The Iva Valley Shooting at Enugu Colliery, Nigeria

8/11/2019 The Iva Valley Shooting at Enugu Colliery, Nigeria

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The Iva Valley Shooting at Enugu Colliery, Nigeria: African Workers

Aspirations an the !ailure of Colonial "a#or $efor%

Carolyn A& 'ro(n

After Worl War II African (orkers e)pecte to #e a(are for their

loyal support of *E%pire+ uring the (ar an anticipate raical social

an political changes in co%pensation for their loyalty an for the

conitions they enure uring the (ar& What they confronte instea

(ere halfhearte political refor%s that faile to pave the (ay for

inepenence an %ore sophisticate atte%pts to create stringent

prouction regi%es in the colonies in (hich %anagers, (ith support of

the state, resiste (orkers e%ans for increase (ages& 'ritains

Colonial ffice, anticipating an out#urst of pent-up grievances, trie to

coa) local %anagers an colonial govern%ents to use *%oern+

syste%s of inustrial relations an la#or control to channel (orker

unrest through %anagea#le organs of (orkplace consultation& This,

they felt, (as key to insulate inustrial isputes fro% the volatile

political conte)t of ecoloni.ation, a conte)t (hich 'ritain neither

unerstoo nor yet controlle& S%arting uner the anticolonialist

criti/ue of its (arti%e allies0the 1SS$ an the 1nite States0'ritain

#egan to put *ol (ine in ne( #ottles+ #y refocusing the i%perial

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%ission to e%phasi.e the econo%ic an social *evelop%ent+ of

colonial societies& *2evelop%ent+ (as a vaguely construe ieology

that hi the econo%istic %otives of the i%perial state 3an its

esperate post(ar nee for colonial resources40to evelop %ore

efficient (ays to capture scarce an hence highly value colonial

resources for use in 'ritains post(ar recovery& In Nigeria grounnuts

an pal% proucts no( co%%ane prices higher than uring the (ar&

They (ere (onerful sources for earning har currency, i&e& 1& S&

ollars, paying off loans fro% the 1&S&, an purchasing capital goos

neee for the reconstruction of its evastate inustrial #ase&

5oreover #y getting the% fro% the colonies (ithin the sterling area,

'ritain neent spen alreay scarce har currency purchasing the%

on (orl %arkets&1If only colonial (orkers coul #e %ae to #e %ore

prouctive an %ore ocile& The various refor% proposals of the

post(ar perio (ere an atte%pt to resolve these contraictions&

As against these i%perial plans stoo an e)pectant population of

colonial (orkers (ith their o(n plans for the post(ar future& The

propagana of the (ar encourage colonial (orkers to clai% their right

to evelop their o(n interpretations of *evelop%ent+ an these (ere

15ichael Co(en an Nicholas Westcott, *'ritish I%perial Econo%ic6olicy 2uring the War,+ in Africa and World War II, e& 2avi 7illingray an$ichar $ath#one 8"onon, 9;>& !reerick Cooper,Decolonization and African Society: The Labor Question in French and British Africa,Ca%#rige: Ca%#rige 1niversity 6ress, 9


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often at os (ith i%perial plans& Throughout colonial Africa (orkers

%o#ili.e to2ensure that this ne(, *%oern+ Africa fulfille their nees

an %any poure their energy into preparing their chilren for

positions (ithin an inepenent nation& These e)pectations fuele a

(ave of largely ur#an post(ar protests that engulfe the colonies

throughout Africa& In Nigeria the first sign of these ne( (orker protests

(as the 9>B Nigerian eneral Strike, (hich launche a national (ave

of inustrial unrest that continue through the en of the ecae& The

political conte)t of the Col War %ae these protests particularly

#otherso%e to the i%perial state #ecause it (as in a (eakene

conition to #oth %onitor the influence of Co%%unists in these volatile

colonies an respon to the post(ar e)pectations of the %etropolitan

(orking class&

The entire enterprise of refor% an evelop%ent (as a hoc an

fraught (ith contraictions& In the colonies %anagers an state

officials pushe a prouctionist ethos an trie to sei.e a eeper

control over the la#or process #y introucing su#tle an %ore o#vious

changes in the la#or process that reuce la#ors autono%y in the

25ost of these strikes (ere in transport& See Ti%othy #erst, *Cost of"iving an Strikes in 'ritish Africa c& 9D9>: I%perial 6olicy anthe I%pact of the Secon Worl War,+ 6h2 issertation, Colu%#ia1niversity, 99& !or su%%ary treat%ent of these revolts, see!reerick Cooper,Decolonization and African Society, chapter


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(as force to seek the colla#oration of a *partner+ for%erly vie(e

(ith suspicion uring the (ar0the 'ritish Traes 1nion Congress&

Eager to #e accepte #y the state the 'T1C ispatche hunres of

%en throughout the e%pire to esta#lish la#or epart%ents, launch

ispute-%anage%ent syste%s, teach the principles of inustrial

relations, an pro%ote *responsi#le+ trae unionis% to a restless an

ne(ly e%po(ere (orking class& 5aking African (orkers %ore

*prouctive+ (as not Fust a technical processG it also involve a

efinition of prouctivity that often isavantage (orkers& iven the

irregularities of the colonial la#or process the %eans of %easuring an

assessing *prouctivity+ (ere far fro% o#Fective& 5oreover, colonial

%anagers coul easily o#scure their resistance to ne( syste%s of

inustrial control if they coul prouce output an cost-of-prouction

figures that suggeste ne( econo%ies& As inustrial relations

strategies (ere applie in the colonies this o#scurantis% (as far %ore

ifficult to ensure (ith (orkers (hose perspective (as shape #y an

a(areness of the conitions of their %etropolitan counterparts, a factor

of increase i%portance as the co%%unications avenues of (ar

propagana (ere sei.e #y nationalist leaers& The e)perience of

inustrial (orkers in Enugu inicates that it (as often fro% the %ost

re%ote (orkplaces that the %ost serious attacks (ere launche&

As a state enterprise the Enugu overn%ent Colliery (as consiere

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an i%portant site for the "a#our 6arty to pro%ote its a%#itious plans to

contain an refor% colonial la#or& It involve the legali.ation of trae

unions, the eploy%ent of cooperative 'T1C avisers to coach

*responsi#le+ trae unionis%, the proing of colonial governors to

%oerni.e la#or policies, the enless proposals an convolute

proceures esigne to efuse inustrial conflicts an the various

*enlightene+ social (elfare policies& 'ut rather than prevent

isruptive inustrial isputes they le to the very type of e)cessive

#rutality that threatene to catapult inustrial ispute into a #roa-

#ase political crisis, the type that coul threaten the pace of

ecoloni.ation&

Enugu (as Fust the type of city that (oul generate Colonial ffice

concern& It (as the seat of the regional govern%ent an ha the

highest literacy rate in the East& !orty percent of its population of ten

thousan (as literate an supporte a vi#rant an raical nationalist

press o(ne #y a pro%inent nationalist, Nna%i A.iki(e& The citys

role as an a%inistrative an inustrial center gave it a social

co%position that (as politically volatile& With its hunres of

iscontente clerical (orkers, unsatisfie (ith the pace of political

change, an thousans of inustrial (orkers, trying to scrape together

a living (ith (ages that ha eteriorate since the 2epression, the city

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(as a hot#e of nationalist activity& The clerks3%ae Enugu a center

of a %ilitant nationalist group, the Hikist %ove%ent, (hich inclue

a%ong its %e%#ers several pro%inent 5ar)ist "eninists& The Hikists

appeare to #e teetering angerously close to encouraging %ass

protests of *positive action+ in Nigeria si%ilar to the protests in hana&

n cto#er ?, 9>;, sita Ag(una, a %e%#er of the Hikists, elivere

a speech calle *A Call for $evolution,+ (hich %ae thirteen proposals

for civil iso#eience& The govern%ent #eca%e alar%e an arreste

the %aFor %e%#ers of the group&4

This (as the political conte)t in Nove%#er 9> (hen police shot

t(enty-t(o %iners engage in a sit-in at the Iva Valley %ine& This

paper argues that the shooting (as a prouct of these processes that

shape post(ar la#or policy an stoke African (orking- class %ens

aspirations& In the (orkplace #oth la#or an %anage%ent anticipate

changes #ut their vision of the esire nature of these changes (as in

conflict& In the post(ar perio %anage%ent an the la#or *e)perts+ in

the Colonial ffice e)pecte to finally #ring African (orkers uner

%anagerial control an to encu%#er their isputes (ith ela#orate

3

The classic stuies of this perio are $ichar Sklar,Nierian !olitical!arties: !o"er in an #$erent African Nation, 6rinceton: 6rinceton 1niversity6ress, 9


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#ureaucratic processes esigne to reuce isruptions of prouction&

'ut %iners ha no intention of allo(ing their la#or po(er to #e /uietly

appropriate to fulfill the proFect of %etropolitan reconstruction& 2uring

Worl War II Enugu (orkers #eca%e %ore a(are of their conitions in

co$+arison "iththose of si%ilar (orkers in Englan an else(here& This

a(areness (as e)presse in the e%ans that (orkers %ae,

collectively an iniviually, to #ring their conitions an pay

scheules in concert (ith those in the %etropolis& aving live through

the (ar, (hen they (ere tol that they (ere e/ual to %etropolitan

(orkers they raise e%ans that e)presse ne( ieas a#out their

responsi#ilities as (orking %en uring a perio of intense anticipation

of the future of the colonial state& Wages provie a sure %eans of

preparing their fa%ilies for future opportunities, since ecoloni.ation

(as i%%inent& thers sacrifice to construct schools an health clinics

in natal villages& The fulfill%ent of these responsi#ilities (as reflecte

in (orkplace struggles an the e%ans %iners place #oth on their

e%ployers an the colonial state&

This paper argues that the post(ar perio is a ti%e (hen the states

interventions to *%oerni.e+ the %eans of controlling African la#or

an the social conte)t in (hich (orkers live (ere the%selves the

cause of the rash of inustrial isputes that rivete post(ar African

societies& In one of historys great ironies the task of creating the

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post(ar e%pire fell on the "a#our 6arty& 6ushing a package of la#or

rights (hile custoian of the i%perial state ha its contraictions an

these contraictions #u##le up an slappe "a#our in the face&

The paper is #uilt upon the ele%ents of this reconstruction: the fla(e

introuction of state-sanctione trae unions, the e%ergence of a

politically sophisticate union leaer, the introuction of a legal

fra%e(ork to ecasuali.e la#or #ut not proletariani.e la#orers, an the

intervention of the state to reorgani.e the trae union accoring to

foreign principles& These ele%ents of the policy of la#or refor% are

iscusse in outline for%& The concluing section escri#es the

shooting itself an suggests areas of further e)ploration, %ost

specifically the hearings of the investigative co%%ission as a te)t for

e)a%ining ecoloni.ation& 6reli%inary analysis inicates that the

co%%ission, le #y W& J& !it.geral, for%erly of the 6alestine "an

Co%%ission, (as far %ore than a #oy constitute to investigate an

inustrial isputeG rather it (as a vehicle use #y the Colonial ffice to

istance itself fro% the #ungling political proposals of the Nigerian

state&

Introucing the Enugu Colliery: The 5ines After Worl War II

6lease note that in 3the4 future the esignation *%en+ %ust #e

su#stitute

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for *#oys+ in all co%%unications referring to the Colliery

la#our either collectively or iniviually& No person

e%ploye #y this epart%ent %ust #e aresse as *#oy&+

Announce%ent #y Colliery 5anager, ? 2ece%#er 9>9B

The govern%ents (hich rule !rench West Africa an

'ritish Africa uring the early (ar years ha one

characteristic in co%%on: #oth (ere planning for futures

that i not e)ist&

!reerick Cooper,Decolonization and African Society,> 8Nove%#er 9;9=: B;?&

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significant ay rate 8(hich graually ca%e to #e the o%inant

percentage of their (ages& This #eca%e, in effect, a %ini%u% (age&

5ine engineering principles esta#lishe an ieal ratio for the %iners

eploye in *evelop%ent+ as against *ro##ery+& In 9> the %anager

istorte the *ieal+ ratio of 89= (orkers in *evelop%ent+ an

*ro##ery+ an 8?= of %iners to other unergroun la#or in orer to

respon rapily to an e%ergency re/uest for coal fro% Englan&9e

e)pane the si.e of the (orkforce, putting the %aFority on *ro##ery+&

The favora#le i%pact on output an la#or costs (as ra%atic (ith a

??@M increase in output (ith a >@M lo(er the price per ton&10The

pro#le% (as that eventually e)traction reache the li%its of e)isting

de-elo+$entan it (as necessary to re-eploy %en to carve out ne(

pillars for future e)traction& Instea of retrenching (orkers (ho (ere

no longer a#le to perfor% robbery, they retaine the%, an the nu%#er

8This settle%ent (as grante #y the 2irector of the $ail(ay, thea%inistrative unit of the Colliery, (ho (as unfa%iliar (ith the %oreconventional syste%s of pay that %ine %anage%ent e%ploye toincrease prouctivity& !or a iscussion, see C& 'ro(n, 0We Were AllSla-es1: African 2iners, 3ulture and /esistance at the #nuu 4o-ern$ent 3olliery ,6orts%outh, N: eine%annLreen(oo, ?@@&

9This re/uest (as fro% the Co%#ine Coal 'oar of "onon, (hich (asreeling fro% la#or shortages in the 'ritish coal inustry& !or aiscussion of this crisis, see 'arry Supple, The .istory of the British 3oalIndustry5 6ol5 7, &'&()&'78: The !olitical #cono$y of Decline, )for: Clarenon6ress, 9;&

106u#lic $ecors ffice, 7e( arens, 8hereafter 6$= C&&B;L??B ?, overnor 'ourillion to Stanley in Colonial ffice,January 9>&

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of %en e)ceee Kthe e%ans of de-elo+$entan got out of proportion

(ith the strict nees of the circu%stances&+11nly 9 he(er (as

assigne to de-elo+$entfor every & he(ers in robberyas against the

ieal ratio of 9 in ro##ery for every ?&?< in evelop%ent&

The esti%ate costs of this i%#alance (as over 9,@@@ per year&12

Since the he(ers (ere the actual coal getters any eploy%ent of la#or

that ecrease their nu%#ers in relation to other classes reuce 5S&

The he(ers+ proportion of the total (orkforce ecline fro% ?@&B>

percent in 9>@L>9 to 9>&> percent in 9>;, 5i%eographe,*Characteristics of the Coal,+ 2-9?, 2-9>, 2-9B&

136o(ell 2uffryn, *Characteristics of the Coal,+ 2-9;&

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The pri%ary coal proucers, the he(ers, (ere less than half of this

nineteenD%an group& In fact, the ratio of he(ers ecline relative to

other unergroun (orkers #ecause of the necessary %aintenance of

the large nu%#er of (orksites in operation uner the+illarandstall

syste$& As the %anage%ent opene ne( (ork istricts or *ro##e+

those in de-elo+$ent,%ore an %ore %en (ere neee for *ea-(ork,+

i&e&, the %aintenance of roa(ays, pu%ping of (ater, an replacing

ti%#er& With the opening of ne( areas #y *evelop%ent+ the ratio of

prouctive to nonprouctive face (orkers reuce output #y @

percent, an ae to the total cost of prouction per ton& e(ers

(ages (ere only & of this a%ount, (hile the re%aining B&9 (as

pai other unergroun (orkers& In this case the he(ers output (as

not high enough to co%pensate for this large nu%#er of (orkers, an

it istorte the prouctivity calculations& 5oreover, as aitional %en

(ere eploye for surface tasks, the he(ers proportion of the (ork

group ecline&

The financial i%pact of these %anagerial ecisions (as o#scure (hile

(ages (ere lo(, or (hen only the he(ers receive a #asic aily tu#

rate& The full conse/uence of this ecision (oul #eco%e o#vious after

the (ar (hen, in 9>< the tu# %en, as (ell as he(ers, receive piece

rates&

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Graph 6.1 Hewers in Relation to Other Categorie s of Workers

Hewers

Undgrd

Surface

0

000

!000

6000

"000

1#!0 1#!1 1#! 1#!$ 1#!! 1#!% 1#!6 1#!& 1#!"

Surface

UndgrdHewers

ne of the (ays that the inustry *hi+ this superfluous (orkforce is

through the practice of *rostering&+ This (as a syste% of *sharing

(ork+ in (hich nu%#ers of (orkers are kept on the roster in e)cess of

aily nees& Each ay %anage%ent poste a list or rosterof the group

of %en selecte to (ork that ay& nly those %en (hose na%e

appeare (ere e%ploye for the ay& In %any respects this

constitute a *registration+ syste%, a %etho that %anage%ent coul

use to sei.e %ore control over the su++lyof la#or& The syste% invite

corruption an le to ur#an overcro(ing as (orkers flocke to the

%ine site to present the%selves aily for (ork& This syste%, (hich

institute casual la#or, (as attacke #y the state in its refor%

legislation&

Colonial Syste%s of Worker $epresentation: the Trou#le 'irth of

Colliery Trae 1nions, 9>9D9>9 at the Colliery: on the surface,

the Colliery Surface I%prove%ent 1nion 8CSI1=, an unergroun, the

Enugu Workers Trae 1nion 8EWT1=&16'oth (ere plague #y leaership

opportunis% an %anipulation as (ell as corruption& They replace

inigenous (orkers organi.ations, calleNzu%o,that ha successfully

14reat 'ritain, West Inia $oyal Co%%ission $eport 85oyne $eport=,5S, "onon, 9>B 8C52&& !or the %ost authoritativestuy, see 7en 6ost, *Arise 9e Star-lins1: The a$aica Labor /ebellion of &'(;and its After$ath,The ague: NiFhoff, 9;&

156$, C 9


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le the (orkers through several ecaes of protest& The unions

reflecte the occupational ivision in coal %ining #et(een

unergroun an surface (ork&

5anage%ent encourage its colla#orators fro% the clerical pool, in the

case of the Enugu Surface Workers 1nion, an the *#oss #oys+ (ith

the Enugu Coal 5iners 1nion to for% the unions& 6reicta#ly, they

%anipulate the (orkers an atte%pte to use the% to increase their

po(er (ith %anage%ent an the state& Although privilege #y their

literacy, clerical (orkers (ere not successful in (inning the loyalty of

the key unergroun (orkers0the %iners&

"ike colonial unions every(here, Enugus unions (ere eprive of the

full rights of %etropolitan unions an these penalties %ae it ifficult

for the% to function effectively& They face co%pulsory registration

uner ter%s to #e ecie at the iscretion of the govern%ent an

(ere su#Fecte to special restrictions: a si)-%onth (aiting perio,

fre/uent i%prison%ent of %ilitant leaers, an a close %onitoring of

finances&17

Aitionally, they confronte skeptics in the Colonial ffice (ho felt

that African *(orkers+ i not deser-eunions #ecause they (erent

9

6$, C BB>L9?L?, Sec& of State liver Stanley, to &V& Te(son,Assistant Secretary, 'T1C, ;8O= July 9>&

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actually *inustrial %en&+ In fact the e#ate a#out race an class (as

one of the crucial intellectual iscussions that affecte colonial policy&18

Nonetheless, throughout the (ar (orkers %ae their support for the

unions contingent upon their success in representing their interests&

!ro% the very #eginning trae unions (ere seen as instru%ents of

govern%ent control&

The Nigerian state an the Colonial ffice ha reconceptuali.e

colonial la#or (ithin an e)isting conte)t of i%prove social (elfare,

increase (orker prouctivity, an controlle syste%s of

representation& The ela#orate legislative structures that

#ureaucrati.e (orker protest encourage (orkers to seek out their

o(n *interpreters+ of this a%inistrative %a.e& 5ost often these

*interpreters+ (ere charis%atic, (ere conte%ptuous of (hite #osses,

relishe their position leaing the *%asses,+ (ere sufficiently eucate

to co%prehen an si%plify the la#or legislation, an (ere usually

very attracte to the nationalist %ove%ent& Nigeria ha %any such

leaers05ichael I%ouu of the $ail(ay Workers 1nion, an Nuka E.e

an A& A& AioD5oses of the A%alga%ate 1nion of 1AC African

Workers 81NA5A=, to na%e a fe(&19In Enugu this leaer (as fro%

18!or a iscussion of this in the conte)t of the coal %ines, see *A K5anin the Village is a K'oy in the Workplace: Colonial $acis%, Worker5ilitance an Ig#o Notions of 5asculinity in the Nigerian Coal Inustry,9@D9>B,+ in "& "insay an S& 5iescher 8es&=, 2en and 2asculinities in2odern Africa& 6orts%outh, N: eine%ann, ?@@, pp& 9B&

19Wogu Anana#a, The Trade


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a%ong the *Junior Technical Staff,+ that group of Africans #eing

traine, in a type of *inustrial ecoloni.ation,+ to assu%e responsi#le

positions in the inustry& In 9> Isaiah Fiyi, a for%er schoolteacher,

#eca%e the eneral Secretary of the EWT1& is e%ergence (as one of

the contraictions unleashe #y the Colonial ffice la#or refor%s&

1nlike %any of the other African staff (ho sa( their posts as

opportunities for personal avance%ent, Fiyi use his training in

Nigerian la#or la( to evelop e%ans that fully e)ploite the legal

para%eters set forth #y the state& is conte%pt for the racial culture of

the %ines an his arrogance to(ar his European superiors %ae hi%

a natural hero of the (orkers an a #Qte noire of European #osses& ne

infor%ant recalle that #efore Fiyis ascent (orkers (ere force to

#ri#e European #osses:

This age is also kno(n as the turkey getting age #ecause

(ithout #eing a#le to give present of turkey an possi#ly

%oney an pay inhu%an aoration to the European ver

%anager one cannot aspire to have a penny increase on

6u#lishing Corporation, 9


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his salary&?@

Fiyi ha nationalist sy%pathies an enFoye challenging European

#osses (ho (ere accusto%e to near-total po(er over their (orkers&

To European staff the erosion of their privileges to physically an

ver#ally a#use 'lack (orkers appeare as the loss of (ork iscipline

an they co%plaine to %anage%ent that *their #oys+ (ere e)hi#iting

a ne(, an angerously recalcitrant, attitue& Fiyi typifie these

intolera#le for%s of *cheeky+ #ehavior, (hich he appeare to have

enFoye&

1nlike the eucate clerks, he i not look o(n on the %iners an

other la#orers, #ut relishe his role as their leaer& e (as a populist

leaer, /uite si%ilar to %any trae union leaers of the perio, %en

(ho% the Colonial ffice vie(e (ith suspicion& Nigeria ha a nu%#er

of such %en, leaing Whitehall to conclue that the %aFor pro#le% in

West Africas la#or relations (as the irresponsi#le, ine)perience, an

*politically %ine leaers&+?9'ut to the %en he haI%ena,??a

%asculine Ig#o concept e)presse in a (illingness to confront an

206ersonal Collection of 2avi S%ock& J& A& 2ie(ait Typescript&

216$, C BB>L9?L


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unFust aversary even at personal risk, a stu##ornness in attacking a

pro#le%, an a strength to take a stan for (hat (as %orally goo& As

he struggle against his etractors fro% (ithin the CSI1 as (ell as

(ithin his o(n union, he eli#erately challenge the types of racial

authoritarianis% e)ercise #y (hite staff unergroun&

In his confrontations (ith the state an the ne( Colliery %anage%ent

he often startle the% (ith his kno(lege of pertinent trae union

orinances an his a(areness of the gains of the national an

international trae union %ove%ent& In fact, he often ha a eeper

unerstaning of the la#or legislation than i local %anagers an

istrict officers& When the %anager trie to fire Fiyi for his trae union

activities he cite the ne( la#or regulations to argue that he neee

three %onths (ritten notification an an opportunity to ans(er the

charges #efore any is%issal&?e persiste in #elieving, /uite

correctly, that he (as #eing persecute #ecause of his union activities&

e also operate (ithin an ethic that articulate a sense of leaership

responsi#ility an the inevita#ility of conflict (ith %anage%ent (hen

(orking (ithin the inustrial relations structures& e note in a letter

to the %anager:

I agree that, at trae ispute intervie(s hel

23NCC, 6&?L9L9, Fiyi to Colliery 5anager, 9 cto#er 9>>&

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#et(een the 5anager an the 1nions, I al(ays

possess strictness in %y iscussions, an that

is a %atter of uty, an shoul not #e reckone

as evience of unruliness an conuct to the

5anager&?>

Fiyis political sy%pathies (ith the raical (ing of the nationalist

%ove%ent, the Hikist, le hi% to fra%e the (orkers struggle in the

rhetoric of raical nationalis%& As a union leaer, he articulate

inustrial grievances (ithin the conte)t of colonial e)ploitation& e

characteri.e the relationship #et(een the (orkers political status as

colonial *su#Fects+ an the intolera#le conitions in (hich they (orke

an live& These linkages (ere even %ore o#vious to (orkers in a

state enterprise such as the Colliery& Fiyi clarifie the political

contraictions in his presentation of the Colliery (orkers e%ans& !or

e)a%ple he use allegations of racial iscri%ination to link the

(orkers inustrial struggles (ith the general nationalist ca%paign

against colonial racis%& A key co%ponent of his ieology (as the

e)pectation that those in authority0the state0ha a responsi#ility for

the social evelop%ent of their e%ployee& These the%es of racial

iscri%ination an state responsi#ility to prevent it (ere echoe

throughout the nationalist %ove%ent&

24I#i&

23


24/56

The "egislative Structure of $efor%: "a#or Sta#ility an the 9>B Crisis

The 9> shooting arose fro% a series of (arti%e inustrial crises that

originate (ith grievances that the union raise in late 9>& T(o

factors converge an #oth (ere relate to the process of la#or refor%

initiate uring the (ar& ne (as the legislation governing strikes,

(hich inclue prohi#itions an co%pulsory ar#itration& The other (as

%anage%ents atte%pt to reuce the autono%y of the he(ers #y

putting the% fully on piece rates& These t(o factors (ere #rought to a

hea #y a union %e%oranu% that raise e%ans that reflecte the

(orkers a(areness of the victories of 'ritish coal %iners& Wages ha

#een stagnant as against inflation that ha reache B percent in

Enugu #y 9>& In fact 9> (as a critical year nationally for it (as the

ti%e (hen the full econo%ic (eight of the sacrifices of the (ar hit the

Nigerian (orking class& In "agos, the (orkers %ove%ent %o#ili.e

against 9B@ percent inflation& Aitionally, this (as the year (hen

Enugus %iners (ere calle upon to co%pensate for the crisis in the

'ritish coalfiels, (here (orker protest, %anpo(er shortages, an

a#senteeis% e)acer#ate fuel shortages&?B

ne of the su#Fective conse/uences of the (ar (as colonial (orkers

a(areness of their role in the survival of 'ritain& When the capitulation

25!or a historical su%%ary of the prover#ial crisis in the 'ritish coalinustry, see Supple, The .istory of the British 3oal Industry5 6ol5 7, &'&()&'78&

24


25/56

of !rance le to a Vichy West Africa the Colonial ffice felt that the

colonies of hana, a%#ia, Sierra "eone, an Nigeria (ere in Feopary&

There (as a percepti#le shift in the content of propagana?B, + ournalof African .istory? 89;B=&

27This phrase (as part of a #eautifully poetic section of his revie( ofseveral #ooks on coal %iners, *The Country of Coal,+Labour=Le Tra-ail >&8Spring 9;;=: ?>& It reas

The country of coal is a iscontinuous lan & & & it

runs fro% the %ining settle%ents of Scotlan anWales to the coal to(ns of West Virginia an Illinois&& & & The po(er of coal has #een a founing force inthe evelop%ent of inustrial capitalis% an thepeople of this relatively unrecogni.e country hasshare %uch history in co%%on&

Nigerian %iners share in this e)perience&

25


26/56

aving legali.e unions the state chippe a(ay at the rights of

organi.e la#or through a series of (arti%e legislation covering

*essential inustries,+ a rather #roa category (hich, in an econo%y

so o%inate #y the state, covere the %aFority of Nigerias (orkers&

In 9>? the Nigerian eneral 2efense $egulation prohi#ite strikes an

lockouts,?;%anate ispute proceures that inclue #ining

ar#itration an (aiting perios, an prohi#ite the right to strike&?

1ntil 9>B the ne( legislation secure relative peace in the coal

inustry& 'ut there (ere %any signs of iscontent& Conflict erupte on

several fronts: for the right to (ork uner *rostering,+ against

custo%ary racist syste%s of inustrial iscipline, for (age increases, to

secure recognition of (orkers organi.ations an for i%prove%ents in

conitions unergroun& 'ut the conflict that (oul plunge the inustry

into its (orst crisis (oul occur (hen a ne( %anager altere the

organi.ation of unergroun (ork an the syste% of pay&

In August 9>> Fiyi su#%itte a %e%oranu% that e%ane

increase pay an referre to gains of 'ritish coal %iners, (ho ha

secure a seven-hour (orking ay, an unergroun allo(ance, an

28$o#in Cohen,Labour and !olitics in Nieria, &'7*)&'?&, "onon: eine%annEucational 'ooks, 9>, p& 9B&

29I#i&

26


27/56

i%prove%ents in occupational health&30When he threatene a strike,

he (as in violation of the 2efense $egulations an the %anager took

the opportunity to restructure the la#or process in (ays that reuce

the he(ers control over prouction& Specifically he presente t(o

options #oth instituting synicates of thirty to si)ty he(ers an thirty

tu# %en& ption one (oul institute group pay an option t(o

iniviual pay& 'oth options (oul re%ove the he(ers aily rate,

%aking their (ages entirely epenent on prouctivity& The proposal

(oul have constitute a eskilling of the he(er an (as appropriately

oppose for this reason&

The %anagers proposal (as far %ore than an atte%pt to ena#le the

%en to %ake %ore (ages&31It (as a %ove to recapture %anagerial

control over the la#or process at a ti%e (hen Enugu coal (as of

strategic value to the E%pire& Workers recogni.e it as such an

respone accoringly& In January 9>B the ispute (as settle #y

co%pulsory ar#itration, uner the Nigerian 2efence $egulations

89>9=, (hich rese%#le 'ritains Essential Work 8Coal 5ining

Inustry= rer of 9>9, (hich prohi#ite strikes in strategic inustries&

The issue (ent to #ining ar#itration an the settle%ent institute the

30NCC, 6&?L9L9, Fiyi to 5anager, 9< August 9>>&

31!or a fuller iscussion of this crisis, see %y 0We Were All Sla-es,1Chapter


28/56

synicates #ut (ith iniviual pay&

When the union refuse to follo( this unfavora#le ar#itration the

%anager fire the entire (orkforce an hire eighteen hunre ne(

%en& Clai%ing that the union no longer represente these (orkers, he

strippe the Colliery Workers 1nion of its recognition& 'ut the (orkers

retaliate (ith a *go slo(+ (hich, since technically not a strike, i not

violate the 2efense $egulations& In the secon /uarter of 9>B output

ha plunge fro% 9B9,


29/56

the Colonial Workplace

When the "a#our 6arty ca%e to po(er in July 9>B it (as confronte

(ith the esperate task of re#uiling 'ritains inustrial infrastructure

uner the heavy #uren of e#t to the 1nite States an fulfilling the

political aspirations of colonial people& These t(o proFects (oul prove

to #e /uite ifficult to reconcile& The previous concerns (ith organi.ing

African trae unions, shaping inustrial relations through the

application of *%oern+ process an institutions, an raising the

prouctivity of African (orkers #y i%proving the social (elfare of the

colony gave (ay to a narro(e concern (ith output an prouctivity& 33

The role of colonial resources (as clear& "a#our planne to *incorporate

the post(ar colonial hinterlan, no( preo%inately Africa, as a source of

foo an ra( %aterials to replace i%ports fro% ollar sources&+34In the

colonies %anage%ents struggle to control prouction0couche in the

ter%inology of *prouctivity+0(as an inustrial e)pression of this

*prouctionist+ evelop%ent proFect&

While state officials in 'ritish West Africa %ule through the political

transition to representative govern%ent, %anage%ent stu%#le fro%

crisis to crisis at the Colliery, arrogantly ignoring the inicators of

i%pening isaster an confiently assu%ing that they coul fin a

33Cooper, p& ?@>&34I#i&, p& B&

29


30/56

*cooperative+ alternative to Fiyi& To the Colonial ffice this (as a

political conte)t of angerous possi#ilities& 5any local officials sa(

Co%%unist conspiracies #ehin every nationalist strategy an %ost

#elieve that African (orkers (ere too unsophisticate to recogni.e

their %anipulations an (ere not a#le to *see through+ leaers like

Fiyi& Thus the "a#or 6arty follo(e a policy of epolitici.e trae

unions, (ithout recogni.ing the contraiction in its o(n history& The

challenge (as ho( to insulate the trae unions fro% the political

struggle an to ensure that they focus on econo%istic e%ans (hile

channeling their iscontent through #ureaucratic proceures&

2epolitici.e trae unions, (hile /uite ifficult to effect in colonies,

(ere especially i%possi#le to create in a state-o(ne inustry such as

the Colliery& The connections #et(een inustrial grievances an the

political status of Nigeria as a colony (ere not lost on the %iners&

There were gendered dimensions to the workers responses to the postwar realities. As

working men the miners were determined to !lill their responsi"ilities to their amilies

and #omm!nities. The$ #ame o!t o the war as dierent men. To the ind!str$s workers

this was a time o e%#iting possi"ilities& whi#h the$ had 'paid( or with their la"or d!ring

the war. The$ were poised to demand wages that allowed them to prepare their amilies&

)illages& and #omm!nities to a##ept more politi#al responsi"ilit$ within an e)ol)ing

*igeria. The postwar str!ggles rele#ted workers desire to settle !nresol)ed #laims and

to re)itali+e their !nion& ho""led "$ the insidio!s manip!lations o the metropolitan and

30


31/56

#olonial state and the ind!str$s management. ,n the -n!g! area #ollier$ o"s were

important in inan#ing the large n!m"er o de)elopment proe#ts these men organi+ed in

the )illages. /istri#t i#ers re!entl$ #ommented that the miners saw themsel)es as

progressi)e men and oten e#hoed the opinions o the 'intelligentsia in -n!g!.( or

e%ample the$& like the intelligentsia& ree#ted the go)ernments ass itera#$ programs35

in a)or o #omp!lsor$ ed!#ation. The$ emphasi+ed their position "$ a !ite phenomenal

o!t"!rst d!ring 1946 and 1947 o #onstr!#ting large stone"!ilt primar$ s#hools& paid or

to a large e%tent rom the wages o #olliers and wage earners li)ing in -n!g!. 36

The specific grievances (ere relate to the %ens assu%e

responsi#ilities in their co%%unities& As %en of consiera#le stature

an pro%inence Colliery (orkers (ere also co%%itte to supporting

%aternity clinics, #uiling roas, an #ringing pota#le (ater to the

village& These co%%it%ents (ere #ase on their a#ility to earn sta#le

(ages, (hich (ere uner%ine #y the unpreicta#ility of (ork uner

the aily *rostering&+ A %ans ina#ility to %eet these responsi#ilities

#eca%e a source of sha%e an threatene his staning as a

progressive force in the village& These senti%ents (ere especially

35The govern%ent propose %ass literacy in (hich rather #asic reaingskills (ere taught& The nationalists e%ane for%al pri%ary anseconary eucation, (hich they felt (oul #etter prepare the people

for inepenence&

36National Archives Enugu, 8hereafter NAE= 122IST L9L9L, *Annual$eport 9>0 1i 2ivision&+ 'oth colliers resient in the villages anthose (ho #oare in to(n hel regular %eetings to iscuss theircontri#utions to the school& 6& ?L9L, 2&& 1i to Colliery 5anager, 9?!e#ruary 9>


32/56

acute a%ong the he(ers, (hose self-i%age as (orking %en (as

relate to their role as the principal coal-getters& They unerstoo that

the financial solvency of the inustry epene on their skill an la#or

an they i not feel that they (ere #eing treate fairly&

'y January 9>< the (orkers ha #een (ithout a union for over a year

an the issues that ha le to the strike (ere largely unresolve&

Aitionally, Fiyi (as uner attack #y the erst(hile leaers of the

trae unions0a group of issient clerks an *native+ supervisors& It is

i%portant to re%e%#er, ho(ever, that (orker support for any

leaership (as contingent upon their elivering the *goos+0higher

(ages an i%prove%ents in (orking conitions& e coul not assu%e

that their support (oul #e unconitional& It (as therefore critical for

hi% to #e *seen+ as persistently presenting their issues #efore the

%anage%ent des+itethe fact that his union no longer ha recognition&

In 9> he succeee in aressing %ost of the (orkers concerns&

"urching To(ars the Iva Valley Shooting: The Contraictions of

5etropolitan "a#or 5oels

The ispute #egan in January 9>< (hen Fiyi, #esiege #y issients

fro% the clerical an supervisory staff, revitali.e the unresolve

e%ans that ha generate the 9>B crisis& This ti%e he tappe into

the antiiscri%inatory iscourse of the nationalists an challenge the

32


33/56

%anage%ent to e)ten the recent a(ar of a B unergroun allo(ance

to 'ritish unergroun %anagers to African %iners& Tapping into the

iscourse of parity cha%pione so strongly #y the propagana of the

(ar, Fiyi shre(ly argue:

The (orkers #elieve that the approve 1nergroun

allo(ance is not only applica#le to European 1nergroun

(orkers, #ut also to the African (orkers& If the Colliery 5anager

allo(s only the European (orkers to get their allo(ances & & &

then he is sho(ing a gri% iscri%ination in that respect&

"ike %any eucate trae union leaers throughout Africa, Fiyi ha

rapily %astere the legalities an structure of the Colonial ffices

la#or refor%s, an %anipulate the% against the state& Citing

$egulation 9B< of the sa%e Nigerian 2efense $egulations that (ere

use in 9>B, he argue that the is%issal of the (orkers in 9>B (as a

lockout, (hich (as prohi#ite #y la(&38In %aking this argu%ent, he

caught officials off guar an sent the% scurrying to their legal counsel

for interpretations of the la(, sparking a e#ate #et(een regional an

national officials&39

37NCC, 6& 9L *5e%oranu% of Agree%ent09>,+ 9@ Nove%#er9>&

38NAE, NICA" 9L9L?9, CW1 to 5anager, ?> Septe%#er 9>B&

39NCC, 6& ?L9L 2istrict fficer to $esient, 5arch 9>


34/56

The follo(ing %onth, !e#ruary 9>,+ournal of the .istorical Society of Nieria , ? 89


35/56

the restoration of the he(ers aily rate, an the provision of fringe

#enefits to staff& The latter (as clearly a e%an Fiyi hope (oul

/uell the issent fro% (ithin the staff an clerical ranks& Surprisingly,

the (orkers (on an the provisions (ere applie retroactively& e(ers

receive overti%e pay for holiays an supervisory staff a si)-hour

(ork ay co%para#le to that of the Europeans& Aitionally, the

agree%ent prohi#ite the hate *rostering+ syste%&

The %ost i%portant provision of the agree%ent (as its (age a(ar,

(hich grante over 9B@,@@@ in #ack (ages to %ost categories of

(orkers retroactive fro% January 9, 9>


36/56

union %oel&

The real ai% of the restructuring (as to reuce the access of Fiyi to

the unergroun rank an file& 'ut the process use i%porte

organi.ational principles that ha a ifferent %eaning in Ig#o culture&

$o#ert Curry, a 'ritish T1C avisor, restructure the union along a

#ranch organi.ational %oel,44(hich he hope (oul reuce the irect

control Fiyi appeare to e)ercise over the rank an file& o(ever, this

%oel ha a ifferent cultural %eaning to the Ig#o la#or force, (ith

tragically unintene conse/uences& While Curry thought he ha

create #ranches roote in Fo# istinctions that introuce a ne( layer

of officers #et(een Fiyi an his #ase a%ong unergroun (orkers, to

the %en he ha create fi-einepenent unions There (as no such

principle as representational organi.ation (ithin Ig#o culture&

The restructuring also ha other conse/uences& It gave each Fo# group

an e/ual nu%#er of representatives in the union e)ecutive an an

44Curry ivie the union into #ranches, each (ith its o(n officersealing inepenently (ith %anage%ent& These #ranches (ere forSurface (orkers, e(ers, 5echanics an !itters, 1nergrounWorkers, an Clerical& The ne( E)ecutive Co%%ittee (as co%pose of

electe #ranch officers (ho for%e a $epresentative Co%%ittee fro%(hich the unions E)ecutive Co%%ittee (as electe for negotiations(ith %anage%ent& Such negotiations, ho(ever, (oul only occur if#ranches (ere una#le to resolve grievances (ith %anage%ent& Thus,these various #ranches assu%e %any of the functions for%erly hel#y Fiyi an the union e)ecutive& !or a full iscussion, see 'ro(n, WeWere All Sla-es, pp& ?D@9&

36


37/56

each category of (ork ha its o(n organi.ation e)pression& The

conse/uences (ere to introuce a level of organi.ational

ecentrali.ation that strengthene issent an isolate the union

leaer, Fiyi, fro% his #ase& The clerical an %ine supervisory staff, the

center of opposition to the union leaership, no( ha an

*inepenent+ organi.ation& 5oreover, they ha the sa%e nu%#er of

representatives in the union e)ecutive as their %ore nu%erous 8an

%ore %ilitant= %iners& The unergroun (orkers0he(ers, tu#%en,

rail%en, an special la#or0each ha an autono%ous organi.ational

unit& !inally, in 2ece%#er 9>;, the unions recognition (as restore

#ut the sees of frag%entation (ere e%#ee in the ne( structure&

'ecause of the ifferent %eaning of the #ranch structural %oel, the

reorgani.ation initiate a process in (hich the union e)ecutive ha

little if any centrali.e po(er& 5oreover, it challenge the union

leaerships a#ility to retain staning (ith the %e%#ership&

Al%ost i%%eiately there (ere signs that the a(ar (as still

unaccepta#le as groups of (orkers raise co%plaints a#out the

calculations of their (ages& Aitionally, the consultative aspects of

the agree%ent re/uire that Fiyi #e engage in aily Foint

consultations (ith %anage%ent over unresolve issues fro% the 9>

Agree%ent& o(ever, these ne( re/uire%ents create suspicions

a%ong his %e%#ers that he (as #etraying their interests& is

37


38/56

attenance at these largely fruitless %eetings (ere cite #y issients

as evience that he ha #eco%e a *frien+ of %anage%ent& The

%eetings the%selves (ere to resolve errors in the calculation of

overti%e an seniority allot%ents& 5ore i%portantly, the union trie to

challenge the prouction %ini%u%s he(ers an tu# %en (ere

re/uire to attain in orer to re%ain e%ploye& In the %ist of all of

these negotiations Fiyi (as fighting atte%pts to uner%ine his

authority a%ong (orkers fro% the clerical an *native+ supervisory

staff&

Negotiations continue rather uneventfully>Buntil Septe%#er 9>

(hen the %anager, in violation of the 9> agree%ent, announce he

(oul resu%e *rostering&+ The i%pact (as over(hel%ingly negative

#ecause ru%ors (ere circulating a%ong the %en that the Colliery

o(e an aitional 9;@,@@@ in #ack pay to co%pensate for hours of

(ork lost uring the interval #et(een the outla(ing of rostering #y the

June l>< Trae 1nion rinance an the Collierys suspension of

rostering uner the l> Agree%ent&>


39/56

the principle of retroactivity so pro%inent in the 9> Agree%ent an

caught the govern%ent #y surprise&

1sing his interpretation of Sections l an < of the ne( Trae 1nion

rinance, effective June l, l>


40/56

The Shooting of Nove%#er 9;, 9>: The !ailure of "a#or $efor%

'y late 9> the Colliery (as teetering on the ege of another la#or

crisis& Fiyi (as struggling to keep his reputation a%i a la#or

consultation process desinedto prevent (orker activis%& The issients

(ere spreaing ru%ors that the (orkers eserve %ore %oney an

the %anage%ent (as angry that these *i%puent natives+ ha

succeee in getting a settle%ent in 9>& The political environ%ent

(as #eco%ing increasingly raicali.e& The European co%%unity

vie(e nationalist agitation (ith rea an reacte hysterically to

ru%ors a#out raicals (ho %ight, in fact, have co%%unist

connections& The Colonial ffice ha Fust (eathere a %aFor crisis in

the ol Coast, (here the e)-service%ens riot at Cape Coast Castle48

succeee in strengthening 7(a%e Nkru%ahs *positive action+

ca%paign, (hich (as inspire #y anhis strategy& This %ae the

Nigerian govern%ent even %ore concerne a#out the political

raicalis% of veterans, %any of (ho% live in Enugu an (orke in

the Colliery& So%e si) hunre live in the rural area&495any ha #een

traine in guerrilla (arfare in Southeast Asia50an (ere a%ong the

481nrest a%ong e)-service%en #egan in 9>< (hen they e%ane#etter conitions of life an pay%ent& The contrast #et(een their living

conitions an those of Europeans increase their ire& reat 'ritain&/e+ort of the 3o$$ission of #nuiry into Disturbances in the 4old 3oast, &'7;5Colonial No& 9?&

49Akpala, *'ackgroun to the Shooting Incient,+ B9&

50ver 9@@,@@@ West Africans fought in 'ur%a uring the (ar&

40


41/56

%ost vociferous critics of the slo( an unenlightene pace of political

change&

There (as an at%osphere of %ass hysteria a%ong %any of the

e)patriates in the city& So%e (ere reacting to the general change in

race relations, in (hich the govern%ent refuse to support custo%ary

racist practices, such as the use of the ter% *#oy+ to escri#e

occupational categories& 8*6ick #oys+ 3he(ers4, *tu# #oys 3tu# %en4,

an so forth&= overn%ent intelligence in "agos ha #een alerte that

*e)tre%ists+ ha #een atte%pting to ac/uire ar%s an e)plosives to

#e istri#ute to *terrorist parties+ 8i&e& HikistsO= to use in a *positive

action+ ca%paign& So%e thefts ha eviently occurre, incluing thirty

cases of Colliery e)plosives& Eleven ha never #een recovere&51'y the

ti%e of the Collierys Nove%#er 9> crisis the govern%ent

anticipate the possi#ilities of raical isruptions through the Hikist

linkages (ith the trae union %ove%ent&

This (as the political an inustrial conte)t in (hich the he(ers #egan

to evaluate the veracity of the ru%or that they (ere ue arrears fro%

the perio of *illegal+ *rostering&+ !or %uch of Septe%#er an cto#er

9> they (ere very restive an their representatives raise the issue

repeately in the conciliation iscussions, (hich (ere i%properly #eing

51I#i&, p& >G The Ti$es of London, < January 9B@&

41


42/56

use for collective #argaining& 5inutes of the Council %eetings sho( a

isainful %anipulation of proceures an o#fuscation #y %anage%ent

to stall the (orkers& Fiyi, (hile alert to this crass %anipulation, (as

caught in the position of #eing a part of a negotiating tea% (hile the

#ranch representatives assu%e they heae their o"n union The

he(ers no longer accepte the central e)ecutive as representing their

interests& n Nove%#er ;, in the %ist of negotiations, they #egan a

*(ilcat go slo(&+ The crisis escalate (hen the %anager suspene

fifty (orkers, (hich, far fro% stopping the protest, only e)pane the

strike to the tu# %en& When the govern%ent #egan to recruit ne(

(orkers, in anticipation of a lockout, the %en occupie the %ines&

The i%%eiate cause of the shooting (as an atte%pt to re%ove %ine

e)plosives fro% the Iva Valley %ine& The series of ecisions taken #y

the political officials0the Chief Co%%issioner, %anager, an hea of

the ne(ly for%e coal #oar0fro% Nove%#er 9< through 9;, either

arose fro% a eter%ination to finally iscipline the coal %iners or a

confusion of this inustrial conflict (ith a political crisis& The group

ecline the assistance of the only person traine in la#or relations, a

senior la#or avisor fro% the 'T1C, (ho (as the ne(ly appointe

la#or irector& nce they ha %ae the ecision to call in the police,

the situation rapily eteriorate uner false assu%ptions,

%isunerstanings, an enshrine erogatory ieas a#out African

(orkers&

42


43/56

n Nove%#er 9 there (ere nine hunre police%en52in Enugu, %any

of the% ausa soliers fro% the North& n Nove%#er 9;, they ca%e to

re%ove all the e)plosives, #ecause officials feare that they (oul fall

in the hans of raicals& The %iners, #elieving that the re%oval of the

e)plosives signale a *lockout,+ appeare hesitant to per%it the

operation& Several eye(itnesses sai that the %iners cro( (as not

unruly #ut only curious a#out the co%%otion of the police arrival an

the unusual color of the police%ens #lack unifor%s& Neither (itness

consiere the cro( to #e hostile&53

The %en refuse a re/uest that they help in re%oving the e)plosives,

not #ecause they intene to retain the% #ut #ecause the re/uest

ignore their Fo# hierarchies& A (itness note:

What they sai (as that they (ere not carrying %en& They are

tu# %en an pick #oys an have nothing to o (ith the carrying

of the %aga.ine& & & & This Fo# is for ti%#er %en, so%e special

la#orers& e shoul call the%&B>

52The account that follo(s is #ase on oral history collecte in Nigeriaan the co%%ission proceeings& Colonial ffice, *En/uiry into the

2isorers in the Eastern 6rovinces of Nigeria: 6roceeings of theCo%%ission,+ vols& 9D?& "onon: is 5aFestys Stationery ffice, 9B@&5i%eographe&

53Intervie( (ith E%anuel kafor, 1(ani, Enugu, 9@ July 9BGIntervie( (ith 6eter Afe%uefuna, Tinkers Corner, Enugu, ?< July 9B&

546roceeings, Testi%ony of J& E& N.erogu, Screen !ore%an,

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The initial plan to re%ove the e)plosives prove un(orka#le #ecause

there (ere %ore than anticipate& fficials then secure a train to

transport the e)plosives& In the interval one (orker (as given the key

to lock the %aga.ine an i so (ith no resistance& 55'y that ti%e

seven to eight hunre %en ha gathere at the %outh of the %ine to

(atch&56

At the investigative co%%ission hearings one Consta#le kolie

escri#e frienly iscussions #et(een the (orkers an the

consta#les& In fact he overhear one police%an saying

We o not co%e to shoot you people& Pou are e%aning your

rights fro% the overn%ent& The overn%ent (ill pay you

people this %oney&B

To this he allege that a (orker replie *We are gla you people kno(

this, #ut you people shoul re%e%#er (e #e #rothers+58The %en ha

little inication that they (ere in anger&

As against the perceptions of Nigerian police%en of an at%osphere of

fraternity (as the perception of a near-hysterical 'ritish police officer&

6roceeings, p&


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The split-secon ecisions %ae #y 'ritish officers reflecte their o(n

insecurities an si%%ering anger at the states hanling of this perio

of political transition& The at%osphere of cooperation (as not the scene

that the Assistant Superintenent of 6olice, Enugu, sa( or unerstoo&

The chatter, singing, an fraterni.ing appeare threatening to hi%& e

felt he%%e in #y the %iners, (ho (ere so nu%erous that he note

*the (hole place (as #lack (ith the%&+59Si%ilarly, Captain !& S& 6hillip,

Senior Superintenent of 6olice, sa( only %enace&

In this crucial %o%ent the raciali.e figure of the *African (orker+

e%erge in the i%agination of the 'ritish officers an fuse (ith the

stereotype of the *pri%itive native&+ To Captain 6hillip these (ere not

inustrial %en conucting a protest #ut savage, hysterical natives,

oing *angerous ances,+ screeching unintelligi#le noises, poise to

attack his troops& At a#out 9:@ p&%& he got to the Iva Valley %ine an

#eca%e (orrie a#out the nu%#ers an the %oo of the cro(& They

see%e to #e *pouring+ out of the %ines #y the hunres& 2espite his

assu%ptions that they (ere hostile, he nonetheless he felt sufficiently

confient of their cooperation to solicit their assistance in re%oving

e)plosives fro% a near#y %aga.ine&

In %any (ays the Captain appeare ensnarle in %isleaing colonial

59Testi%ony of E& J& $& r%iston, Senior Assistant Superintenent of6olice, Enugu, 6roceeings, p& >B&

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stereotypes a#out African %en& Ignorant of the Ig#o language an

unfa%iliar (ith the traitions of Colliery protest, he panicke& To hi%

they #eca%e an angry %o#, #ranishing *(eapons0#o(s, arro(s,

%achetes, long steel #ars&+


47/56

Sunay Anyasao (as the first to fall ea& e ha #een a%ong the

%iners (ho ca%e out of the %ines (hen the train approache the

e)plosives stores& e (as a he(er an the #rother of '& 1& Anyasao of

5#ieri, (erri, a pro%inent clerk an union issient& Sunay (as in

the front of the cro( outsie Iva 5ine& e (as a young %an, recently

%arrie, (ho ha co%e to Enugu to earn a living& e occupie the

%ine to prevent a repeat of the 9>B lockout an ha co%e outsie

(hen the #lack-shirte 5ushi troops fro% northern Nigeria

ise%#arke fro% their transport trucks& Sunay Foine his #rother

%iners, chanting an singing an ancing in front of the cro( facing

the troops an their co%%aning officer& e pro#a#ly i not hear the

(arning shots, nor i he e)pect that the police (oul fire& 6hilip

ai%e his revolver at Sunay, shot hi% in the %outh, killing hi%

i%%eiately& 6hillip then shot "ivinus kechuk(u%a, a %achine %an

fro% hi, (erri, killing hi% as (ell& earing the noise, kafor Ageni,

an 1i tu# %an, venture out of the %ine an aske *Anything

(rongO+ A #ullet kille hi% on the spot&


48/56

closer an closer to the action& 6hilip sa( *an avalanche co%ing o(n

fro% the #ack, rolling on top of us&+


49/56

the #arrage the troops cal%ly fell into for%ation an %arche #ack to

their epot in Enugu&

Infor%ants allege that the co%%aning officers %ae no

arrange%ents to care for the (oune an that the ea re%aine on

the groun for the rest of the ay& Villagers, hearing of the slaughter,

lay in (ait to a%#ush the troops as they returne #ut lost their

courage& Sunay (oul #eco%e fa%ous as the first one shot&

Nationalist leaers sai the shots (ere the inaugural #ullets of

Nigerias nationalist struggle& The ays of colonial rule (ere

nu%#ere&

Conclusion: The After%ath: "a#or, 5ilitance an Tragey on the Eve of

Nigerian Inepenence

!ro% Nove%#er 9; through ?< only the cities of eastern Nigeria (ere

in revolt espite the nationalist assertion that the %assacre (as the

eath knell of colonial rule in Nigeria& In the five largest cities in the

east0Enugu, A#a, 1%uahia, 6ort arcourt, nitsha, an Cala#ar74the

Hikists %ove to the forefront of organi.ing %ass e%onstrations,

(hich /uickly e)ploe in attacks on 'ritish property& The targets an

73There are %any accounts of (hat happene after the shooting#egan& It has re%aine as a trau%atic %e%ory in popularconsciousness in Enugu& Toay infor%ants speak of the event as if itFust happene& The entire incient eserves %ore thoroughinvestigation&

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locations of the e%onstrations, as (ell as the co%position of the

cro(s, (hich (ere e)clusively ur#an, suggeste that the incient

ignite eep-seate grievances that ha accu%ulate uring the (ar&

2eclining (ages, high prices, an the stranglehol that the e)patriate

fir%s continue to have over the Nigerian econo%y (ere all oppose

#y the ur#an groups that Foine in the riot& This (as inicate in %ost

cities (here the targets of the e%onstrations (ere the e)patriate

fir%s, (hich (ere loote an #urne&

The states response (as preicta#le& Within (eeks the 'ritish

govern%ent ha convene a co%%ission of t(o 'ritish74an t(o

African Fuges& 2espite the conflicts character as an inustrial ispute

there (as no representation of trae unionists, 'ritish or Nigerian, on

the panel& 6reicta#ly the hearings #eca%e a %agnet for nationalist

politicians, %any of (ho% (ere la(yers& As an historical event the

hearings the%selves are eserving of serious analysis& They e)presse

the contraictions of colonial society in its e%ise& What is especially

74The chair, W& J& !it.geral, (as for%er Chief Justice in 6alestine (herehe ha recently serve on a co%%ission of En/uiry on "ocalA%inistration of Jerusale%& The other (as 6& W& Willia%s,representative of Wigan in the ouse of Co%%ons an legal avisor to

the National 1nion of 5ine(orkers& The t(o African %e%#ers, S& &Ruashie-Iun of the ol Coast an N& A& Ae%ola of Nigeria, sat onthe supre%e courts of their respective countries& 2espite protests #ysocialist an co%%unist 56s, no 'ritish or Nigerian trae unionists(ere selecte& Anthony 7irk-reene, Biora+hical Dictionary of the British3olonial Ser-ice, &'(')&'88, "onon: ans Hell, 99&London Ti$es, ?;Nove%#er 9>&

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telling is the e)tent to (hich the official report, calle the !it.geral

report,75veere #eyon a co%%entary on the actual event an

#eca%e a criti/ue of the state of inustrial relations in Nigeria as (ell

as the Nigerian states reticent response to the political e%ans of

the nationalists& Again, the separation of *econo%ic+ fro% *political+

(as /uite ifficult to create in reality& We cannot co%%ent fully on the

contents of the report here& o(ever several o#servations are

pertinent& !irst, the trae union leaer, Isiah Fiyi, #eca%e a scapegoat

for the shooting& The govern%ent report aopte the issients

position that he ha %isle the %iners into e)pecting aitional

arrears fro% *rostering&+ As (as the case (ith several other %ilitant

trae unionists at the ti%e, he (as Faile, conveniently, for other

charges associate (ith the ispensation of the 9> a(ar&761pon his

release several years later, he (as #anne fro% Colliery property& e

never again le the (orkers& o(ever, %ost of %y intervie(s inicate

that even toay (orkers attri#ute their gains to the strength of his

leaership an his (illingness to sacrifice his iniviual gains for those

of the (orkers&

75Colonial ffice,/e+ort of the 3o$$ission of #nuiry into the Disorders in the#astern !ro-inces of Nieria, Col& No& ?B


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The shooting #eca%e e%#le%atic of the e)cesses of colonial rule&

Toay it is still cite as the incient that #egan the Nigerian

inepenence %ove%ent& $esients of Enugu prouly cite it toay to

clai% prie of place in contri#uting to the collapse of 'ritish rule in

Nigeria& An the event is enshrine in popular %e%ory in a ra%atic

#ron.e sculpture of the shooting in a central %arketplace in Enugu&77

What oes this incient tell us a#out this perio an a#out the #eliefs,

assu%ptions an actions of its key actors0African (orkers an 'ritish

colonials0uring the perio of i%perial la#or refor%sO In the volatile

perio of ecoloni.ation, conte)tuali.e #y the EastDWest conflict of

the *Col War,+ the *#est+ (ay of controlling African (orkers ha yet

to #e eter%ine& The la#or *e)perts+ in the Colonial ffice #u%#le

along, e)peri%enting (ith the shell of 'ritish inustrial relations as

(eakene #y the content of colonial authoritarianis%&

The contraictions of colonial society0race, class, an gener0(ere

far stronger than any 'ritish i%porte inustrial relations syste%&

6rocesses that (orke in Englan i not create the sa%e results in

Enugu& 5ost political an %anagerial officials refuse to accept African

(orkers as *e%ployees+ in the fullest sense& 5oreover, no %atter ho(

77See the cover of C& 'ro(n, We Were All Sla-es5

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%any ti%es 'T1C avisors ca%e to the colonies, they coul neither

convince African (orkers that they coul trust trae unions nor coul

they convince European e%ployers that syste%ati.ing inustrial

isputes (as in their interest& There (ere too %any uncertainties in the

transition to inepenence an too %any eep contraictions (ithin

colonial society White officials coul not process these changes an

Africans i not trust the state& Africans (oul not channel their

iscontent into institutions, especially (hen state sanctione, that they

i not trust&

Africans hear an unerstan the criti/ue of colonial rule fro%

'ritains (ar allies0the 1SS$ an the 1nite States& The tension

focuse on the application of Article II of the Atlantic Charter, signe in

August 9>9, to 'ritains tropical colonies& Conceive as a state%ent to

Na.i-occupie Europe, it (as /uickly e%#race #y Africas

nationalists&;It feature %any *angerous+ ieas such as the right of

self eter%ination, in Article II, (hich eclare:

the right of all peoples to choose the for% of govern%ent

uner (hich they (ill liveG an they (ish to see sovereign

rights an self-govern%ent restore to those (ho have

78!or the fullest iscussion, see Ai, op cit& The nationalists (ereprolific (riters, leaving a generous recor of their though on thecharter& !or one iscussion, see A& A& N(afor ri.u, Without Bitterness:Western Nations in !ostWar Africa, Ne( Pork: Creative Age 6ress, Inc&, 9>>&

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#een forci#ly eprive of the%&

In Nigeria there (as an air of anticipation that since the country ha

re%aine loyal to Englan an ha proven so inispensa#le to the (ar

effort, %aFor i%prove%ents, #oth political an econo%ic, (ere in the

offing& 5oreover (orking-class %en e)pecte that they (oul have the

inco%e to assu%e ne( leaership roles as fa%ily heas an

%oerni.ers& 1nlike the Nigerian govern%ent, they "ere +lannin for a

future that "ould eist&806ersonal, village, an fa%ily i%prove%ent #eca%e

ever %ore co%pelling goals as (orkers e)presse their e)pectations of

a #etter life, of a future(hen hostilities ene&

In Enugu (orkers unerstanings of these ieological changes an

e#ates (ere enriche #y the iscourse of the nationalist %ove%ent,

(hich (as particularly popular in this, the *city of clerks&+ The

influence of literate nationalists on Enugus %iners, encourage #y the

%e%#ership of #oth in the ur#an i%prove%ent unions81, %ae 'ritains

79Willia% $oger "e(is, I$+erialis$ at Bay: The &80This is a paraphrase of !reerick Cooper: *The govern%ents (hichrule !rench West Africa an 'ritish Africa uring the early (ar years

ha one characteristic in co%%on: #oth (ere planning for futures thati not e)ist&+ Chapter IV, *!orce la#or, strike %ove%ents, an theiea of evelop%ent, 9>@D9>B,+ Decolonization and African Society, p&99@&

811r#an ethnic unions (ere village-#ase groups (ho evelope (aysof influencing rural politics an evelop%ent& 5any of the% raise%oney fro% %e%#er contri#utions to launch a%#itious co%%unity

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goal of epolitici.ing colonial unions %ore ifficult& A istrict officer

co%%ente in 9>:

2ivisional politics in 1i 2ivision are al(ays strongly

influence #y the vie(s of the intelligentsia in Enugu as

interprete #y the illiterate colliers, (ho, co%ing ho%e at

(eekens, an particularly at %onth-ens (ith cash

(ages, are a#le to pay the piper an call the social, an to

so%e e)tent the political, tune&;?

!inally, espite the eprecating (ays in (hich colonial officials an

%anagers vie(e African (orking class %en, the %en the%selves

unerstoo their pro%inent role in their co%%unities as (ell as the

(orkplace& Colonial racis% %ay try to treat the *African (orker+ as an

African *#oy,+ #ut the (orkplace also valiate the% as #rave an

skille %en& The (orkplace (as a site of a %asculine (ork culture, in

(hich soliarity (ith ones (ork%ates challenge colonial inustrial

espotis%& Aitionally, this %asculinity (as further valiate in the

co%%unities an villages, (here these %en use their inco%es to

#eco%e *%oern,+ progressive, an politically po(erful& Contrary to

colonial perceptions of their ina#ility to proFect into the future, these

evelop%ent efforts& Toay they are for%e in African i%%igrantco%%unities throughout the (orl an contri#ute far %ore toevelop%ent initiatives than the foreign ai #uget of the evelopecapitalist states& !or one iscussion, see E& 6& yeaka ffoile, *ro(than Influence of Tri#al 1nions,+ WestAfrican /e-ie" 8August 9>9&

82NAE, 1ist L9L9L, +Annual $eport 9>01i 2ivision&+

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%en positione their chilren to assu%e positions (ithin the Nigerian

nation& Toay the i%print of their sacrifice an vision is clear in Enugu&

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The Iva Valley Shooting at Enugu Colliery, Nigeria

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Transcript of The Iva Valley Shooting at Enugu Colliery, Nigeria