THE LAW OF EVIDENCE

IN CANADA

THIRD EDITION

Alan W. BryantJustice of the Superior Court of Justice for Ontario

Sidney N. LedermanJustice of the Superior Court of Justice for Ontario

Michelle K. FuerstJustice of the Superior Court of Justice for Ontario

LexisNexis'

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface ixAbout the Authors xiTable of Cases xxxvii

CHAPTER 1: FOUNDATIONAL PRINCIPLES OF EVIDENCE ANDTHE IMPORTANCE OF EVIDENTIARY RULINGS IN CONTEXT 1

I. WHAT IS EVIDENCE? 3II. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS: TOWARDS A PRINCIPLED

APPROACH TO THE LAW OF EVIDENCE 3A. The Common Law 3B. The Charter 10

III. THE DEVELOPMENT OF PRINCIPLES WHICH ENHANCE THEGOALS OF THE LAW OF EVIDENCE 12A. Search for Truth 12B. Ensuring an Accused Receives a Fair Trial 12C. Efficiency of the Trial Process 13D. Goals Outside of the Trial Process 13E. Preserving the Integrity of the Administration of Justice 13

IV. WHEN OBJECTIVES CLASH 14A. Balancing the Interests of Search for Truth and Fairness to the

Accused: The Supreme Court Struggles for an Answer 141. R. v. Noel 142. R. v. Henry 17

V. OTHER CONTEMPORARY POLICY AND SOCIAL INTERESTSWHICH HAVE INFLUENCED FOUNDATIONAL PRINCIPLES 18A. Concerns about the Wrongfully Acquitted 18B. Concerns that the Alleged Victim of Crime Not Be Victimized

by the Trial Process 19C. Accused's Right to Make Full Answer and Defence 19D. Concerns about the Wrongfully Convicted 20

VI. THE BALANCING OF COMPETING INTERESTS AND THEIMPORTANCE OF MAKING RULINGS IN CONTEXT 23A. Search for Truth versus Protection of Confidentiality in Societally

Important Relationships and Protection of Personal Privacy 23B. Search for Truth versus Fairness to Accused 28

VII. MAKING SECTION 24(2) CHARTER RULINGS IN CONTEXT:A CASE IN POINT 29

VIII. ASSESSING RELIABILITY IN CONTEXT: A CASE IN POINT 32IX. FLEXIBILITY IN PLACE OF EFFICIENCY AND CERTAINTY 33

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CHAPTER 2: TYPES OF EVIDENCE AND CONDITIONS FOR THERECEIPT OF EVIDENCE 37

I. TYPES OF EVIDENCE THAT CAN BE RECEIVED BY THECOURT 3 9

A. Sworn Statements 391. General 392. Commission Evidence and Examinations De Bene Esse 39

(a) In Civil Cases 39(b) In Criminal Cases 41

3. Discovery Statements 424. Affidavits 43

B. Unsworn Statements 43C. Real Evidence 43

1. Things 43(a) General 43(b) Photographs 45(c) Videotape 45(d) Audiotape 46

2. Taking a View 473. Appearance or Demeanour of a Person 47

D. Experiments 48E. Documents 49

II. CONDITIONS FOR THE RECEIPT OF EVIDENCE 50A. General 50B. Relevance 51

1. Definitions 512. Facts in Issue 523. Relevance Distinguished from Exclusionary Rules 544. Relevance Distinguished from Weight 565. Relevance Distinguished from Materiality 576. Conditional Relevance 58

C. Exercise of Judicial Discretion 581. Judicial Discretion in Criminal Cases 58

(a) In Favour of the Accused 58(i) Probative Value and Prejudice 60(ii) Improperly Obtained Evidence 62

(b) In Favour of the Crown and Third Persons 622. Judicial Discretion in Civil Cases 643. Appellate Review of Discretion 67

D. Direct and Circumstantial Evidence 681. Distinction Between Direct and Circumstantial Evidence 682. The Treatment of Circumstantial Evidence 71

E. Admissibility Generally 741. Conditional Admissibility 742. Limited Admissibility 74

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3. Curative Admissibility 754. Procedure for Admitting Evidence 76

(a) Tendering Evidence 76(b) Appeals with Respect to Admissibility 77

(i) Grounds of Appeal 77(ii) Significance of Objection at Trial 78

CHAPTER 3: EVIDENTIAL BURDEN AND BURDEN OF PROOF 83

I. INTRODUCTION 85II. TERMINOLOGY 85III. THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE BURDENS 87

A. General 87B. The Persuasive or Legal Burden of Proof 90C. The Evidential Burden 92

IV. THE EFFECT OF DISCHARGING THE EVIDENTIAL BURDEN.... 98A. Two Evidentiary Effects 98B. The Terms "Prima Facie Evidence", "Prima Facie Proof

and "Prima Facie Case" 101V. THREE MISLEADING CONCEPTS 105

A. Shifting Burdens 105B. Tactical Burdens 109C. Burdens Expressed as Presumptions I l l

VI. ALLOCATING THE BURDENS 112A. Overview 112B. Exceptions, Exemptions, Excuses, Qualifications and Provisos.... 116C. Grounds of Policy, Fairness and Probability 122

VII. ADMISSIBILITY OF EVIDENCE AND OTHER MATTERS 128

CHAPTER 4: PRESUMPTIONS 131

I. INTRODUCTION 133II. PRESUMPTIONS WITHOUT BASIC FACTS 134III. PRESUMPTIONS OF FACT 135IV. CONCLUSIVE PRESUMPTIONS OF LAW 141V. REBUTTABLE PRESUMPTIONS OF LAW 144

A. The Difference between Rebuttable Presumptions of Law andPresumptions of Fact and Conclusive Presumptions 144

B. The Operation of a Rebuttable Presumption of Law 146C. The Evidential Effect of a Rebuttable Presumption 149

1. Criminal Cases 1492. Civil Cases 152

(a) General 152(b) Presumption of Legitimacy 153(c) Presumptions of Life and Death 154(d) Presumption of the Order of Death 156

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(e) Presumptions of Advancement and Resulting Trust 157(f) Presumption of Regularity 159

VI. CONFLICTING PRESUMPTIONS 160VII. THE IMPACT OF THE CHARTER 162

A. Rational Connection Test 173B. Minimal Impairment Test 174C. Proportionality Test 175

CHAPTER 5: STANDARDS OF PROOF 179

I. INTRODUCTION 181II. SATISFYING THE EVIDENTIAL BURDEN 182

A. The Plaintiffs Evidential Burden and a Motion for a Non-Suitin Civil Proceedings 182

B. The Crown's Evidential Burden and the Motion for a DirectedVerdict in Criminal Proceedings 189

C. The Defendant's Evidential Burden 1941. Civil Cases 1952. Criminal Cases 196

(a) Air of Reality Test 196(b) The Application of the Evidential Burden 199

III. SATISFYING THE PERSUASIVE (LEGAL) BURDENOF PROOF 202A. General 202B. Civil Cases 203C. Criminal Cases 211

1. The Meaning and Application of Reasonable Doubt 2112. Credibility and Reasonable Doubt 2173. The Accused's Persuasive or Legal Burden 220

IV. ADMISSIBILITY OF EVIDENCE 221

CHAPTER 6: HEARSAY 225

I. WHAT IS HEARSAY? 229A. The Rule 229

1. Origin of the Rule 2302. Hearsay Dangers When Declarant Not Before the Court 2313. Hearsay Dangers When the Declarant Is a Witness and

Before the Court 2324. Why Single Out Hearsay for Exclusion? 234

B. Conduct Amounting to Hearsay 235C. Purpose for Which Evidence Is Tendered 236

1. Other Examples of Non-Hearsay Use of Words 2372. How to Make the Distinction 2383. Impliedly Assertive Statements or Conduct 239

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II. EXCEPTIONS TO THE HEARSAY RULE 245A. The Traditional Exceptions: Generally 245B. Development of the Principled Approach 247

1. The Early Cases 2472. The Starr Framework: Rationalizing the Traditional

Exceptions with the Principled Approach 2513. Challenge to Traditional Exceptions 2524. Usefulness of Traditional Exceptions 2535. Necessity and Reliability 255

(a) Necessity 257(b) Reliability 261(c) Distinction Between Threshold Reliability and Ultimate

Reliability 265(d) Consideration of Contradictory Evidence 267(e) Flexibility 269(f) Limitations on Back-door Admissibility: Principled

Approach Not to Undermine Other Rules of Evidence ... 269(g) Weight 271

6. Trial Judge's Residual Discretion 272C. Declarations Against Interest 273

1. Against Pecuniary or Proprietary Interest 2732. Against Penal Interest 275

D. Declarations Made in the Course of a Business Duty 2831. The Common Law Exception 283

(a) Nature of Exception 283(b) Rationale 284(c) Early Preconditions to Admissibility 285(d) Judicial Reform of the Common Law Rule:

Ares v. Venner 2882. Admissibility by Statute 291

(a) General 291(b) Usual and Ordinary Course of Business 292(c) Contemporaneous Record 296(d) Personal Knowledge and Duty of Declarant 297(e) Record of Facts 300(f) Absence of Motive to Misrepresent 302(g) Records Made in the Course of Investigation 304(h) Business Records Subject to Other Exclusionary Rules.... 304(i) Negative Inferences from Records 304(j) Computer Printouts 305(k) Electronic Documents 306(1) Notice 306

3. Admissibility under the Principled Approach 307E. Hearsay that Has Stood the Test of Time 308

1. Declarations as to Reputation 308(a) General 308

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(b) Public or General Rights 309(c) Marriage 311

2. Matters of General History 3133. Aboriginal Oral Histories 3134. Declaration as to Pedigree and Family History 3155. Statements Contained in Ancient Documents as Evidencing

a Proprietary Interest in Land 3206. Statements in Public Documents 322

F. ResGestae 3241. General 3242. Declarations of Bodily and Mental Feelings and Condition... 326

(a) Bodily Feelings and Condition 326(b) Declarations Indicating an Existing Mental or

Emotional Condition, or State of Mind or Intention 3303. Declarations Accompanying and Explaining Relevant Acts 3394. Spontaneous Exclamations 342

G. Dying Declarations 3511. Scope and Rationale 3512. Requirements 352

(a) Settled or Hopeless Expectation of Death 352(b) Trial Must Be One in Which the Accused Is Charged

with Murder or Manslaughter 352(c) Injuries Those of Declarant and the Subject of the

Charge 353H. Testimony in Former Proceedings 353

1. Theory of Admissibility 3532. Guarantees of Trustworthiness 355

(a) Issues Substantially the Same 355(b) Same Parties 356(c) Opportunity by Adversary to Cross-examine 356

3. Evidence Taken on Discovery 3574. Criminal Proceedings 3575. Comparison with Other Rules 3606. Previous Testimony Led by the Party Against Whom It

Is Tendered 361I. Admissions of a Party 361

1. Theory of Admissibility 3612. Comparisons with Other Exceptions 3653. What Constitutes an Admission? 367

(a) Statements of Admission 367(b) Apologies 368(c) Admission by Conduct 369

(i) Post-Offence Conduct 370(ii) False Alibis and Statements 371(iii) Caution with Post-Offence Conduct Evidence 373

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(d) Implied Admissions 375(i) Silence 375(ii) Failure to Testify or to Call a Material Witness

or Other Evidence 3774. Statements by Others Who Have a Relationship to

the Party 378(a) Vicarious Admissions 378(b) Statements by a Representative or by Persons

with Identity of Interest 382(c) Statements by Persons Engaged with Others in a

Common Purpose or Design 3835. Effect of a Party's Admission as Against Others 389

J. Non-applicability of Hearsay Rule in Certain Proceedings 3901. Administrative Proceedings 3902. Bail and Sentencing Proceedings 3913. Preliminary Inquiry 391

CHAPTER 7: SELF-SERVING EVIDENCE 393

I. RULE AND RATIONALE 395II. EXCEPTIONS 396

A. General Explanation of Exceptions 396B. Evidence to Rebut Allegations of Recent Fabrication by the

Witness 3971. How Is the Evidence to Be Used? 3972. How Must the Allegation Be Raised? 3993. Form of Allegation 400

C. Prior Eyewitness Identification 402D. Recent Complaint 404E. Res Gestae or to Show Physical, Mental or Emotional State

of Accused 407F. Evidence Admitted as Part of the Narrative 407G. Statements Made on Arrest 409H. Explanatory Statements Made by an Accused in Possession

of Stolen Goods or Illegal Drugs 410I. Admission of Videotaped Complaints 411

CHAPTER 8: CONFESSIONS 413

I. WHAT CONSTITUTES A CONFESSION? 417A. Admissions — Inculpatory Statements 417B. Exculpatory Statements as Confessions 417C. Spontaneous Statements 419

II. SCOPE OF THE CONFESSION RULE 420A. Applicability of the Rule 420B. Persons in Authority 421

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III. HISTORY AND RATIONALE OF THE CONFESSION RULE 427A. Voluntariness Historically 427B. Development of the Modern Voluntariness Rule 429

IV. THE VOLUNTARINESS TEST 437A. Threats or Inducements 438B. Oppression 445C. The Operating Mind Requirement 451D. Police Strategies, Tricks and Misinformation 456E. Young Persons 463F. Taking Statements and Police Questioning 466G. Subsequent Tainted Statements 472H. Appellate Review 474

V. THE VOIR DIRE 475A. The Requirement for a VoirDire 475B. The Procedure on a Voir Dire 476

VI. THE ROLE OF THE TRIAL JUDGE AND OF THE TRIEROF FACT 479

VII. THE ONUS AND STANDARD OF PROOF 482VIII. THE EVIDENTIAL VALUE OF A CONFESSION 486IX. USE OF A CONFESSION TO CROSS-EXAMINE

THE ACCUSED 490X. EVIDENCE DISCLOSED AS A RESULT OF AN

INADMISSIBLE CONFESSION 493XI. CHARTER IMPLICATIONS 497

A. General Considerations 497B. Privilege Against Self-incrimination 500

1. Introduction 5002. Recognition of the Privilege at Common Law 5023. Statutory Modification of the Common Law Rule 5024. Charter, Section 13 504

(a) Automatic Protection 504(b) "In Any Proceedings" 506(c) Incriminating Use 508

(i) Forfeitures and Penalties 508(ii) Use During Crown's Case in Chief 508(hi) Crown's Use in Cross-examination 508(iv) Cross-examination on Knowledge of

the Protection 514(d) "Any Other Proceedings" 515(e) Who Can Claim the Protection? 517

5. Derivative Use Immunity — Charter, Section 7 5186. Right to Remain Silent — Charter, Section 7 519

(a) Introduction 519(b) The Section 7 Right to Silence 520

(i) When Does the Right to Silence Arise? 522(ii) Scope of the Right to Silence 523

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(iii) Exemption from Testifying at Inquiriesor Investigatory Hearings 525

(iv) Use Immunity in Criminal Proceedings ofStatutory Compelled Statements 525

(v) Mental State of Accused 5277. Protecting the Accused's Privilege Against

Self-incrimination and Right to Silence 528(a) Any Duty upon Police to Advise Accused of the

Right to Silence 528(b) Commenting on the Accused's Failure to Testify 528(c) Inferences from Failure of Accused to Testify 530(d) The Right to Silence and the Co-accused 532(e) Disclosure of an Alibi 533(f) Evidentiary Effect of the Accused's Silence in the

Face of an Accusation from a Person in Authority 533(g) Refusal to Submit to Psychiatric Examination 535

8. Conclusions: Self-incrimination and the Right to Silence 536XII. CONCLUSION 536

CHAPTER 9: ILLEGALLY OBTAINED EVIDENCE 539

I. INTRODUCTION 541II. THE RULE AT COMMON LAW 541

A. Criminal Cases 542B. Civil Cases 547

III. THE CANADIAN CHARTER OF RIGHTS AND FREEDOMS 550A. Historical Background 550B. Section 24 551

1. General 5512. Court of Competent Jurisdiction 5523. Exclusion Pursuant to Section 24 of the Charter 5534. Standing 5545. Causation 555

C. Bringing the Administration of Justice into Disrepute 5611. The Burden of Proof 5612. "Would" or "Could" 5623. Disrepute in Whose Eyes? 5634. Discretion or Duty? 5645. The Factors 565

D. The Trial Fairness Test 5661. The Trial Fairness Rationale 5662. The Collins Distinction Between Self-Incriminatory

Statements and Real Evidence 5683. Conscriptive Evidence versus Non-Conscriptive Evidence.... 5 714. Derivative Evidence 5775. Discoverability 579

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6. Applying the Revised Trial Unfairness Test 583E. The Seriousness of the Charter Violation 587

1. General 5872. Good Faith 5893. Urgency or Necessity 5964. Availability of Other Investigative Techniques 5995. Other Factors Affecting the Seriousness of the Violation 601

F. Effect of Exclusion on the Reputation of the Administrationof Justice 604

IV. THE CRIMINAL CODE 607A. Electronic Surveillance 607

1. General 6072. Illegal Wiretaps 6083. Establishing Illegality 609

B. Other Statutory Rules 6101. Breath and Blood Samples for Driving Offences 6102. Samples of Bodily Substances 612

CHAPTER 10: CHARACTER EVIDENCE 615

I. GENERALLY 617II. EVIDENCE OF CHARACTER TO PROVE FACTS IN ISSUE 619

A. Civil Cases 619B. Criminal Cases 621

1. Overview 6212. Character of the Accused 622

(a) Evidence of Good Character 622(i) Reputation 623(ii) Specific Acts of Good Conduct in the Evidence

of the Accused 625(iii) Expert Opinion Evidence 628(iv) Use of Evidence of Good Character 631

(b) Bad Character of the Accused 633(i) The General Rule 633(ii) Bad Character Raised by the Accused 635(iii) Accused Puts Character in Issue 636(iv) Cross-Examination of Accused's Witness 636(v) Cross-Examination of Accused Where Character

Is in Issue 637(vi) Extrinsic Reply Evidence by the Crown Where

Character Is in Issue 638(vii) Section 666 Criminal Code: Previous Convictions 640(viii) Cross-Examination of Accused Where Character

Is Not in Issue but Evidence of DiscreditableConduct Is Relevant to an Issue in the Trial 642

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(ix) Cross-Examination of Accused Where CharacterIs Not in Issue but Evidence of DiscreditableConduct Is Relevant to Credibility 643

(x) Section 12 Canada Evidence Act: PreviousConvictions 643

(c) Proposal for Reform 6483. Character of Persons Other than the Accused 650

(a) Bad Character of Co-accused 650(b) Character of the Deceased 652(c) Character of a Third Party Suspect 653(d) Character of Complainant in Sexual Offences 655(e) Character of Witnesses in General 661

(i) In General 661(ii) Previous Convictions 663(iii) Oath-Helping 664

III. CHARACTER AS A FACT IN ISSUE 665A. Civil Cases 665

1. Defamation 665(a) Evidence of Good Character of Plaintiff 665(b) Evidence of Bad Character of Plaintiff 666

(i) To Support Defences 666(ii) To Support Mitigation of Damages 667(iii) Rumour 668(iv) Summary of Character Evidence in Defamation

Cases 6692. Other Cases Where Character Is in Issue 6703. Character of Places, Animals or Things 671

B. Criminal Cases 671

CHAPTER 11: SIMILAR FACT EVIDENCE 673

I. INTRODUCTION 675A. The "Similar Fact Rule" 675B. Terminology 680C. Scope of the Rule 681

II. JUDICIAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE RULE 684III. THE RELEVANCY OF SIMILAR FACT EVIDENCE 691

A. Relevancy and Materiality of Similar Fact Evidence 691B. Inferences and the Reasoning Process 699C. Propensity and Non-propensity Reasoning 703

1. Previous Convictions 7032. Incidental Crimes 7043. Evidence of Reputation 7054. Expert Evidence 7075. Possession of Documents or Things 7086. Conclusion 711

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IV. THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE ADMISSIBILITY OFSIMILAR FACT EVIDENCE 712A. Evidence Linking the Accused to the Similar Acts 712B. The Probative Value of the Similar Fact Evidence 713C. The Probative Value of Evidence of Identity 721

1. The Identity of an Individual 7212. Identity of an Individual in a Group or Gang 7243. Expert Evidence of Identification 726

D. Collaboration or Collusion between the Witnesses 727V. UNFAIR PREJUDICE: REASONS FOR THE EXCLUSIONARY

RULE 729A. Effect on Trial Process and on the Rights of the Accused

Under the Charter 731B. Effect on System of Law Enforcement 734

VI. THE ADMISSIBILITY of SIMILAR FACT EVIDENCE 735A. The Rule and Burdens of Proof. 735B. Weighing Probative Value against Its Prejudicial Effect 737

1. Overview 7372. Probative Value 7383. Unfair Prejudice 7414. Weighing Probative Value against Prejudicial Effect 743

VII. THE TRIAL JUDGE'S INSTRUCTIONS TO THE JURY 746A. Generally 746B. Identity and Multi-count Indictments 748C. Extrinsic Evidence of Discreditable Conduct 749

VIII. THE USE OF SIMILAR FACT EVIDENCE BY THE JURY 749A. Appellate Review 750

IX. CONCLUSION ON THE SIMILAR FACT EVIDENCE RULE INCRIMINAL CASES 751

X. ADMISSION OF SIMILAR FACT EVIDENCE IN CIVIL CASES 752A. The Similar Fact Rule in Civil Proceedings 752B. The Scope of the Rule 758C. General Principles 760D. The Admissibility of Evidence of Similar Acts 763

XI. CONCLUSION ON THE SIMILAR FACT RULE INCIVIL CASES 766

CHAPTER 12: OPINION EVIDENCE 769

I. INTRODUCTION 771II. OPINION OF LAY PERSONS 772

A. Rationale and Development of the Rule 7721. Rationale of Exclusion 7722. Historical Development of Rule 7723. Modern Statement of Lay Opinion Rule: Helpfulness 774

B. Illustrations of Lay Opinion 7771. Identity of Persons and Places 777

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2. Identification of Handwriting 7823. Mental Capacity and State of Mind 784

III. THE OPINION OF EXPERTS 785A. General Principles 785

1. As an Exception to the General Rule 785B. The Criteria for Admissibility 792

1. Relevance 7922. Necessity to Assist the Trier of Fact 7963. Reliability 800

(a) General Principles 800(b) Novel Science and Techniques — Historically 801(c) The Modern Approach 804(d) Reliable Foundation Test 806(e) The Application of the Reliability Criterion 808

(i) Testing the Expert's Theory 808(ii) Peer Review and Publication 810(iii) Potential Error Rate 811(iv) General Acceptance 812

4. Cost-Benefit Analysis 8135. The Absence of an Exclusionary Rule 8166. A Properly Qualified Expert Witness 8197. Hypothetical Question 823

C. Opinion on the Ultimate Issue 826D. Hearsay Issues and Opinion Evidence 834

1. As a Component of the Expert's Knowledge or Experience 8342. As a Component of the Expert's Opinion 835

(a) The Hearsay Problem 835(b) The Judicial Response 837(c) The Role of the Gatekeeper 843(d) The Weight of the Opinion Based on Inadmissible

Hearsay 8473. Surveys and Polls 8494. Use of Authoritative Literature 8525. Cross-Examination of the Expert 855

E. Miscellaneous 8561. Limiting Number of Witnesses and Notice Requirement 8562. Disclosure of Expert's Reports 8583. Court-Appointed Experts 861

CHAPTER 13: COMPETENCE AND COMPELLABILITY OFWITNESSES 863

I. GENERAL 865II. COMPETENCE 865

A. General 865

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B. Witnesses with an Interest in the Proceedings or with aCriminal Record 865

C. Mental, Intellectual and Communicative Deficiencies 8671. Mental Impairment 8672. Children 8713. Communicative Deficiencies 872

D. The Oath 8741. Necessity at Common Law 8742. Form of Oath 8743. Affirmation 8774. Children 878

(a) Sworn Evidence 878(b) Unsworn Evidence 879

E. Judges, Jurors, Lawyers 883F. Burden of Proof on Competency Issues 884

III. COMPELLABILITY 885A. The Accused in Criminal Proceedings 885

1. General 8852. Jointly Tried Co-accused 8873. Non-Compellability of Accused in Other Proceedings 8874. Provincial Offences 8905. Parallel Civil Proceedings 890

B. Spouse of Accused in Criminal Proceedings 8911. The Common Law Rule 8912. Statutory Modifications 896

(a) General 896(b) Exceptions 897

C. Parties in Civil Proceedings 898D. Disclosure of Communications Between Spouses in Civil and

Criminal Proceedings 899E. Judges, Tribunals, Jurors 899F. Foreign Diplomats and the Crown 902G. Others 902

1. Illegality of Disclosure under Foreign Statute 9022. Answers to Questions Would Be Privileged 902

CHAPTER 14: PRIVILEGE 905

I. INTRODUCTION 909II. CONFIDENTIAL COMMUNICATIONS WITHIN SPECIAL

RELATIONSHIPS 913A. A Rule of Evidence as Distinct from Ethical or Equitable

Principles of Confidence 913

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B. The Evolution of Privilege: From Class Privilege toCase-by-Case to Document-by-Document 9161. Some Illustrations of the Application of the Wigmore

Criteria 9192. Wigmore's Fourth Criterion: Weighing the Benefits

Against the Harm of Disclosure 9203. Procedure for Ascertaining Privilege 9224. Limiting Disclosure Even in the Absence of a Class or

Case-by-Case Privilege: The Application of Charter Values 923C. Solicitor and Client 924

1. Rationale 9242. Confidential Nature of the Communication 927

(a) General 927(b) Presence of and Disclosure to Third Parties 927(c) Joint or Common Interests 928(d) Subject Matter 929

3. Scope of the Privilege 930(a) Within the Professional Relationship 930(b) For Communications Only 931

(i) Physical Objects 932(ii) Billing Information 934

(c) Purpose of the Communication 935(i) Seeking Legal Advice 935(ii) In Furtherance of Unlawful Conduct 937

4. When the Privilege May Be Asserted 9405. What Legal Advisors Are Included? 9456. Use of Agents 9477. Corporations as Clients 949

(a) Corporate Counsel 949(b) Corporate Client 950

8. Consequences of Breaching Solicitor-Client Privilege 9519. Duration of Solicitor-Client Privilege 951

(a) In Other Proceedings 951(b) After Death of a Client 952

10. Loss of Solicitor-Client Privilege 955(a) Who May Waive the Privilege? 955(b) Voluntary Waiver 957(c) Limited Waiver 958(d) Waiver by Implication 959(e) By Legislation 964(f) Inadvertent Disclosure or Intercepted Communications 964(g) Public Policy 969

D. Materials Obtained and Prepared in Anticipation ofLitigation/Litigation Privilege 9751. Origin, Rationale and Scope 9752. Duration of Litigation Privilege 981

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3. Loss or Waiver of Litigation Privilege 982(a) Not Lost if Common Interest 982(b) Wrongful Purpose 982(c) Privileged Documents in Expert's File 982

E. Husband and Wife Communications 9871. Origin and Rationale 9872. Subject Matter of the Privilege 9883. Marital Status 9904. Intercepted or Overheard Communications

between Spouses 9945. Who May Exercise the Privilege? 9956. Loss of Privilege 9977. Abolition of the Privilege 9998. Privilege Respecting Evidence of Sexual Intercourse

Between Spouses 1000F. Privilege Against Disclosing Adulterous Conduct 1002

1. General 10022. Proceedings in Consequence of Adultery 10033. Waiver of the Privilege 1004

G. Particular Relationships Subject to Case-by-Case Privilege 10051. Spiritual Advisers 10052. Journalists 1010

(a) Identity of News Sources 1010(b) Judicial Attempts to Accord Limited Protection to

News Sources 1011(i) Judicial Discretion 1011(ii) Newspaper Rule 1012(iii) Application of Wigmore's Four Conditions/

Case-by-Case Privilege 1015(iv) The Fourth Wigmore Criterion and the Charter,

Section 2(b) 1018H. Doctor and Patient 1021

1. Psychiatric Consultations 10212. Application of Wigmore's Four Criteria 10243. Waiver of Confidentiality 10264. Court-Ordered Psychiatric Assessments 10265. Legislation 1027

I. Private Records of Complainants Receiving Counselling orTherapy 1028

III. COMMUNICATIONS IN FURTHERANCE OF SETTLEMENT 1030A. Policy and General Rule 1030B. A Class or Case-by-Case Privilege? 1033C. Conditions for Recognition of the Privilege 1033

1. Litigious Disputes in Existence 10332. Made with Intention of Non-Disclosure: Use of Phrase

"Without Prejudice" 1033

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3. Purpose of Communication 1035D. Application of the Privilege in Subsequent Proceedings

Between Different Persons 1037E. Exceptions to the Privilege 1038

1. Introduction 10382. Unlawful Communications 10393. Communications Prejudicial to the Recipient 10404. Concluded Settlement Agreement in Issue 10405. Laches and Limitation Periods 10416. Costs 10427. Towards a Principled Approach to Exceptions 1042

F. Involvement of Mediators 1043

CHAPTER 15: PUBLIC INTEREST IMMUNITY 1045

I. INTRODUCTION 1047II. BASIS OF CROWN IMMUNITY 1049III. THE DETERMINATION OF IMMUNITY 1051

A. General 1051B. Statutory Provisions that Give Conclusive Weight to

Government Opinion: Section 39 of the Canada Evidence Actand Cabinet Confidences 1052

C. Judge's Determination of Immunity 10561. Sections 37 and 38 of the Canada Evidence Act 10562. The Common Law 1057

D. Application to Oral Evidence 1063E. The Government's Affidavit 1063

IV. CRITERIA FOR GRANT OF IMMUNITY 1064A. General 1064B. Contents Claims 1065C. Class Claims 1066

1. The Candour Argument 10672. The Interference or Harassment Argument 1068

D. Level of Government Involved 1069E. Information Supplied to Government by Outside Sources 1070F. Statements to Police and Police Reports 1075

V. PROTECTION OF INFORMANT'S IDENTITY 1077A. The General Rule and Its Scope 1077B. Extension of the Rule Beyond the Police Informant

Relationship 1080C. Exception to the General Rule 1080

1. Innocence at Stake Exception 1081(a) Informer as Material Witness 1081(b) Informer as Agent Provocateur 1082(c) Informant's Evidence as Basis of Search Warrant 1083(d) Informant's Evidence as Basis of Wiretap 1084

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(e) Judicial Editing 1087(f) Procedure 1087(g) Who May Not Claim the Privilege 1088

VI. CONCLUSION 1089

CHAPTER 16: THE EXAMINATION OF WITNESSES 1091

I. GENERALLY 1093II. THE EXAMINATION OF WITNESSES BY THE TRIAL JUDGE 1096

A. Judge's Right to Examine Witnesses 1096B. Limits on the Judge's Right 1096C. Judge's Right to Call Witnesses 1097

III. THE EXCLUSION OF WITNESSES AND PARTIES BY THETRIAL JUDGE 1099A. Reason for Discretion 1099B. Discretion to Exclude Parties 1099C. Effect of Breach of Order 1100

IV. INTERPRETERS AND THE LANGUAGE OF PROCEEDINGS 1100A. Translation of the Proceedings 1100B. Translation of a Witness' Evidence 1102C. Choice of Interpreter 1104D. Official Languages 1105

V. EXAMINATION-IN-CHIEF 1106A. General 1106B. Leading Questions 1106

1. Reasons for the Rule 11062. Form of Leading Questions 11073. Exceptions to the Rule 1107

C. Bolstering, Contradicting and Discrediting One'sOwn Witness 11101. Bolstering 11102. Contradicting and Discrediting 1111

(a) General Rule at Common Law 1111(b) Statutory Reform 1111(c) Provincial Evidence Acts 1112(d) Canada Evidence Act 1114

D. Evidential Value of a Previous Inconsistent Statement 1118E. Refreshing a Witness' Memory 1122

1. General 11222. Contemporaneity of Record 11243. Absence of Independent Recollection: Past Recollection

Recorded 11254. What Records or Devices May Be Used to Refresh

Memory? 11305. Procedural Matters 1132

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VI. CROSS-EXAMINATION 1133A. Scope 1133B. Cross-Examination Where There Are Multiple Parties 1142

1. Civil Cases 11422. Criminal Cases 1143

C. Cross-Examination on Documents Generally 1144D. Impeachment of a Witness' Credibility 1147

1. Testing Testimonial Capabilities 11472. Previous Inconsistent Statements 11483. Prior Convictions 11544. Personal Diaries 1159

E. Witness Tendered for Cross-Examination 1160F. The Rule in Browne v. Dunn 1160

VII. RE-EXAMINATION 1164VIII. REPLY EVIDENCE 1165

A. Limits on Reply Evidence 1165B. Reopening the Case 1168C. The Collateral Fact Rule 1170

1. Bias or Partiality 11712. Previous Convictions 11723. Previous Inconsistent Statements 11724. Physical or Mental Condition for Untruthfulness 11735. Evidence of Reputation for Untruthfulness 1174

CHAPTER 17: CORROBORATION 1177

I. INTRODUCTION 1179II. VETROVEC: THE MODERN COMMON LAW 1180III. LEGISLATIVE DEVELOPMENTS 1186

A. The Criminal Law 11861. Legislative Repeals 11862. Statutory Corroboration Requirements 1188

B. The Civil Law 11891. General 11892. Breach of Promise to Marry 11893. Affiliation Proceedings 11904. Actions Involving the Estate of Deceased Persons 11915. Actions against Mentally Incompetent Persons 11916. Unsworn Evidence of Children 11927. Effect of Repeal on Common Law Rules of Practice

IV. THE NATURE OF CORROBORATION192193193195196

D. Corroborative Evidence May Be Direct or Circumstantial 1197E. Function of Judge and Jury 1198

A. General RequirementsB. Degree and Extent of Corroboration.C. Independence of Corroborative Evidence.

xxxii Table of Contents

F. Difference between Civil and Criminal Cases 1199V. ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE RULE IN CIVIL PROCEEDINGS 1202

A. Actions by or against Heirs, Executors or Assigns of DeceasedPersons or by or against Mentally Incompetent Persons 12031. General 12032. The Witness Requiring Corroboration: Opposite and

Interested Party 12043. Action by or against Deceased or Mentally Incompetent

Persons 12054. Multiple Claims and Claimants 12065. Actions for Negligence 1207

B. Evidence of Children 1208

CHAPTER 18: DOCUMENTARY EVIDENCE 1211

I. GENERALLY 1213II. BEST EVIDENCE RULE 1215

A. The History of the Rule 1215B. The Application of the Rule 1217

1. General 12172. The Distinction between Primary and Secondary

Evidence 12173. Circumstances in Which Secondary Evidence

Is Admissible 1218(a) Loss or Destruction of Documents 1218(b) Documents in Possession of Another Party 1220(c) Documents in Possession of a Third Party 1221(d) Public and Official Documents 1221

4. Proof by Secondary Evidence 1223C. The Modern Rule 1224

III. DOCUMENTS ADMISSIBLE WITHOUT PROOF 1225A. Public and Judicial Documents 1225B. Documents Admissible under Statutory Authority 1229C. Other Documents Admitted without Proof 1233

IV. DOCUMENTS ADMISSIBLE ON PROOF OF AUTHORSHIPOR EXECUTION 1234

V. DOCUMENTS ADMISSIBLE BY REASON OF CUSTODIALORIGIN 1238A. Ancient Documents 1238B. Documents in the Possession of a Person 1239

1. Introduction 12392. Possession by Individuals 12413. Possession by Corporations 12434. Possession by Co-conspirators, Agents 12445. Evidentiary Value of Possession 1245

Table of Contents xxxiii

VI. PARTICULAR RULES RELATING TO PROOF OF PRIVATEDOCUMENTS 1247A. Handwriting 1247B. Attesting Witnesses 1248C. Corporate Seal 1249D. Typewriting 1249E. Photographs and Videotapes 1249F. Plans, Maps and Charts 1251G. Documents Generated without Human Intervention 1252

VII. PRODUCTION OF CONFIDENTIAL DOCUMENTS 1254

CHAPTER 19: RULES DISPENSING WITH OR FACILITATINGPROOF 1259

I. FORMAL ADMISSIONS 1263A. In Civil Cases 1263B. In Criminal Proceedings 1265

1. Guilty Pleas 12652. Specific Facts 1267

II. JUDICIAL NOTICE 1268A. Notorious Facts 1268B. Facts Capable of Immediate Accurate Demonstration 1272

1. Official Matters 12722. Historical Facts 12733. Times, Measures and Weights 12744. The Course of Nature and Scientific Facts 1274

C. Judicial Notice by Statute 1276D. Personal Knowledge 1277E. Legislative Facts/Social Context 1279F. The Effect of Judicial Notice 1281G. Opportunity by Counsel to Lead Evidence and Make

Submissions 1282H. Judicial Notice in the Court of Appeal 1283

III. RES JUDICATA AND RELATED MATTERS 1283A. Statement of the General Principle 1283B. In Civil Cases 1285

1. General Rule 12852. Final Judicial Decision of a Court of Competent

Jurisdiction 1286(a) Inferior Courts and Tribunals 1286(b) Foreign Courts 12X9(c) Court or Tribunal with Jurisdiction 1290(d) Decision Must Be Final 1291(e) Decision on the Merits 1293(f) Application to Family Law Judgments 1295

xxxiv Table of Contents

3. Identity of Action or Issue 1296(a) Two Principles at Play 1296(b) Cause of Action Estoppel 1298

(i) Same Cause of Action 1298(ii) New Facts or Circumstances 1301(iii) Tax Assessment 1302

(c) Issue Estoppel 1303(d) Estoppel as between Defendants 1305(e) Parties and their Privies 1306

(i) Same Parties 1306(ii) Same Capacity 1306(iii) Application to those in Privity with Parties 1307(iv) Requirement of Mutuality and Doctrine of

Abuse of Process 1309(f) Procedural Matters 1312

C. Criminal Law 13121. The Special Pleas 1313

(a) Autrefois Acquit 1313(i) General Principle 1313(ii) Same Charge 1313(iii) Final Decision 1315(iv) Accused Must Have Been in Jeopardy 1318

(b) Autrefois Convict 1319(i) General Principle 1319(ii) Same Charge 1319(iii) Final Order of Court with Jurisdiction 1320

(c) Procedural Matters and Foreign Proceedings 1322(i) Procedural Matters 1322(ii) Foreign Proceedings 1323

2. Issue Estoppel 13233. R. v. Kienapple 1328

(a) General Principle 1328(b) Sufficient Proximity between Facts and Charges 1329(c) Procedural Issues 1332

4. Section ll(h) of the Charter 1333(a) General Principle 1333(b) "Charged with an Offence" 1334(c) Same Offence 1335(d) Final Acquittal or Conviction 1335(e) Precludes Appeals by Way of Trial de Novo 1337

5. Conclusion 1337D. Evidentiary Effect of Prior Judicial Determinations 1339

1. General 13392. Application of the Rule in Canada 1340

(a) In Civil Cases 1340(i) Previous Criminal Convictions: Common Law 1340

Table of Contents xxxv

(ii) Previous Criminal Convictions: StatutoryReform 1342

(iii) Previous Acquittal 1346(iv) Previous Civil Judgment 1347

(b) Criminal Proceedings 1348

Index 1349