MASS MEDIA VI - gbv.de

MASS MEDIA VI AN I N T R O D U C T I O N TO MODERN C O M M U N I C A T I O N

Ray Eldon Hiebert ...University of Mary land

Donald F. Ungurait ...Florida State Un ive rs i t y

Thomas W. Bohn ..Ithaca Co I lea e

•ни НИИ

Longman New York & London

Contents Preface xvii

P A R T О N Е

THE PROCESS AND THE PARTICIPANTS 1

1 The Critical Consumer in the Process of Mass Communication 3

The Four Levels of Communication 5 Visualizing the Communication Process 6 The HUB Model of Mass Communication 9 Content: Entertainment, News, Commentary, Education, Public Relations and Advertising — Communicators — Codes — Gatekeepers — Mass Media — Regulators — Filters — Audiences — Effects — Media Distortion and Noise — Media Amplification — Feedback The Significance of the Mass Media 16 Summary 18 References 19

2 The Conglomerate Communicator 20 The Characteristics of the Mass Communicator 22 Competitiveness — Size and Complexity — Industrialization — Specialization — Representation Communicator Roles in Media Organizations 26 The Print Media — Organizations That Connect Communicators: Wire Services and Syndicates — The Broadcast Media: Networks, Production Companies, Television Syndicators, and Local Stations — Motion Pictures The Individual in Mass Communication 40 Summary 41 References 42

3 The Impact of Media Economics 43 The Economic Perspective 43 The Power of Consumer Decision making — The Relationship of Structure, Conduct, and Performance Economic Structure 47 Case Study: The Rise of Rupert Murdoch — Using the New Advantages Economic Conduct 55 The Monopoly — The Oligopoly — Competition in the System — Case Study: Marketing Movies

viii CONTENTS

Economic Performance 62 Efficiency as a Goal — Access to Technological Advances — The Question of Access to Communication

— Criticisms of the Media

The Interplay of Structure, Conduct, and Performance 64 Radio: Monopolistic Competition — Newspapers: Growing Monopoly

The Consequences of Building Megapower 68 Case Study: Tele-Communications, Inc.

Summary 70 References 70

4 The Dynamics of Codes and Formats 71 The Relationship of the Content, the Code, and the Medium 71 Mass-Media Coding Systems 74 Symbols — Styles — Formats — The Impact of Coding Systems

Coding in the Print Media 75 Linear Progression — Page Design: Styles and Formats — The Building Blocks of Print: Type, Headlines,

Headings, and Titles; Photographs and Illustrations; Charts, Graphs, and Tables; Captions; Margins and White

Space — Individual Print Media: Books, Newspapers, Magazines

Coding in the Electronic Media 81 The Building Blocks of Sound: Voice, Music, Sound Effects, Silence — The Building Blocks of Sight: Intrashot

Elements and Intershot Elements — Experience Intensified


5 Gatekeepers, Regulators, and Guardians 91 Gatekeepers within the Media 91 The Roles of Editors — The Impact of Big Business — Professional Standards — Motion Picture Gatekeeping

— The Social Context

The Government as Regulator 100 Regulation to Protect Society and Government — The Federal Communications Commission — The Regulation

of Advertising

The Content Source as Regulator 103 Strategic Releasing — Strategic Withholding — Strategic Staging

The Advertiser as Regulator 105 The Consumer as Regulator 109 Summary 109 References 110

6 The Fragmented Audience: Filters and Feedback Ill The Characteristics of an Audience 111 Sociological Responses to Content 113 The Individual-Differences Perspective — The Social-Differences Perspective — The Social-Relationships

Perspective

The Role of Filtration in Audience Response 116 The Conditions of Filtration: Informational and Linguistic Filters, Psychological Filters, Cultural Filters, and

Physical Filters — Audience Environments

Noise 122 Weak Signals — Clutter — Information Overload — The Audience's Defensive Mechanism

Amplification 126 Feedback: Characteristics and Mechanisms 127 The Representative Quality — The Indirect Quality — The Delayed Quality — The Cumulative Quality —

The Quantitative Quality — The Institutionalized Quality — Cost

CONTENTS ix

Techniques of Obtaining Feedback 134 Personal Interview — Coincidental-Telephone Survey — Diary — Mechanical Device — Preview

Feedback in the Media 136 Motion Pictures and Sound Recordings — The Broadcast Media: Cume, HUT, Ratings, Share, CPM — The

Print Media

The Impact of Feedback 143 Summary 144 References 146

P A R T T W 0

THE PERSUADERS 147 7 Public Relations: Shaping Messages for the Mass Media .. 149

Public Opinion and the History of Public Relations 150 Models of Public-Relations Practice 151 Press Agentry or Publicity — Public Information — Two-way Communication

Public-Relations Roles and Functions 155 Corporate Communications — Media Relations: Video News Releases and Information Subsidies — Differing

Perspectives on the Use of the Media — Special Publicity and Promotion Media: Brochures, Pamphlets,

Graphic Materials, Direct and Electronic Mail, Audiovisual Materials, Multimedia Presentations

The Public-Relations Process 165 The Emerging Profession 166 Body of Knowledge — Standard for Ethical Conduct — Controlled Access

Ethics and Public Relations 172 The Future of Public Relations, Viewed Globally 174 Summary 175 References 176

8 Advertising: Communication and Communication Support 178

What is Advertising? 178 Types of Advertising 180 Classification by Audience — Classification by Message Content — Classification by Medium Used

Historical Perspective 185 The Rise of the Agency — Advertising in the 1990s

The Institutions of Advertising 187 Advertisers: Advertising and Marketing, Distribution and Advertising, Personal Selling and Advertising, Sales

Promotion and Advertising, Advertising Expenditures, Advertising and Sales, Determining Advertising

Expenditures — Advertising Agencies: The Major Agencies, Reasons for Using Agencies, What Agencies Do

for Clients, Agency-Client Relationships, How Agencies Are Paid — The Mass Media: Media Sales

The Advertising Process 197 Situation Analysis: Sources of Information, Consumer Behavior and the Purchase Process, Awareness and

Knowledge, Heavy Users, New Markets, Research about the Competition — Objectives — Strategies and

Tactics — Evaluation

Criticisms of Advertising 203 Economic Criticisms — Social Criticisms

The Regulation of Advertising 206

x CONTENTS

The Role of the FTC — Other Federal Regulators — Other Legal Problems for Advertisers — Self-Regulation

of Advertising

Advertising as a Cultural Force 209 Summary 212 References 213

P A R T

THE M A S S - M E D I A I N D U S T R I E S 215 9 Newspapers 217

Historical Perspective 218 The Development of the Newspaper — The Newspaper in the United States: Newspapers in Early America, The

Penny Press: The First Mass Medium — The Beginnings of the Black and Foreign-Language Press — Yellow

Journalism and the Muckrakers — The Twentieth Century: The New Generation of Business

The Structure and Economics of the Industry Today 227 Declines and Rises — Newspaper Economics — Addressing a National Audience

The Changing Characteristics of Newspapers 235 The Newspaper Audience Today

The Specialized Press 237 The Suburban Press — The "Alternative" Press — The Black Press — The Hispanic and Foreign-Language

Press

Management and Technology in a Newspaper 241 A Time of Profound Change — Technological Advancement — The Future Newspaper


10 Television: Network, Cable, Public 248 Historical Perspective 248 Prehistory: 1884-1925 — Early Development: 1925-1947 — The Formation of the American Television

System: 1948-1952: The Freeze, The Networks, Programming — The Period of Greatest Growth: 1952-1960

The Golden Age Becomes One of Competition and Criticism 255 Highlights of the Golden Age — Growth of Televiswn's Impact: 1961-1980 — New Meanings for

"Entertainment" — Made for Television: Sports, News

The Structure and Organization of Network Television 265 The Networks — The Stations — The Skirmishes for Independence

The Age of Cable: Television Since 1980 270 Satellites — Cable Television — The Economics of the Age of Cable — The Public Broadcasting Service

The Role of Television 276 Summary 277 References 278

11 Radio 279 Historical Perspective 279 Early History: 1840-1919 — The Formation of the American Radio System: 1920-1928 — The Golden Age of

Network Radio: 1929-1945 — The Decline of Radio: 1946-1959

The Renaissance of Radio 286 Growth Since 1960 — The Scope of Radio Today

The Structure and Organization of Radio 289

CONTENTS XI

Kinds of Radio Stations: AM Classifications, FM Classifications, Other Classifications — Kinds of Networks

— Syndicators

Formats and Their Targets 293 The Characteristics and Roles of Radio 300 Local — Fragmented and Selective — Personal — Mobile — Social Responsibility — Secondary and

Supplementary


Magazines and Periodicals 304 Historical Perspective 305 The First Magazines — Early America — The Nineteenth Century — The Magazine as a National Medium

The Contemporary American Magazine 309 Newsmagazines — City and Regional Magazines — Women's Magazines — General-Interest Magazines —

Special-Interest Magazines — Travel — Business and Professional Journals

Newsletters 316 The Comics 318 The Structure and Organization of Magazines 319 New Directions 321 Targeting — Controlled Circulation — Advertising vs. Editorial — Growth and Decline — Video Magazines


Filmed Entertainment 327 Historical Perspective 327 The Prehistory of the Motion Picture: 1824-1896 — Beginnings and Narrative Development: 1896-1918: The

Constructed Film, The Arrival of the Entrepreneur — The Growth of Hollywood: 1919-1930: International

Awakenings, The 1920s, The Arrival of Sound — The Golden Age of Hollywood: 1930-1946 — Postwar

Decline: 1946-1962 — The Film Revolution: 1963-1975 — The Creative Conformity Takeover

The Structure of the Motion-Picture Industry 343 Production: The Process, Shooting Costs, Changes in the Process — Distribution — Exhibition

Economic Factors and the Future 348 Tracking the Audience — The Independent Filmmaker and the Niche — The VCR Revolution — Film and

Television — The Global Factor


Recorded Music 359 Historical Perspective 359 Invention, Experimentation, and Exploitation: 1877-1923 — Technical Improvement but Financial Disaster:

1924-1945 — The Renaissance of Records: 1946-1963: Electromagnetic Recording, Record and Record-Player

Improvements, Marketing Procedures, The Dawn of Television and the Death of Network Radio, The Birth of

Rock 'n' Roll — Money and Politics: 1964-1978: The FM Phenomenon, Economic Excesses, Cultural

Involvement — MTV and CDs, the Rebirth of the Industry: 1979 to the Present: The Recording Recession,

Compact Discs, Music Videos, Space-Age Technology

Recent Issues in the Recording Industry 372 The Rise of Heavy Metal and Rap

The Structure and Organization of the Recording Industry 376 The Creative Element — The Business Elements: Internal, External — The Information and Distribution

Element: The Press, The Programmers, The Distributors — The Consumer Element

The Economics and Future of the Recording Industry 381 Summary 384 References 385

xii CONTENTS

15 Books 386 Historical Perspective 387 The Format Emerges — Books in Early America — Development into a Mass Medium

The Book in the Twentieth Century 391 Developing the Interest in Books — Mass-Market Paperbacks — The Growth of Educational Publishing

The Structure and Organization of Book Publishing 394 Book Audiences 398 Niches as a Mainstay — Juvenile Publishing — The Rise and Fall of the Megasellers — Small Presses and

Regional Publishing — Global Realignments

The Future of the Book 405 Summary 406 References 407

THE F U N C T I O N S OF THE MASS MEDIA 409

16 News and Information 411 What Is News? Who Needs It? 412 When Does Information Become News? 413 Timeliness — Proximity — Prominence — Consequences — Human Interest

The Criteria of News Quality 415 Objectivity — Accuracy — Balance and Fairness

Issues in News Selection 416 Audience Reaction — The Irony of Objectivity — Journalist Bias

The Process Behind News Decisions 420 Investigative News Reporting 421 Radio and Television as News Media 423 Electronic Newsgathering — The Broadcast Communicators

Media Differences in the Presentation of News 427 Summary 429 References 430

17 Analysis and Commentary 431 The Separation of Fact and Opinion 432 Media Institutions That Interpret and Analyze 434 Editorials: Print, Broadcast — Public Access — Interpretative and Background Reports — Summaries and

Interpretations — Documentaries and Crusades

The Individual Vision and the Sole Voice 441 Columnists and Commentators — Photojournalists — Editorial Cartoonists

The Impact of Analysis and Interpretation 445 Summary 445 References 446

18 Instruction and Education 447 Formal Education 447 Books and Videos — Magazines, Journals, and Data Bases — Newspapers — Sound Recordings — Motion

Pictures — Radio and Television: Television in the Classroom, Higher Education and Telecommunication,

CONTENTS хш

Vocational Training and Business Television, Adult Learning — Instruction with the New and Emerging Media: Electronic Publishing, Interactive Video, Instruction for Those with Impairments, the Future Informal Education 459 Documentaries: Docudramas, Media as History Educators — The Cultural Heritage — Self-Improvement and Instruction: Videos, National Public Radio — Programming for Continuing Learning Summary 467 References 468

Entertainment and Art 469 Criticism and Defense of Mass Culture 470 Analyzing What Entertains Us 473 Evaluation — Analysis — Interpretation — Criticism Is an Art, Not a Science Semiotic Analysis 476 Saussure and the Notion of Concepts — Peirce's System of Signs — Metaphor and Metonymy Psychoanalytic Criticism 480 The Oedipus Complex — The Id, Ego, and Superego — Defense Mechanisms Marxist Analysis 484 Dialectical Materialism — The Base and the Superstructure — False Consciousness — Alienation — Examples of Marxist Criticism Sociological Criticism 486 Main Concepts: Anomie, Class, Ethnicity, Race, Sex, Social Role, Status, Stereotypes, Topical Analysis, Values Criticism Takes Effort 489 Aspects of Genre Criticism 489 Focal Points in the Study of Media 491 The Work — Author — Audience — America (Society) — Medium Problems of Criticism 493 Summary 495 References 496

P A R T F I V E

MEDIA ISSUES 497 Government and the Media 499

Interpretations of the First Amendment 499 Censorship and Prior Restraint 501 The Question of National Security — The Pentagon Papers Case — The Progressive Magazine Case — Restrictions on Entertainment Libel 506 Trials and Other Conflicts with the Judicial Branch 508 Pretrial Publicity: To protect the jury — Gag Orders—Contempt of Court — Journalists as Sources of Information in Court Cases: Confidential News Sources, Search Warrants Media Access to Information 512 Access to Court Proceedings — Cameras in the Courtroom — Administrative and Executive Branches — The Freedom of Information Act — Open Meetings Protection of Property and Copyright 518 Summary 519 References 520

xiv CONTENTS

21 Media Ethics 521 Perspectives 523 The Debate Over Responsibility — Credibility and Confidence

Sources of Ethical Standards 527 The Theory of Universality — The Theory of Utilitarianism — Decision by Means of Projection — Putting

Theory to the Test — Professional Codes — Institutional Ethics — Ethics and the Law

Types of Ethical Problems 535 Conflict of Interest — Truth/Accuracy/Fairness — Gathering Information — Privacy/Propriety — Physical

Harm and Other Harm


22 Mass Media Impact on the Individual 546 Traditional Concerns of Mass-Communication Research 546 Methodologies — Cognition and Comprehension — Attitude and Value Change — Behavior Change

Major Studies of the Mass Media 551 Early Studies of Motion Pictures, Radio, and Comic Books — Research on the Interaction of Reactions —

Early Studies of Television

Government Involvement in Media Research 555 Violence — Pornography

Current Concerns 557 Televised Violence and Children — Television Advertising and Children — Prosocial Learning — The Impact

of Images

Summary: The Model of Media Effectiveness 561 Variables: Environment, Content, Medium, Audience, Interaction — Reactions: Arousal, Short-Term Impact,

Long-Term Effects

References 563

23 Mass Media and Society 565 Historical Perspective 566 The Power of the Printed Word — Acoustic Space, the Alphabet, and Electric Circuitry

The Role of the Mass Media in Socialization 568 The Mass Media and Significant Social Actions 570 Social Justice — Sexual Politics — Human Rights — Military Conflict

Mass Media and American Politics 577 Freedom of Communication and the Critical Consumer 578 The Spectre of Censorship — Potential Problems in Media Power


24 Media Issues in the Global Village Global Concentration of Media Industries 583 Perspectives on Press Theories 589 The Authoritatian System — The Soviet Communist System — The Libertarian System — Social-

Responsibility System — Contemporary Press Philosophies — The Role of Economics

Press Freedom, Prosperity, and Media Use 595 Indicators of Media Availability — Freedom Index

Global Media Issues 600 The Flow of Information — Cultural Illiteracy — Access to Technology — Postmaterialistic Values

Ethics


583

Global

CONTENTS xv

The Impact of Emerging Technologies 609 Historical Perspective 609 Computers and Software 610 In Broadcast Organizations — In Print News Organizations

Changing Print Information Technologies 613 Videotex — Online Data bases — Electronic Bulletin Boards — Teletext, Cabletext, and Audiotext

— CD-ROM — Fax Newspapers

Changing Information and Entertainment Transmission 616 Satellites — Microwave and Over-the-Air Laser — Fiber Optics — ISDN

Changing Information and Entertainment Presentation 620 HDTV — Optical Disk

Changing Visual Communication Technologies 622 Image Manipulation

Classrooms of the Future 625 New Technologies and Legal and Ethical Issues 625 Industry Standards — Ownership — Copyright — Privacy and Security — Equal Access — Change in Work

Structure and Equal Opportunity

Summary 628

Glossary 629 Bibliography 641 Index 649

MASS MEDIA VI - gbv.de

Documents

Transcript of MASS MEDIA VI - gbv.de