................................................................130 Weed Management in Litchi ...................................................................................130 Cultural (Mechanical) Control .................................................................................131 Intercropping/Cover Cropping for Weed Management ..........................................132 Biological Weed Control .........................................................................................132 Mulching for Weed Management and Moisture Conservation ................................134

Contents ix

Types of Mulches ...................................................................................................135 Method of Mulch Application..................................................................................135

CHAPTER 12Ensure Regular Bearing.................................................................................................136 Adopt Proper Nutrient Management Practice .........................................................136 Irrigate the Plant as per Need .................................................................................138 Make Attempts to Increase Pollination ....................................................................139 Fostering Strong and Healthy Bearing Branches ....................................................139 Perform Pruning after Harvest ................................................................................140 Thin out Excess Fruits ...........................................................................................140 Manage the Tree Basin ..........................................................................................140 Banking of Tree Trunk ............................................................................................140 Use Growth Regulators ...........................................................................................141 Adopt Pest and Disease Control Practices ...............................................................142

CHAPTER 13Canopy Management and Rejuvenation .....................................................................143 Importance of Canopy Management .....................................................................143 Planning for Canopy Management ........................................................................146 Canopy Management Practices ...............................................................................147 Heading Back to Control Growth ...........................................................................151 Skirting ..................................................................................................................152 Centre Opening Up ................................................................................................153 Thinning .................................................................................................................154 Root Pruning ..........................................................................................................154 Rejuvenation ...........................................................................................................155 The Process ............................................................................................................155 Managing Rejuvenated Plants .................................................................................156 The Outcome ..........................................................................................................158 Tools for Canopy Management .............................................................................158

CHAPTER 14Insect Pest Management ...............................................................................................160 Integrated Pest Management ...................................................................................160 Important Insect Pests ............................................................................................161 Litchi Leaf Roller ....................................................................................................164 Litchi Fruit Borer ...................................................................................................165 Shoot Borer ...........................................................................................................166

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Fruit Sucking Moths ...............................................................................................167 Litchi Bugs .............................................................................................................168 Leaf Eating Weevils ...............................................................................................169 Litchi Nut Borer .....................................................................................................169 Semilooper .............................................................................................................170

CHAPTER 15Diseases ...........................................................................................................................171 Brown Blight ...........................................................................................................171 Anthracnose ...........................................................................................................172 Tree Decline and Root Rot .....................................................................................173 Red Rust ................................................................................................................174 Fruit Rot..................................................................................................................175

CHAPTER 16Physiological Disorders .................................................................................................176 Poor Fruiting/ Non Fruiting / Irregular Fruiting .......................................................176 Flower and Fruit Drop ............................................................................................177 Fruit Cracking .........................................................................................................178 Sunburn ..................................................................................................................181 Retarded/ Underdeveloped Fruits ...........................................................................182 Black Spot ..............................................................................................................183 Pericarp Browning ..................................................................................................183

CHAPTER 17Fruit Maturity and Harvest ...........................................................................................185 Maturity Indices ......................................................................................................185 Harvesting ..............................................................................................................186 Training Workers for Harvesting .............................................................................188 Harvesting Time .....................................................................................................188 Fruit Picking ............................................................................................................189 Crates and Containers ............................................................................................189 Harvesting Period in India ......................................................................................190

CHAPTER 18Post Harvest Handling and Storage ............................................................................191 Sorting and Grading ...............................................................................................191 Pre-cooling ..............................................................................................................192 Packaging and Transport ........................................................................................193

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Labeling ................................................................................................................195 Transport ...............................................................................................................195 Storage ...................................................................................................................196

CHAPTER 19Processing and Value Addition ....................................................................................197 Basic Inputs for Small Processing of Litchi .............................................................198

CHAPTER 20Marketing and Production Economics .......................................................................204 Prevailing Channel of Litchi Trade ..........................................................................204 Commodity Movement from Production Area to Market ........................................205 Price Structure .......................................................................................................207 World Trade ............................................................................................................208 Export Potential of Indian Litchi .............................................................................209 Measures for Enhancing Competitiveness for Exports ............................................210 Litchi Marketing .....................................................................................................210 Reasons for Declining Status of Litchi Export .........................................................211 Economics of Litchi Export: a Case Study ..............................................................211 Production Economics of Litchi ..............................................................................212

APPENDIX .........................................................................................................................215Orchard Management: Monthly Calendar of Cultural Operations ........................215 Monthly Calendar of Operations for Establishing and Non-fruiting Orchard ...........215 Monthly Calendar of Operation for Fruiting Orchards ............................................217

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List of figures

Fig. 1 Probable problems and losses in litchi ...................................................................7Fig. 3.1 External and internal structure of a litchi fruit ......................................................20Fig. 3.2 Fruit characteristics used to describe different litchi cultivars ................................21Fig. 3.3 Litchi Cvs. China .................................................................................................26Fig. 3.4 Litchi Syn. Late Bedana ......................................................................................28Fig. 3.5 Rose Scented variety ...........................................................................................29Fig. 3.6 Shahi Variety .......................................................................................................30Fig. 3.7 Litchi Cv. Bengal ................................................................................................30Fig. 3.8 Litchi Cv. Tai So ..................................................................................................31Fig. 3.9 Three commercial cultivars of China ...................................................................31Fig. 3.10 Litchi Cv. Heung Lai ...........................................................................................32Fig. 3.11 Litchi Cv. Groff ....................................................................................................32Fig. 3.12 Litchi Cv. Haak Ip ................................................................................................32Fig. 3.13 Litchi Cv. Kom .....................................................................................................33Fig. 3.14 Litchi Cv. Kwai May Pink .....................................................................................34Fig. 3.15 Litchi Cv. Sabour Bedana ....................................................................................36Fig. 4.1 Air-layering in Litchi and air-layers ready for planting .........................................41Fig. 4.2 Process of mound layering or stooling in litchi ....................................................43Fig. 4.3 Different techniques of grafting litchi ...................................................................44Fig. 4.4 Wedge grafting in litchi ........................................................................................46Fig. 5.1 Orchard lay out based on a triangle ....................................................................49Fig. 5.2 Square planting ...................................................................................................50Fig. 5.3 Quincunx planting ...............................................................................................51Fig. 5.4 Hexagonal planting ..............................................................................................51Fig. 5.5 Triangular planting ...............................................................................................51Fig. 5.6 Single hedge row planting ...................................................................................52Fig. 5.7 Planting board helps setting a plant at the right point during planting time.........57Fig. 5.8 Protecting plants ..................................................................................................58Fig. 6.1 High Density Planting at National Research Centre for Litchi ..............................65Fig. 7.1 Frame work development in litchi........................................................................69Fig. 7.2 Intercropping in young litchi orchard with gladiolus and amorphophalus ............72Fig. 8.1 Flowering Panicles in Shahi litchi trees ................................................................82Fig. 8.2 Honey bee–the principal agent for pollination .....................................................86Fig. 8.3 Litchi fruit has bi-lobed ovary ..............................................................................87Fig. 8.4 Comparative size of seed in litchi fruit ................................................................89Fig. 8.5 Fruit growth in litchi shows a sigmoid growth curve ............................................89Fig. 8.6 Flowering and fruit set in Litchi ..........................................................................90

List of Figures xiii

Fig. 8.7 Bearing potential of a variety is genetically controlled .......................................92Fig. 9.1 Sample either of the two leaves ...........................................................................96Fig. 9.2 Micronutrient deficiency in litchi ........................................................................100Fig. 10.1 Micro-sprinkler irrigation ....................................................................................119Fig. 10.2 Schematic diagram of drip irrigation system in litchi orchard ............................120Fig. 10.3 Soil/root wetting pattern in drip and micro-sprinkler..........................................121Fig. 11.1 Inter cropping model for newly planted litchi orchard .......................................128Fig. 11.2 Litchi+ Guava+ Cowpea system in litchi..........................................................128Fig. 11.3 Mulching in Litchi tree .......................................................................................134Fig. 13.1 Frame development in litchi plant .....................................................................148Fig. 13.2 Tree skirting .......................................................................................................153Fig. 13.3 Centre opening in litchi plant ............................................................................153Fig. 13.4 Thinning of crowded orchard ............................................................................154Fig. 13.5 Tree thinning ......................................................................................................154Fig. 13.6 Root pruning .....................................................................................................154Fig. 13.7. Rejuvenation in Litchi ........................................................................................156Fig. 13.8 Nutrient application in rejuvenated Plants .........................................................157Fig. 14.1 Mite infestation ..................................................................................................161Fig. 14.2 Velvety growth on mite affected leaves ..............................................................162Fig. 14.3 Bark eating caterpillar damage ..........................................................................163Fig. 14.4 Rolled leaf .........................................................................................................164Fig. 14.5 Leaf roller larva .................................................................................................164Fig. 14.6 Fruit borer in litchi .............................................................................................165Fig. 14.7 Litchi shoot borer ..............................................................................................167Fig. 14.8 Fruit sucking moths ............................................................................................167Fig. 14.9 Litchi bug ..........................................................................................................168Fig. 14.10 Grey weevil........................................................................................................169Fig. 14.11 Unidentified weevil ............................................................................................169Fig. 14.12 Nut borer damage .............................................................................................170Fig. 14.13 Nut borer damage .............................................................................................170Fig. 14.14 Semilooper ........................................................................................................170Fig. 15.1 Brown blight ......................................................................................................171Fig. 15.2 Anthracnose affected fruits of litchi ....................................................................172Fig. 15.3 Wilt of plants in litchi .........................................................................................173Fig. 15.4 Red rust .............................................................................................................174Fig. 16.1 Fruit cracking .....................................................................................................178Fig. 16.2 Measures to reduce fruit cracking ......................................................................180Fig. 17.1 A mature litchi bunch ready for harvest .............................................................187Fig. 17.2 Harvesting period of litchi in India ....................................................................190

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Fig. 18.1 Methods to enchance shelf life of litchi fruits by ................................................194Fig. 19.1 Freeze drying of litchi.........................................................................................198Fig. 19.2 Canning of litchi ................................................................................................198Fig. 19.3 Litchi juice .........................................................................................................199Fig. 19.4 Litchi Wine making process and Finished products ...........................................202Fig. 19.5: Litchi Nuts .........................................................................................................202Fig. 19.6: Litchi Salad ........................................................................................................203Fig. 20.1: Existing channels of Litchi Marketing .................................................................206Fig. 20.2: Export of litchi in last five years .........................................................................209

List of Tables xv

List of tabLes

Table-1.1 Major litchi producing countries and major cultivars ..........................................2Table-1.2 State wise Area, Production and Productivity of litchi ........................................2Table-1.3 Area, Production and Productivity of litchi in India ............................................3Table-1.4 Cultivation intensity of litchi in different parts of India .......................................3Table-1.5 Export of litchi from India ..................................................................................4Table-1.6 Nutritional components of Litchi aril .................................................................5Table-3.1 Maturity Period of important litchi cultivars in China .......................................18Table-3.2 Key to important cultivars of litchi grown in India ............................................19Table-3.3 Commercial cultivars of litchi in different Indian States ....................................24Table-3.4 Maturity period of litchi cultivars ......................................................................25Table-3.5 Physico-chemical characteristics of important Indian litchi cultivars..................27Table-5.1 Sapling requirement at different planting density ..............................................56Table-9.1 Nutrient composition of litchi fruit and its removal from soil ............................94Table-9.2 Recommended soil nutrient concentrations for litchi ........................................96Table-9.3 Litchi leaf nutrient standards ............................................................................97Table-9.4 Recommended doses of fertilizers for getting optimum yield. .........................106Table-9.5 Micronutrient recommendations for litchi crop ...............................................110Table-10.1 Water extraction from different soil depths .....................................................112Table-10.2 Water requirement of young litchi plants ........................................................116Table-10.3 Quantity of water to be applied through irrigation to litchi trees of

various age groups at different phenological stages ........................................116Table-11.1 Herbicides useful for weed control in litchi orchard ........................................133Table-18.1 Criteria for grade designation .........................................................................193Table-20.1 Major litchi-exporting countries ......................................................................208Table-20.2 Comparative Cost:Benefit ratio of litchi fruit trade in domestic and

international markets ......................................................................................212Table-20.3 Cost of cultivation of one hectare litchi: Orchard ...........................................213Table-20.4 Maintenance cost of litchi orchard (one hectare) in subsequent years

after the establishment of orchards under normal condition ...........................213

AppendixTable-1 Visual monthly calendar for establishing orchard ............................................217Table-2 Visual monthly calendar for fruiting orchards .................................................219