The Interdependence of Literature by Curtis, Georgina Pell, 1859-1922

8/14/2019 The Interdependence of Literature by Curtis, Georgina Pell, 1859-1922

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THEINTERDEPENDENCEofLITERATURE

ByGEORGINAPELLCURTIS

"Thereisfirst,theliteratureofknowledge,andsecondlythe

literatureofpower.Thefunctionofthefirstistoteach,thefunctionorthesecondistomove;thefirstisarudder,thesecondanoarorasail.Thefirstspeakstothemerediscursiveunderstanding,thesecondspeaksultimately,itmayhappen,tothehigherunderstandingorreason,butalwaysthroughaffectionsofpleasureandsympathy."ThomasDeQuincey"EssaysonthePoets."(AlexanderPope.)

B.Herder,17SouthBroadway,St.Louis,Mo.and68GreatRussellSt.,London,W.C.

1917

PREFACE.

Theauthorhasendeavoredinthesepagestosketch,inoutline,asubjectthathasnot,asfarassheknows,beentreatedasanexclusiveworkbytheschoolmen.

Writtenmoreinthenarrativestylethanasatextbook,itisintendedtoawakeninterestinthesubjectoftheinterdependenceoftheliteraturesofallagesandpeoples;andwiththehopethatalargerandmoreexhaustiveaccountofaveryfascinating

subjectmaysomedaybepublished.

Chicago,Ill.,June,1916.

CONTENTS.AncientBabylonianandEarlyHebrewSanskritPersianEgyptian


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GreekRomanHeroicPoetryScandinavianSlavonicGothicChivalrousandRomanticTheDramaArabianSpanishPortugueseFrenchItalianDutchGermanLatinLiteratureandtheReformationSeventeenthandEighteenthCenturyPhilosophyEnglish

ANCIENTBABYLONIANANDEARLYHEBREW.

Fromthemistyagesofbygonecenturiestothepresentdaytherehasbeenagradualinterlinkingoftheliteraturesofdifferent

countries.FromtheOrienttotheOccident,fromEuropetoAmerica,thisslowweavingofthethoughts,tastesandbeliefsofpeopleofwidelydifferentraceshasbeengoingon,andforms,indeed,ahistorybyitself.

TheforerunnerandprophetofsubsequentChristianliteratureistheHebrew.Itisnot,however,thefirstcompletewrittenliterature,asitwassupposedtobeuntilafewyearsago.

TheoldestSemitictextsreachbacktothetimeofAnemurabi,whowascontemporaneouswithAbraham,fivehundredyearsbeforeMoses.TheseSemitespossessedaliteratureandscriptwhichtheylargelyborrowedfromtheoldernon-Semiticracesinthe

localitieswheretheposterityofThareandAbrahamsettled.

RecentresearchesinAssyria,EgyptandBabyloniahasbroughtthisolderliteratureandcivilizationtolight;aliteraturefromwhichtheHebrewsthemselveslargelydrew.ThreethousandyearsbeforeAbrahamemigratedfromChaldeathereweresacredpoemsintheEastnotunlikethepsalmsofDavid,aswellasheroicpoetrydescribingthecreation,andwritteninnearlythesameorderasthePentateuchofMoses.

ThestoryoftheDeluge,andotherincidentsrecordedintheOldTestament,togetherwithnumerouslegends,wereknownandtreasuredbytheAncientsassacredtraditionsfromtheearliest

agesoftheworld.

WelearnfromSt.Paulthat"MoseswasskilledinalltheknowledgeoftheEgyptians."Hemustthereforehavebeenfamiliarnotonlywiththeancientpoemsandsacredwritings,butalsowiththescientific,historical,legalanddidacticliteratureofthetimes,fromwhich,nodoubt,heborrowedallthatwasbestintheMosiacCodethathedrewupfortheChosenPeopleofGod.ThisoldliteratureMosesconfirmedandpurified,evenasChristatalaterperiod,confirmedandelevatedallthatwasbestin


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theHebrewbelief.HencefromtheseOrientalscholarswelearnthattheHebrewwasonlyoneofseverallanguageswhichenjoyedatdifferenttimesadevelopmentofthehighestcultureandpolish,althoughtheteachingoftheoldRabbiswasthattheBiblewasthefirstsetofhistoricalandreligiousbookstobewritten.Suchwasthecurrentbeliefformanyages;andwhilethisviewoftheScripturesisnowknowntobeuntrue,theyare,infact,themostancientandcompletewritingsnowinexistence,althoughthediscoveryinJerusalem,thirty-fiveorfortyyearsago,oftheinscriptionsofSiloe,takeusbackabouteighthundredyearsbeforeChrist;buttheseSiloeianinscriptionsarenotcompleteexamplesofliterature.

"TheAncientcultureoftheEast,"saysProfessorA.H.Sayce,"waspre-eminentlyaliteraryone.WehavelearnedthatlongbeforethedayofMoses,orevenAbraham,therewerebooksandlibraries,readersandwriters;thatschoolsexistedinwhichalltheartsandsciencesofthedayweretaught,andthatevenapostalservicehadbeenorganizedfromoneendofWesternAsiatotheother.TheworldintowhichtheHebrewpatriarchswereborn,andofwhichthebookofGenesistellsus,waspermeatedwithaliteraryculturewhoserootswentbacktoanantiquityofwhich,butashorttimeago,wecouldnothavedreamed.TherewerebooksinEgyptandBabylonialongbeforethePentateuchwaswritten;

theMosaicagewasinfactanageofawidelyextendedliteraryactivity,andthePentateuchwasoneofthelatestfruitsoflongcenturiesofliterarygrowth."

ThereisnodoubtthatthesediscoveriesofmoderntimeshavebeenadistinctgaintoChristianity,aswellastotheolderHebrewliterature,foritconfirms(ifconfirmationisneeded),thehistoryofthecreation,tofinditwasbelievedbytheancientpeoples,whomwehaveseenwerealearnedandcultivatedrace.

InthepresentdaythegreatCollegeofSt.EtienneinJerusalem,foundedbytheDominicansexpresslyforthestudyofthe

Scriptures,carriesonaneverendingandwidelyextendedperusalofthesubject.PartiesofstudentsaretakenovertheHolyPlacestostudytheinscriptionsandevidencesofChristianity,andthemostlearnedandbrilliantmembersoftheOrderareengagedinresearchandstudythatfitsthemtocombattheerrorsoftheHigherCriticism.Theirwork,whichisofaverysuperiororder,hasattractedattentionamongscholarsofeverycountryinEurope.

IntheancientdevelopmentoftheworldtherecameatimewhentherewasdangeroftruthbeingcorruptedandmingledwithfableamongthosewhodidnotfollowtheguidanceofGod,asdidAbrahamandthepatriarchs;thenthegreatlawgiver,Moses,was

giventhedivinecommissiontomakeawrittenrecordofthecreationoftheworldandofmanandtotransmitittolaterages;andbecausehewasthuscommandedandinspiredbyGod,hisliteraturerepresentsthemostperfectandtrustworthyexpressionoftheprimitiverevelations.Fromtheverybeginning,therefore,wetracethisinterdependenceofliterature.Moses,authorizedbyGod,turnstoallthatisbestintheolderBabylonian,EgyptianandIndicliterature,andusesittoregenerateanduplifttheHebrewrace,sothatweseethethingscontainedintheBibleremainedthesametruthsthatGodhadbeenteachingfromthe


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beginningoftime.TheolderEgyptianandBabylonianliteraturebecamelosttotheworldforthousandsofyearsuntilinthenineteenthcenturymodernresearchinthePyramidsandelsewhere,broughtittolight;buttheHebrewliteraturewaspasseddowntotheChristianera,andthencetoourowntimes,intact.Itexcelsinbeauty,comprehensiveness,andatruereligiousspirit,anyotherwritingpriortotheadventofChrist.Itspoetry,whichrangesfromthemostextremesimplicityandclearness,totheloftiestmajestyofexpression,depictsthepastorallifeofthePatriarchs,themarvelloushistoryoftheHebrewnation,thebeautifulsceneryinwhichtheylivedandmoved,thestatelyceremonialoftheirliturgy,andthepromiseofaMessiah.Itschiefstrengthandcharmisthatitpersonifiesinanimateobjects,asinthesixty-fourthPsalm,whereDavidsays:

"Thebeautifulplacesofthewildernessshallgrowfat;andthehillsshallbegirdedaboutwithjoy.Theramsoftheflockareclothed,andthevalesshallaboundwithcorntheyshallshout,yeatheyshallsingahymn."

AndagainintheseventeenthPsalm,hesays:

HebowedtheHeavensandcamedown...andHeflewuponthewingsofthewinds...HemadedarknessHiscovert,His

pavilionroundaboutHim:darkwatersinthecloudsoftheair."

IntimetheHebrewlanguagebegantobeinfluencedbyothers,although,asapeople,theyrankwiththeGreeksandSpaniardsasbeingverylittlemouldedbyanyoutsideinfluenceontheirliterature.FromthetimeofAbrahamtotheageofMosestheoldstockwaschangedbytheintermarriageofsomeoftheirracewiththeEgyptiansandArabians.DuringthisperiodtheirliteraturewasinfluencedbyZoroaster,andbythePlatonistandPythagoreanschools.ThisisespeciallynoticeableintheworkofPhiloofAlexandria,whowasbornafewyearsB.C.

Josephus,whofirstsawthelightinA.D.37;andNumenius,who

livedinthesecondcentury,wereJews,whoassuchremained,whileadoptingGreekphilosophy.ThelearnedwritingsoftheRabbisbecameknownasRabbinicalliterature.ItiswritteninalanguagethathasitsrootsintheHebrewandChaldaic;thoughithasalsoborrowedlargelyfromtheArabian,GreekandLatin.InthesixteenthcenturyChristianscholarsbegantomakeanextensivestudyofHebrewandRabbinicalliterature,andtheywerenotslowtodiscoverthevalueoftheseOrientalworks.Thesewritings,however,aresubjecttochange,anditisintheBiblealonethatwefindthefundamentalteachingofHebrewliterature.DifferingentirelyfromtheMythologicalandOrientalNations,ittaught,asitscardinalprinciple,theunityofGod.Itshistoricalworthhasbeenrecognizedbythegreatestscholars

inallages,andithasinfluencednotonlytheancientworld,butalsotheliteratureandpoetryoftheMiddleAgesandofmoderntimes.ItformsacontrasttothephilosophyoftheGreeks,andtothatofEuropeansofalaterage.WhenthelatterhavetriedtoexplainthegreatmysteryofGodandman,theyhaveinvariablyfailed.InthebeautifulwritingsoftheGreeks,whereinwefindtheheightofartisticexpressionandpolish,thereisasubsequentgradualdecline;butsuchisnotthecaseintheOldTestament.Ineveryagefreshbeautyandhiddentreasureisfoundinitspages.AnotherphaseoftheBiblewhich


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hashadafarreachingandlastingeffectuponalllanguageandliterature,isitsprevailingspiritoftypesandsymbols.Thisisconspicuousbothinthepoeticalbooksandinthosethataredidacticorhistorical.IthashadthesameinfluenceonthethoughtsandimaginationofallChristianpeopleanduponthepoetryandimitativeartsoftheMiddleAges(andnearlythesameuponlaterandmorecultivatedtimes)thatHomerhadupontheAncients.ForinitwefindthestandardofallourChristianimagesandfigures,anditgivesusamodelofimitationthatisfarmorebeautifulinitself,andfarmoreworld-wideinitsapplicationthananythingwecanborrowfromtheGreeks.WeseethisinDanteandTasso,andinotherChristianpoets.TotheHebrew,astheoriginalcustodiansoftheOldTestament,weareindebtedforkeepingthefaithpurewhenallothernationseitherforgotorabandonedit,orelsemixeditupwitherrorsandidolatry.WhatMosesrecordsofthecreationoftheworldandthefirsttenFathers,isembodiedbythePersians,IndiansandChineseinwholevolumesofmythology,andsurroundedbyahostoffancifultraditions.ThusweseeintheHebrewasthechosenpeopleofGod,anationabletopreserveitsliteratureintactthroughcaptivity,dispersionandpersecution,foraperiodoffourthousandyears.

SANSKRIT.

SanskrithasonlyrecentlybecomeknowntoEuropethroughtheresearchesofEnglishandGermanOrientalscholars.Itisnowacknowledgedtobetheauxiliaryandfoundationofallcivilizedspeech,andisimportantasbeingthelanguageofanextensiveliteraturewhichrecordsthelifeofawonderfulpeoplefromaremoteagenearlytothepresenttime.

TheancienthomeoftheAryan,orIndo-Europeanrace,wasinCentralAsia,whencemanyofitspeoplemigratedtotheWest,andbecamethefoundersofthePersian,GreekandRomanNations,besidessettlinginSpainandEngland.Otheroffshootsofthe

originalAryanstooktheirlivesintheirhandsandpenetratedthepassesoftheHimalayas,spreadingalloverIndia.Wherevertheywent,theyseemtohaveheldthemselvessuperiortotheaboriginalpeoplewhomtheyfoundinpossessionofthesoil.

"Thehistoryofcivilization,"saysawell-knownauthorityonliterature,"iseverywherethehistoryoftheAryanrace.TheforefathersoftheGreekandRoman,oftheEnglishmanandtheHindu,dwelttogetherinIndia,spokethesamelanguage,andworshippedthesamegods.ThelanguagesofEuropeandIndiaaremerelydifferentformsoftheoriginalAryanspeech.Thisisespeciallytrueofthewordsofcommonfamilylife.Father,Mother,brother,sisterandwidow,aresubstantiallythesamein

mostoftheAryanlanguageswhetherspokenonthebanksoftheGanges,theTiberortheThames.Theworddaughter,whichoccursinnearlyallofthem,isderivedfromtheSanskritwordsignifyingtodrawmilk,andpreservesthememoryofthetimewhenthedaughterwasthelittlemilkmaidintheprimitiveAryanhousehold."

TheHindulanguageisfoundedontheSanskrit,ofwhichwemaynamethebooksoftheVedas,1500B.C.


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AllthepoeticalworksofAsia,ChinaandJapanaretakenalmostentirelyfromtheHindu,whileinSouthernRussiathemeagreliteratureoftheKalmucksisborrowedentirelyfromthesamesource.TheRamayana,orgreatHindupoem,musthavehaditsorigininthehistory-to-beofChrist.IthasbeentranslatedintoItalianandpublishedinParis.TheHitopadesa,acollectionoffablesandapologues,hasbeentranslatedintomorelanguagesthananybookexcepttheBible.Ithasfounditswayalloverthecivilizedworld,andisthemodelofthefablesofallcountries.

ThedramasofKalidasa,theHinduShakespeare,containmanyepisodesborrowedfromthegreatEpicpoems.TheMessengerCloudofthispoetisnotsurpassedbyanyEuropeanwriterofverse.TheRamayonandtheMahabharataarethetwogreatEpicpoemsofIndia,andtheyexceedinconceptionandmagnitudeanyoftheEpicpoemsintheworld,surpassingtheIliad,theOdysseyandtheJerusalemDelivered.TheRamayon,ofsevenCantos,hastwenty-fivethousandverses,andthehero,Rama,inhiswanderingsandmisfortunes,isnotunlikeUlysses.TheMahabharatarecordsthedoingsofgods,giants,andheroes,whoareallfightingagainsteachother.Itcontainstwohundredthousandverses,embodiedineighteenCantos,andisthoughttobenottheworkofoneman;butdifferentsongssungfromtheearliestagesbythepeople,andgraduallyblendedintoonepoem.

Initwefindtheancienttraditionswhichnearlyallpeoplepossess,ofamorefree,activeandprimitivestateofnature,whoseworldofgreatnessandheroismhasbeensuppressedinlaterages.AmongtheHindustansthereexistsareligionresemblinginpartthatofGreece,withtracesoftheEgyptian;andyetcontaininginitselfmanyideas,bothmoralandphilosophical,whichinspiteofdissimilarityindetail,isevidentlyakintoourdoctrinesoftheChristianreligion.Infact,theresemblancebetweentheHinduandChristianreligionissoremarkablethatsomescholarsthinktheHinduwastakenfromtheChristian.Itismoreprobablethatitwasofgreaterantiquity,andthatthesimilaritybetweenthemspringsfromtheseedofalltruthandallNatureimplantedinmanbyGod.IndianandChristianboth

teachregeneration.IntheIndiancreed,assoonasthesoulistouchedwiththeloveofdivinethingsitissupposedtodropitslifeofsinandbecome"newborn."

Inahigherregionallthesetruthsinthelowerworldwhichhavetodowithdivinethings,aremysteriouslyakintoeachother.Itneedsonlythefirstsparkoflightfromabovetomaketheminstinctwithlife.

TheReclusesorGymnosophistsofIndiaarenotunlikethefirstReclusesofEgypt,andthefirsthermitsofthedesertintheChristianera.

ThedoctrinesofIndiafirstobtainedafootholdinEuropethroughthedogmaofMetempsychosis.ItwasintroducedintotheHellenesbyPythagoras;butneverbecamepopularamongtheGreeks.ThisMetempsychosis(orthetransmigrationofsouls)wasbelievedbytheIndiansfromtheearliestperiod,andtheirwholehistoryisbuiltuponit.AveryancientconnectioncanbetracedbetweenIndiaandEgypt,manifestedbyCastes,whicharefoundequallyinbothcountries,andbysimiliarMythologies.WhenAlexandertheGreatinvadedNorthernIndiafromPersia,theGreeksfoundanIndianMythologyfarmoreliketheirownthanthe


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PersianorHebrew.Theythoughttheyhadmetwiththesamegodstheyhadbeenaccustomedtoworship,thoughclothedinadifferentformandcolor.TheyshowedtheirfaithinthisdiscoverybythenamesoftheIndianHerculesandtheIndianBacchus,latersocommonamongthem.

TheworshipofVishnooandKrishnooinHindostandiffersverylittlefromthereligionofBuddhaandFowhichwasestablishedinChinaandThibetduringthefirstcenturyofChristianity.Theformerretainedcaste,whilethelatter,followingtheteachingofBuddha,haverepudiatedanyclassdistinctions.

DecimalcyphersoriginatedinHindostan.

PERSIAN.

IneverythingappertainingtotheirreligiousbeliefthePersiansbearacloseresemblancetotheHebrew,butthepoeticalpartoftheirmythologyismoresimiliartotheNortherntheology,whiletheirmannersbearastrongresemblancetotheGermans.Thespiritualworshipofnature,light,fire,andofotherpureelements,isembodiedinboththeZendAvesta(Persian)andtheEdda(Scandinavian).Thetwonationshavethesameopinion

concerningspiritswhichruleandfillnature,andthishasgivenrisetopoeticalfanciesaboutgiants,dwarfsandotherbeings,foundequallyinPersianandNorthernSagas.

TheworkofLokman,existingnowonlyinArabic,hascausedsomepeopletothinkthatitisofArabianorigin;butitisreallyPersian,andofthetenthcenturyB.C.HisApologuesareconsideredthefoundationonwhichGreekfablewasreared.TheCodeofZoroaster,inwhichthetwogreatprinciplesoftheworldarerepresentedbyOrmuzd(goodnessandlight),andAhriman(darknessandsin)areasoldasthecreation.

Ormuzdisworshipedinthesun,thestars,andinfire.Zoroaster

explainedthehistoryofmanasbeingonelongcontestbetweenthesetwopowersuntilatimetocomewhenOrmuzdwouldbevictoriousoverAhriman.Ormuzd,astheruleroftheuniverse,seekstodrawmentothelight,todispelthedarknessofignorance,andtoextendthetriumphofvirtueoverthematerialandspiritualworld.ItmaybesaidofthePersians,asTertulliansaidoftheRomanPagans,"thatintheirhighestmoodsandbeliefstheywerenaturallyChristian."AmongaPersiansectcalledtheSufis'thereisabeliefthatnothingexistsabsolutelybutGod;thatthehumansoulisanemanationfromHisessence,andwillultimatelyberestoredtoHim,andthatthesupremeobjectoflifeshouldbeadailyapproachtotheeternalspirit,soastoformasperfectaunionwiththedivinenature

aspossible.HownearlythisbeliefapproachestheChristiandoctrine,willbeeasilyseen.

Persianpoetryisnearlyallintheformoflovestories,ofwhichthe"MisfortunesofMejnounandLeila"representtheEasternRomeoandJuliet,andmayhavebeenknowntoShakespeareinthewritingofhisowndrama.

EGYPTIAN.


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EgyptsharedwithancientBabylonandAssyriainthecivilizationofitsprimitiveliterature.ItisfromfiveofitsPyramids,openedin1881,thatvaluablewritingshavebeenbroughttolightthatcarryusbackonethousandyearsbeforethetimeofMoses.

Theirfamous"BookoftheDead,"ofwhichmanycopiesarefoundinourmuseumsofantiquities,isoneinstanceoftheiroldercivilization.Thesecopiesoftheoriginal,intheformofscrolls,aresomeofthemoverahundredfeetlong,andaredecoratedwithelaboratepicturesandornamentation.ThebookgivesconclusiveproofoftheteachingoftheEgyptiansofalifebeyondthis.TheirbeliefinthejourneyofthesoulafterdeathtotheUnderworld,beforeitisadmittedtotheHallofOsiris,ortheabodeoflight,isakintotheCatholicdoctrineofPurgatoryandHeaven.TheEgyptianliteratureispaintedorengravedonmonuments,writtenonpapyrus,andburiedintombs,orundertheruinsoftemples,hence,ashasbeensaidelsewhere,muchofitremainedhiddenuntilnineteenthcenturyresearchbroughtittolight.Evenatthepresenttimemanyinscriptionsarestillundeciphered.

GeometryoriginatedwiththeEgyptians,andtheirknowledgeofhydrostaticsandmechanics(showninthebuildingofthe

Pyramids),andofastronomyandmedicine,isofremotestantiquity.TheGreeksborrowedlargelyfromthem,andthenbecameinturntheirteacher.TheEgyptianpriests,fromtheearliestage,musthavepreservedtheannalsoftheircountry;buttheyweredestroyedbyCambyses(500B.C.),whoburnedthetempleswheretheywerestored.

InthefourthcenturyB.C.,EgyptwasconqueredbyAlexandertheGreat,wholeftitundertheruleofthePtolemies.ThenextcenturyaftertheAlexandrianagethephilosophyandliteratureofAthenswastransferredtoAlexandria.TheAlexandrianlibrary,completedbyPtolemyPhiladelphus,inthethirdcenturybeforeChrist,wasformedforthemostpartofGreekbooksanditalso

hadGreeklibrarians;sothatinthelearningandphilosophyofAlexandriaatthistime,theEasternandWesternsystemswerecombined.DuringthefirstcenturyoftheChristianeraEgyptpassedfromthecontroloftheGreekKingstothatoftheRomanEmperors,underwhomitcontinuedtoflourish.IntheseventhcenturythecountrywasconqueredbytheSaracens,whoburnedthegreatAlexandrianlibrary.FollowingthemcametheArabianPrinces,whoprotectedliterature,andrevivedtheAlexandrianschools,establishingalsootherseatsoflearning.ButinthethirteenthcenturytheTurksconqueredEgypt,andallitsliterarygloryhenceforthdeparted.Ithashadnofurtherdevelopment,andnoinfluenceinshapingtheliteratureofforeignnations.Whatitmighthavebeeniftheliterary

treasuresofEgypthadnotbeendestroyedbyCambysesandtheSaracens,wecanonlyguess.Greatliterarymonumentsmusthavebeenlost,whichwouldshedmorelightonthecivilizationoftheancientworld.

GREEK.

AmodernwritersaysoftheGreeks:


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"Allthatcouldbeautifythemeagre,harmonizetheincongruous,enliventhedull,orconvertthecrudematerialofmetaphysicsintoanelegantdepartmentofliterature,belongstotheGreeksthemselves,fortheyarepreeminentlythe'nationofbeauty.'Endowedwithprofoundsensibilityandalivelyimagination,surroundedbyallthecircumstancesthatcouldaidinperfectingthephysicalandintellectualpowers,theGreeksearlyacquiredthatessentialliteraryandartisticcharacterwhichproducedtheirartandliterature."

WhatevertheGreekslearnedorborrowedfromothers,bytheskillwithwhichtheyimproved,andthepurposestowhichtheyappliedit,becamehenceforthaltogethertheirown.Iftheywereunderanyobligationtothosewhohadlivedbeforethemforsomefewideasandhints,thegreatwholeoftheirintellectualrefinementwasundoubtedlytheworkoftheirowngenius;fortheGreeksaretheonlypeoplewhomaybesaidinalmosteveryinstancetohavegivenbirthtotheirownliterature.Theircreationsstandalmostentirelydetachedfromthepreviouscultureofothernations.Atthesametimeitispossibletotraceathreadrunningbacktoremoteantiquity,toshowthattheirfirsthintsofaliteraturecamefromAsia.TheiroldesttraditionsandpoemshavemanypointsofresemblancetothemostancientremainsoftheAsiaticnations.Somewriterssaythat"thisamountstonothingmorethan

afewscatteredhintsormutilatedrecollections,andmayallbereferredtothecommonoriginofmankind,andthenecessaryinfluenceofthatdistrictoftheworldinwhichmentalimprovementofourspecieswasfirstconsideredasanobjectofgeneralconcern."ButthisprovesatleastthattherewasanoldercivilizationandliteraturethantheGreeks,andthatthatcivilizationhaditsrootintheEast.AccordingtotheirowntestimonytheGreeksderivedtheiralphabetfromthePhoenicians,andthefirstprinciplesofarchitecture,mathematicalscience,detachedideasofphilosophy,aswellasmanyoftheusefulartsoflife,theylearnedfromtheEgyptians,orfromtheearliestinhabitantsofAsia.

TheessentialcharacteristicoftheGreeksasanationwasthedevelopmentoftheirownidea,theirdeparturefromwhateveroriginaltraditiontheymayhavehad,andtheirfar-reachinginfluenceonallsubsequentliteraturethroughouttheworld.Theydifferedinthisfromallothernations;fortoquoteagain:

"theliteratureofIndia,withitsgreatantiquity,itslanguage,whichisfullofexpression,sweetnessoftone,andregularityofstructure,andwhichrivalsthemostperfectofthosewesterntonguestowhichitbearssucharesemblance,withallitsrichnessofimageryanditstreasuresofthought,hashithertobeenvoidofanyinfluenceonthedevelopmentofgeneralliterature.Chinacontributedstillless,PersiaandArabiawere

alikeisolateduntiltheywerebroughtincontactwiththeEuropeanmindthroughtheCrusaders,andtheMoorishEmpireinSpain."

ThisindependenceandoriginalityofGreekliteratureisdueinsomemeasuretothefreedomoftheirinstitutionsfromcaste;butanotherandmorepowerfulcausewasthat,unliketheOrientalnations,theGreeksforalongtimekeptnocorrectrecordoftheirtransactionsinwarorpeace.Thisabsenceofauthentichistorymadetheirliteraturebecomewhatitis.Bythepurely


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imaginarycharacterofitspoetry,andthefreedomitenjoyedfromthetrammelsofparticulartruths,itacquiredaqualitywhichledAristotletoconsiderpoetryasmorephilosophicalthanhistory.

TheHomericpoemsareinagreatmeasurethefountainheadfromwhichtherefinementoftheAncientswasderived.ThehistoryoftheIliadandtheOdysseyrepresentastateofsocietywarlikeitistrue,butgovernedbyintellectual,literaryandartisticpower.PhilosophywasearlycultivatedbytheGreeks,whofirstamongallnationsdistinguisheditfromreligionandmythology.

Socratesisthefounderofthephilosophythatisstillrecognizedinthecivilizedworld.Heleftnowritingsbehindhim;butbymeansoflectures,thatincludedquestionandanswer,hissystem,knownasthedialectics,hascomedowntous.

Aesop,wholived572B.C.,wastheauthorofsomefableswhichhavebeentranslatedintonearlyeverylanguageintheworld,andhaveservedasamodelforallsubsequentwritingsofthesamekind.In322B.C.,thecentreoflearningowingtotheconquestsofAlexandertheGreat,wasmovedtoEgyptinthecitythatbearshisname.HerethefirstthreePtolemiesfoundedamagnificentlibrarywheretheliterarymenoftheageweresupportedby

endowments.ThesecondPtolemyhadthenativeannalsofEgyptandJudeatranslatedintoGreek,andheprocuredfromtheSanhedrimofJerusalemthefirstpartoftheSacredScriptures,whichwaslatercompletedandpublishedinGreekfortheuseoftheJewsatAlexandria.ThistranslationwasknownastheSeptuagint,orversionoftheSeventy;andissaidtohaveexercisedamorelastinginfluenceonthecivilizedworldthananybookthathaseverappearedinanewlanguage.WeareindebtedtothePtolemiesforpreservingtoourtimesallthebestspecimensofGreekliteraturethathavecomedowntous.

THENEWTESTAMENTANDTHEGREEKFATHERS.

TheinterdependenceofGreekliteratureincludessomereferencetotheGreekfathersandtheirwritings.

ManyofthebooksoftheOldTestament,regardedascanonicalbytheCatholicChurch;butknownastheApochryphaamongnon-Catholics,werewritteninGreek.Anumberofthemarehistorical,andofgreatvalueasillustratingthespiritandthoughtoftheagetowhichtheyrefer.TheotherclassofwritersincludestheworkofChristianauthors.GreekandLatinwritingswhollydifferentfromPaganliterature,begantoappearsoonafterthefirstcentury,andtheirpurifyingandennoblinginfluencewasmoreandmorefeltastimepassed.Theprimitive

ChristiansheldthesewritingsoftheGreekandLatinfathersingreatesteem,andinthesecondandthirdcenturiesChristianitycountedamongitschampionsmanydistinguishedscholarsandphilosophers,particularlyamongtheGreeks.Theirwritings,biblical,controversial,doctrinal,historicalandhomiletical,coveredthewholearenaofliterature.

JustinMartyr,ClementofAlexandria,Eusebius,Athanasius,GregoryNazianzen,Basil,andJohnChrysostomareonlyafewofthebrilliantnamesamongGreekandLatinwriters,whoaddeda


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lastingglorytoliteratureandtheChurch.

ROMAN.

TotheRomanbelongsthesecondplaceintheclassicliteratureofantiquity.TheoriginaltribesthatinhabitedItaly,theEtruscans,theSabines,theUmbriansandtheVitulihadnoliterature,anditwasnotuntiltheconquestofTarentumin272B.C.thattheGreeksbegantoexerciseastronginfluenceontheRomanmindandtaste;butRomehad,properlyspeaking,noliteratureuntiltheconclusionofthefirstPunicwarin241B.C.

ThistendencytoimitatetheGreekwassomewhatmodifiedbyRomannationalpride.WecatchsightofthisspiritinVirgilandHorace,inCiceroandCaesar.ThegracefulsofteningoflanguageandartamongtheimaginativeGreeks,becomesintheRomansausterepowerandmajesty,withatendencytoexpressgreatnessbysize.Theseearlyindicationsofracecharacteristicsneverdiedout,aswemayseebythecontrastbetweentheApolloBelvidereoftheGreeks,andtheMosesofMichelangelo.TheoldestexistingexampleofLatinorRomanliteratureisthesacredchantoftheFratesArvales.Theselattercomposeda

collegeofPriestswhoseprescribeddutywastoofferprayersforabundantharvests.Thistookplaceinthespring,insolemndancesandprocessions,notunliketheBacchicfestivalsoftheGreeks,althoughtheRomandancestookplaceinthetemplewithcloseddoors.Thedancewascalledthetripudiumfromitshavingthreerhythmicalbeats.TheinscriptionofthislitanyoftheFrateswasdiscoveredinRomein1778,andexpertshaveagreedthatthemonumentbelongstothereignofHeliogabalus,218A.D.Itissaidtocontaintheverywordsusedbythepriestsintheearliesttimes.

"MostoftheoldliterarymonumentsinRome,"saysamodernwriter,"werewritteninSaturnianverse,theoldestmeasureused

bytheLatinpoets.ItwasprobablyderivedfromtheEtruscans,anduntilEnniusintroducedtheheroichexameterthestrainsoftheItalianbardsflowedinthismetre.ThestructureoftheSaturnianisverysimple,anditsrhythmicalarrangementisfoundinthepoetryofeveryageandcountry.Macaulayadducesasanexampleofthismeasure,thefollowinglinefromthewell-knownnurserysong:

'Thequeenwasinherparlor,Eatingbreadandhoney.'

Fromthisspeciesofverse,whichprobablyprevailedamongthenativesofProvence(theRomanProvencia)andintowhichata

laterperiod,rhymewasintroducedasanembellishment,theTroubadoursderivedthemetreoftheirballadpoetry,andthenceintroduceditintotherestofEurope."

LiteraturewiththeRomanswasnotofspontaneousgrowth;itwaschieflyduetotheinfluenceoftheEtruscans,whoweretheirearlyteachers,theylackedthatdelicatefancyandimaginationthatmadetheGreeks,evenbeforetheyemergedfromastateofbarbarism,apoeticalpeople.ThefirstwrittenliteratureoftheRomanswasintheformofhistory,inwhichtheyexcelled.Like


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othernations,theyhadoralcompositionsinverselongbeforetheypossessedanywrittenliterature.TheexploitsofheroeswererecitedandcelebratedbythebardsofRomeastheywereamongtheNorthernnations.YettheselaysweresodespisedbytheRomansthatwecanscarcelyseeanytraceoftheirexistenceexceptincertainrelicswhichhavebeenborrowedfromtruepoetryandconvertedintothehalffabuloushistoryoftheinfantagesofRome.ThattheRomans,asapeople,hadnogreatnationaldrama,andthattheirpoemsneverbecamethegroundworkofalaterpolishedliteraturewasduetotheincorporationofforeignersintotheirnationwhotooklittleinterestinthetraditionsoftheirearlierachievements.FatherEnnius(239-169B.C.),asHoracecallshim,wasthetruefounderofLatinpoetry.HeenrichedtheLatinlanguage,gaveitnewscopeandpower;andpaidparticularattentiontoitsgrammaticalform.Whathehasdonewassowelldone,thatithasneverbeenundone,althoughlateragesaddednewimprovementstothelanguage.InfableRomewasanimitatorofGreece;butneverthelessPhaedrus(16A.D.)struckoutanewlineforhimself,andbecamebothamoralinstructorandapoliticalsatirist.Celsus,wholivedinthereignofTiberius,wastheauthorofaworkonmedicinewhichisusedasatextbookeveninthepresentadvancedstateofmedicalscience.

TheGreekbeliefindestinybecomesintheRomansstoicism.Thisdoctrine,foundinthewritingsofSeneca,andinthetragediesattributedtohim,ledtotheprobabilitythathewastheirauthor.Senecahashadmanyadmirersandimitatorsinmoderntimes.TheFrenchschooloftragicpoetstookhimfortheirmodel.

CorneilleandRacineseemtoconsiderhisworksrealtragedy.

Cicero'sphilosophicalwritingsareinvaluableinordertounderstandthemindsofthosewhocameafterhim.NotonlyallRomanphilosophyofthetime;butagreatpartofthatoftheMiddleAgeswasGreekphilosophyfilteredthroughLatin,and

mostlyfoundedonthatofCicero.ButofalltheRomancreations,themostoriginalwasjurisprudence.TheframeworktheytookfromAthens;butthecompletefabricwastheworkoftheirownhands.ItwasfirstdevelopedbetweentheconsulateofCiceroandthedeathofTrajan(180years),andfinallycarriedtocompletionunderHadrian.ThissystemwasofsuchahighorderthattheRomanshavehandeditdowntothewholeofmodernEurope,andtracesofRomanlawcanbefoundinthelegalformulasoftheentirecivilizedworld.

AfterthefalloftheWesternEmpiretheselawshadlittleforceuntilthetwelfthcentury,whenIrnerius,aGermanlawyer,whohadlivedinConstantinople,openedaschoolatBologna,andthus

broughtaboutarevivalintheWestofRomancivillaw.StudentscametothisschoolfromallpartsofEurope,andthroughthemRomanjurisprudencewascarriedinto,andtookrootinforeigncountries.BycommonconsenttheinventionofsatireisattributedtotheRomans.TheoriginatorofthenamewasEnnius;butthetrueexponentofRomansatirewasLucilius,wholived148-102B.C.HiswritingsmarkadistincterainRomanliteratureandfillednolessthanthirtyvolumes,somefragmentsofwhichremain.Afterhisdeaththerewasadeclineinsatireuntilfiftyyearslater,whenHoraceandJuvenalgaveitanewimpetus,


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althoughtheirstylewasdifferentfromthatofLucilius.DoctorJohnsonwassuchanadmirerofthetwofinestofJuvenal'ssatiresthathetookpainstoimitatethem.

Boethius,thelastoftheRomanphilosophers,leftawork"ontheConsolationsofPhilosophy,"whichisknowninallmodernlanguages.AtranslationwasmadeintoAnglo-SaxonbyKingAlfredin900A.D.Virgil(70-19B.C.)hastakenHomerashismodelinhisgreatnationalpoemoftheAeneid.InmanypassagesitisanimitationoftheIliadandtheOdyssey.Inhisdidacticpoems,knownastheBucolics,VirgilhasmadeuseofTheocritus,whileintheGeorgicshehaschosenHesiodashismodel.ThelaterdidacticpoetsofallageshaveimitatedVirgil,particularlyinEngland,whereThomson'sSeasonsisathoroughlyVirgilianpoem.ItiseasytoseeinVirgilwhereborrowedmethodsendandnativestrengthbegins;for,inspiteofbeingcloseimitatorsoftheGreek,thereisacharacterpeculiartothewritersofRomebymeansofwhichtheyhaveacquiredanappearanceofdignityandworthinessalltheirown.

HEROICPOETRY.

Thetraditionsofallnationsgobacktoanageofheroes.

Nature,also,hashadhertimeofstupendousgreatness,aperiodofgreatrevolutionsinnature,ofwhichwecanseetracestothisday;andofhugeanimals,whosebonesarestillbeingdugup.Thehistoryofcivilizationalsohasitsperiodofgreatachievements,andpoetryhashaditstimeofthewonderfulandgigantic.Innumerousheroicpoemsofdifferentnationswecantracetheunityofallheroicpersonages,asintheIliadandtheOdysseyofGreece,theSagasoftheNorthintheNibelungen-lied,andtheRamayonoftheOrient.Freedom,greatnessandheroismareembodiedinthesepoems,andmanyofthembreatheamartialspirit.

Wefindthesamecharacter,howevertouchedbylocalcolor,in

allthesebeautifultraditionsofwhatevernationorclime;atthezenithofsuccess,inthespring-timeofyouthandhope,ontheveryeveofjoyunutterable,thereoftenseizesonthesoulofmananoverwhelmingsenseofthehollownessandfleetingnessoflife.Itisthistouchofthespiritualwhichraisestheseoldheroicpoemstosuchsublimebeautyandpower.Poetryofthiskindimpliesanation,onewhichisstill,orhasbeen,great;onewhichhasapast,alegendaryhistory,vividrecollections,andanoriginalandpoeticalmannerofthought,aswellasaclearlydefinedmythology.

Poetryofthisorder--lyricaswellasepic--ismuchmorethechildofnaturethanofart.Thesegreatmythologicalpoemsfor

hundredsofyearswereneverwritten;butwerecommittedtomemory,sungbythebards,andhandeddownfromonegenerationtoanotheruntilintimetheyweremerged,aftertheChristianera,intothehistoricalheroicpoems.TheseinturnweretheoriginofthechivalrouspoetrywhichispeculiartoChristianEurope,andhasproducedsuchremarkableeffectonthenationalspiritofthenoblestinhabitantsoftheworld.Norhasthisoralpoetryentirelydiedout.InthepresentdayMr.StephenGwynnehasastonishedtheworldbytellingofhowheheardagedpeasantsinKerryrecitingtheclassicsofIrish-Gaelicliterature,legendary


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poemsandhistoriesthathaddescendedfromfathertosonbyoraltradition;andthesamephenomenawasfoundbyMr.AlexanderCarmichaelamongtheGaelicpeasantsintheScottishHighlandsandsurroundingislands.Ithasbeensaidthatheroicpoetryisofthepeople,andthatdramaticpoetryistheproductionofcityandsociety;andcannotexistunlessithasagreatmetropolistobethecentralpointofitsdevelopment,anditisonlybythestudyoftheliteratureofallnationsthatweseehowessentiallytheseheroicpoemswerethefoundationofallthatfollowedtheminlaterages.

SCANDINAVIAN.

TheScandinavianNationheld,duringtheMiddleAges,thefirstandstrongestinfluenceoverthepoetryandthoughtofWesternEurope.TheoldestandpurestremainsofthepoetsofGermanNationsarecontainedintheScandinavianEdda.ItsmythologyisfoundedonPolytheism;butthroughit,asthroughthereligionofallnationsoftheworld,thereisafaintgleamoftheoneSupremeGod,ofinfinitepower,knowledgeandwisdom,whosegreatnessandjusticecouldnotberepresentedintheformofordinaryman.SuchwastheGodofthePaganGermans,andsuchwastheearliestbeliefofmankind.

Perhapsthepoetpriestsofprimitivetimes,whoshapedtheimaginativemythologyoftheNorth,wereconsciousoftheonetrueGod;butconsideredHimabovethecomprehensionoftherudemenofthetimes,sotheyinventedthedeitieswhoweremorenearlyakintothematerialforcesthatthesepeoplealoneunderstood.ThesecondpartofthefirstEddacontainsthegreatIcelandicpoems,thefirstofwhichisthesongofVoland,thefamousnorthernsmith.

Voland,orWayland,theVulcanoftheNorth,isofunknownantiquity;andhisfame,whichspreadalloverEurope,stilllivesinthetraditionsofallthenationsoftheNorth.These

poems,althoughfragmentary,stillfarsurpasstheNibelungen-lied,andintheirpowerfulpathosandtragicpassiontheysurpassanyancientpoetryexceptthatofGreece.

TheScandinaviansingeneral,andIcelandersinparticular,traveledovereverypartoftheWest,andpenetratedintohithertounexploredseas,collectingineveryquarterthefactsandfanciesoftheage.InthecharacterofwanderingNormanstheyexertedastronginfluenceinshapingpoetry,andindevelopingtheCrusades.TheybroughtbackwiththemtotheirNorthernhomestheChristianandchivalrouspoemsoftheSouth.InmanyofthesethelikenesstotheIcelandersownNorthernSagaswasremarkable,suggestingsomestillmoreremoteagewhen

oneheroicconceptionmusthavedominatedallpeoples.

AfterbringinghomethesepoemsofSouthernEurope,theScandinaviansproceededtoadaptthemtotheirownuse,givingthemanewforceandbeauty.ThemarvellousinSouthernpoetrybecamewiththemsomethingfraughtwithdeepermeaning;andtheNorthernversionoftheNibelungen-liedacquiredanascendencyinitsstrengthandpoeticalbeauty,overtheGermanheroic.Hence,duringtheMiddleAges,theScandinaviansingeneral,andIcelandersinparticular,cametopossessapeculiarchivalrous


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poetryoftheirown.Itwas,however,destinedtosharethesamefateasthegreatpoemsoftherestofEurope;firsttobereducedtoproseromance,andthenbrokenupintoballads.ThechiefcauseofthisbreakingupoftheoldorderofpoetrywasduetotheReformation.Thenationalpoetrywaslefttobecarriedonbythecommonpeoplealone,andofcourseintheirhandswascorruptedandmutilated.ScottspeaksofthisinhisLayoftheLastMinstrel,wherehedescribestheoldbard,who

"'Tunedtopleaseapeasant'searTheharpaKinghadlovedtohear."

TheseBards,orScalds,meaningSmoothersofLanguage,werewelcomeguestsintheearlyages,attheCourtsofKingsandPrinces.Uptothetwelfthcentury,whentheMonksandtheartofwriting,putanendtotheirprofession,thesepoetscontinuedtocomefromIcelandandtravelallovertheworld.Inreturnfortheirsongstheyreceivedringsandjewelsofmoreorlessvalue;butnevermoney.Wehavealistof230ScaldswhomadeanameforthemselvesfromthetimeofDagnarLodbroktothatofVladimirII,orfromtheendoftheeighthtothebeginningofthethirteenthcentury.WhenChristianityenteredScandinaviathespiritoftheoldtraditionstillremainedwiththepeople,andbecametheirliteratureunderthenameof"FolkSagas,"oraswe

wouldcallthem,fairytales.TheselegendsarefoundnotonlyinmodernScandinavia,buttheyhavemadetheirwayintoalltheliteratureofEurope.JacktheGiantKiller,Cinderella,BlueBeard,theLittleOldWomanCutShorter,andtheGiantwhosmelledthebloodofanEnglishman(theFee,Fi,Fo,Fumofournurserydays),wereallheroesandheroinesofScandinaviansongs,lateradaptedinvariouswaystotheuseofdifferentcountries.AfterawhilethislostartrevivedintheRomancesofchivalry,andinpopularballads.Theydescribeallthechangesinlifeandsociety,andareakintotheballadsoftheBritishIsles.Inthemwefindthecommonexpressionofthelifeandfeelingsofacommonrace.Thesamestoriesofteninfluencedthebardsofallcountriesatdifferentperiods.Theseballadsare

allwritteninthesameformandexpressacertainpoeticfeelingwhichisnotfoundintheEpicAge.Inallcountriestheyhadarefrain,orchorus,whichmarksthemigrationofpoetryfromtheEpictotheLyricform.

"Thissimplevoiceofsong,"toquoteamodernauthor,"travelledonwardfrommouthtomouth,fromhearttoheart,thelanguageofthegeneralsorrows,hopesandmemories;strange,andyetneartoeveryone,centuriesold,yetnevergrowingolder,sincethehumanheart,whosehistoryitrelatesinsomanychangingimagesandnotes,remainsforeverthesame."

SLAVONIC(RUSSIA).

SchlegelsaysoftheRussianNation:

"HersubjectiontotheGreekChurchwasalonesufficientduringtheMiddleAges,andisinsomemeasuresufficienteveninourowntime,tokeepRussiapoliticallyandintellectuallyatadistancefromtherestoftheWesternworld."

LittleifanypartwastakenbytheSlavsintheCrusades.They


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hadhardlyanyofthespiritofchivalry,andtheirbelief,duringtheirperiodofbarbaricheathenism,wasnotsoromanticandidealastheGothic.

TheheroicprosetalesofRussiaareolderandmorepopularthanherballads.Theyaretoldinthenurseries,andrecounttheheroicdeedsofVladimirtheGreat.TheballadsaremostlyarecitalofthefeudsbetweenthePolesandtheTartars,notunliketheBorderballadsofScotland.

TheirgreatestheroisYermak,whoconqueredtheMongols,andinthefifteenthcenturywonfortheCzarsthecountrythatisnowcalledSiberia.Yermak'sdeedsandpraisesaresungfromoneendofRussiatotheother,evenatthepresentday;andthepoorestpeasantsusuallyhaveacoloredprintrepresentinghimonhorseback,nailedtothewalloftheircabins.

SERBIAN.

ThepopularpoetryoftheSlavicrace,whichstillsurvives,isfoundinitsperfectionamongtheSerbiansandDalmatians,whileitisalmostextinctamongtheothernations.Itisofunknownantiquity,andhasbeenhandeddownfromonecenturytoanother.

TheSlavshavealwaysbeenasingingrace,andmusthavebeensofromPagantimes,astheirsongsaboundwithheathengodsandcustoms,dreams,omens,andatrueEasternfatalism.Loveandheroismaretheusualthemes,andamongtheSerbiansthepeculiarrelationofsisterandbrotherformstheprincipalsubjectofinterest.

ASerbianwomanwhohasnobrotherisconsideredafitsubjectforsympathy.TheSerbianpoetryisnearlyallEpic,andinthisparticularclassofversenomodernnationhasbeensoproductive.Thereisagrandandheroicsimplicityintheirsong,asitrecountstheirdailylife;thehallwherethewomensit

spinningnearthefire,thewindsweptmountainside,wheretheboysarepasturingtheirflocks,thevillagesquarewhereyouthsandmaidensdance,thecountryripefortheharvest,andtheforestthroughwhichthetravellerjourneys,allreechowithsong.ThisSerbianpoetryfirstbecamegenerallyknowninEuropethroughGoetheandGrimminGermany,andBowringandLyttoninEngland.

FINNISH.

TheFinnishracereachedahighdegreeofcivilizationataveryearlyperiod.Theyhavealwaysbeendistinguishedbyaloveof

poetry,especiallyfortheelegy,andtheyaboundintales,legendsandproverbs.Untilthemiddleofthetwelfthcenturytheyhadtheirownindependentkings,sincethentheyhavebeenalternatelyconqueredbytheRussiansandSwedes;butlikethePoles,theyhavepreservedastrongnationalfeeling,andhavekepttheirnativelanguage.TheirgreatestliterarymonumentistheKalevala,anepicpoem.EliasLonnrot,itscompiler,wanderedfromplacetoplaceintheremoteandisolatedcountryinFinland,livedwiththepeasants,andtookfromthemtheirpopularsongs,thenhewrotetheKalevala,whichbearsastrong


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resemblancetoHiawatha.MaxMullersaysthatthispoemdeservestobeclassedasthefifthNationalEpicintheworld,andtorankwiththeMahabharataandtheNibelungen-lied.Thesongsaredoubtlesslytheworkofdifferentmindsintheearliestagesofthenation.

HUNGARIAN.

TheMagyars,orHungariansastheyarecalled,cameintoEuropefromAsia,andfirstsettledbetweentheDonandtheDneiper.Theypossessedfromremoteantiquityanationalheroicpoetry,thefavouritesubjectofwhichwastheirmigrationandconquestsundertheSevenLeaders.TheylaidclaimtoAttilaasbeingoftheirnation,andmanyoftheirmostwarlikesongsrecountedhisdeedsandthoseoftheotherGothicheroes.TheMagyarshavenevertakenkindlytoforeigninfluence,andwhen,inthefifteenthcentury,MathiasCorvintriedtobringItalianinfluencetobearonthem,theresultwasadeclineinliterature,andneglectoftheoldpoemsandlegends.DuringtheTurkishinvasionsthelastremnantsofthenationalsongsandtraditionsdisappeared;andundertheAustrianruletheHungarianshavebecomedecidedlyGermanized.

WithinthepastcenturyKisfaludhassoughttorestorethenationallegendsofhiscountry,andanewimpetushasbeengiventotherestorationandpreservationoftheHungarianlanguageandliterature.

GOTHIC.

GothicpoemsweresunginthetimeofAttila;buttheGothiclanguageandmonumentshaveeverywhereperishedexceptinSpain,wheretheSpanishMonarchsareanxioustotracetheirdescentfromtheGothicKings.Attila,Odoascar,Theodoric,andtheAmali,withotherheroes,FrankishandBurgundian,allappearin

theseoldpoems.TheGermansongsthatCharlemagnehadcollectedandputinwritingareundoubtedlytheoutcomeoftheseancientGothicpoemsofthefirstChristianera.TheirsubstanceisfoundintheNibelungen-liedandtheHeldenbuch.

AsinthelegendsofTroyandIceland,soalsointheNibelungen-lied,thestorycentresonayoungheroglowingwithbeautyandvictory,andpossessedofloftinessofcharacter;butwhomeetswithanearlyanduntimelydeath.SuchisBaldurtheBeautifulofIceland,andsuch,also,areHectorandAchillesofTroy.ThesesongsmarkthegreatnessandthewaningoftheheroicworldIntheNibelungen-liedthefinaleventisagreatcalamitythatisakintoahalfhistoricaleventoftheNorth.Odin

descendstothenetherworldtoconsultHela;butshe,likethesphinxofThebes,willnotreplysaveinanenigma,whichenigmaistoentailterribletragedies,andleadtodestructiontheyoungherowhoisthepreyofthegods.

Inthiswecantraceasimilaritytothelife'shistoryanddeathofChrist.IntheMiddleAgesapassionateloveofpoetrydevelopedintheTeutonicrace,andcausedthemtoembodyChristianityinverse.TheSouthGermans,andtheSaxonsinEngland,triedtocopytheoldheroicpoems.


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InthetimeofTheodoric,theGothsbegantoinfluencetheRomanlanguageandliterature;anditisatthisperiodthatRomanantiquitycomestoanendandtheRomanwritersfromthattimeareclassedasbelongingtotheMiddleAges.

ThewholehistoryofliteratureduringtheMiddleAgeswasofatwofoldcharacter.Thefirst,ChristianandLatin,wasfoundalloverEurope,andmadetheprotectionandextensionofknowledge,itschiefobject.Theotherwasamoreinsularliteratureforeachnation,andalwaysinthelanguageofthepeople.TheodorictheGoth,Charlemagne,andAlfredtheGreat,thechiefpatronsoftheliteratureoftheirage,soughttocarryon,sidebyside,andtoimprove,thesetwoliteratures,theLatinandthevernacular.TheyaimedtorefineandeducatemanbytheLatin,andtoincreasethenationalspiritbypreservingtheirnationalpoetry.Whiletheseoldheroicpoemsofthedifferentracesarefullofinterestandcharmforus,wemustnotforgetthattheLatinkeptaliveandpreservedfromextinctionthewholeofclassicalandChristianantiquity.

TheMiddleAges,soinaptlycalled"dark,"areintruthlittleunderstood.AGermanwriterofthenineteenthcentury,FriedrichvonSchlegel,says:

"Thenationshavetheirseasonsofblossoming,aswellasindividuals.TheageoftheCrusades,ofchivalry,romanceandminstrelsy,wasanintellectualspringamongallthenationsoftheWest.Inliteraturethetimeofinventionmustprecedetherefinementsofart.Legendmustgobeforehistory,andpoetrybeforecriticism.Vegetationmustprecedespring,andspringmustprecedethematurityoffruit.

"Thesucceedingagescouldhavehadnosuchburstofintellectualvigor,ifthepreparingprocesshadnotbeengoingonintheMiddleAges.Theysowedandwereaped."

Hence,itwillbeseenthatwhatislookedonasaperiodofstagnationandignorance,wasintruth,thewaitingtime,duringwhichtheinnerprocessofdevelopmentwasgoingon,soontoblossomintogloriousfruit.

CHIVALROUSANDROMANTICLITERATUREOFTHEMIDDLEAGES.

FromthetimeofthefirstCrusade,A.D.1093,totheendofthetwelfthcentury,wasthegoldenageofchivalryinEurope.Hencethepoetryofthisperiodpartookofthespiritthatwasabroadintheworld.OfthischivalrouspoetryoftheMiddleAgestherearethreeclassifications:Thefirst,takenfromoldlegends,

showsastyleofversepeopledwiththeGothic,FrankishandBurgundianheroeswhoflourishedinthetimeofthegreatNorthernemigrations;andforthesethereisusuallysomehistoricalfoundation,whiletheyarealsocloselyknittothetraditionsoftheoldheathenishmythologyoftheGothicNations.ThesecondsubjectofchivalrousversewasCharlemagne,theSaracensandRoncesvalle.ThesewerechieflycomposedbytheNormans,who,aftertheCrusades,gaveanewdirectiontoliterature.Markedchangeswereintroducedbythem,notonlyintoFrance,butthroughoutEurope.Theywerefilledwiththespirit


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ofadventureandenthusiasm,andintheironwardmarchconqueredEnglandandSicily,andtooktheleadinthenextCrusade.Essentiallyapoeticpeople,thewonderfulwastheobjectofalltheiradmirationanddesire.Hencetheysangoldwarsongs,especiallyofthebattleofRoncesvallesinwhichRolanddieswhentheFranksareconqueredbytheSpaniardsandTurks.

InthetaleofafabulousCrusade,inventedintheninthcentury,andwhichwasembodiedinpoetrybytheNormans,thetruehistoryoftheEmpirebecamesobewilderinglymixedupwithmagicians,genii,sultans,Orientalfables,andcomicalcharacters,whometwithastonishingadventures,thatitwasdifficulttodistinguishthetruefromthefalse.TherewasnothingoftheromanticandwonderfulinthehistoryoftheEast,whichdidnotfinditswayintothepoetrythattreatedofCharlemagneandRoland,untilitlostalltracesoftherealwarsandachievementsofCharlemagne.ThethirdsubjectofchivalricversewasArthuroftheRoundTable;butthis,atthetime,wasalsoinvestedwithOrientalwondersandattachments.OtherchivalricpoetryofthisepochhadtodowithGodfreyofBouillon,theCrusades,andoldFrenchtalesandfabliauxwhichwerebroughtintoEuropebytheoralnarrativesoftheCrusaders.

TheNorthernmythologyalwaysaboundedwithmountainspirits,

mermaids,giants,dwarfs,dragons,elvesandmandrakes.ThesereappearinthesongsoftheCrusades,andareelementsoftheoldNorthernandPersiansuperstitions.AllthattheEastcontributedtothesongofthechivalricperiodwasaSouthernmagic,andabrillianceofOrientalfancywithwhichsomeofthepoemswereclothed.

APersianpoemthatbecameverypopularinEuropeintheMiddleAgeswasFerdusi'sBookofHeroes.IthashadamarkedinfluenceontheArabian"ThousandandOneNights."InthispoemofFerdusi'swenotethecontestbetweenlightanddarkness(anideanowherefoundinGreekpoetry).Itseemedtotouchthepoeticalthoughtoftheageofchivalry;forwefinditreproducedin

theirsongs,mingledwithScripturalandlovescenes.

NexttoChivalricpoetry,theageoftheCrusaderswasessentiallyaperiodoflovesongs.TheyattainedtheirgreatestperfectioninProvence,whencetheyspreadoverthewholeofFrance,andfromthereintoGermanyinthetwelfthcentury.

LovepoetryinItalyfailedtoattainanydegreeofperfectionuntilthetimeofPetrarchinthefourteenthcentury;anditsrealerainSpainwasnotuntilacenturylater.LovepoetrydevelopedindifferentwaysinEurope,and,aswehaveseen,atdifferenttimes.ExceptamongtheItaliansitwasnotsomuchborrowedfromonenationtoanotherashadbeenthecasewith

otherbranchesofliterature.

ItisdifferentwithChivalricpoetry,whichwasconsideredthecommonpropertyofall.Theformofpoeticalcompositionalsovariedineachcountry,andtheonlythingcommontoallthenationswasrhyme.Almostallthelovepoemsseemtohavebeenwrittentobesung,andthiswascarriedtosuchlengthsthatinthereignofLewisthePiousofGermany,anedicthadtobesenttothenunsoftheGermanCloistersbytheirBishops,forbiddingthemtosingtheirlovesongs,orMynelieder.


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THEDRAMA.

Thehistoryofthedramamaybedividedintotwoclasses,theChristian,whichbeganwiththeMysteryandMoralityplays;andtheGreek,whichwaseminentlyclassic.Thesetwotypeswerethefoundationofallthatcameafterthem.

ThefirstdawnofthedramawasinGreece;foralthoughtheHindusalsohaddramaticpoetry,itdidnotariseuntiltherehadbeenalengthenedintercoursebetweenGreeceandIndia,sothatthelatterundoubtedlyborrowedfromtheformer.Thelearnedwritersofancienttimesagreethatbothtragedyandcomedywereoriginallychoralsong.Ithasbeensaidthatpoetryandsongaredividedintothreeperiodsofanation'shistory,thattheEpichastodowiththefirstawakeningofapeople,tellingoftheirlegends,orofsomegreatdeedsinremoteantiquity.Thisisfollowedbythesecondstage,whichembraceselegiacandlyricpoetryandaroseinstirringandmartialtimes,duringthedevelopmentofnewformsofgovernment,wheneachindividualwantedtoexpresshisownthoughtsandwishes;andthethirdisthedrama,whichcanonlybeborninaperiodofcivilization,andwhich,ithasbeensaid,impliesanation.

HenceGreekdramaaroseattheheightofGreciancivilizationandsplendor.Itoriginatedinthenaturalloveofimitation,ofdancingandsinging,especiallyattheBacchicfeasts.Thecustomatthesefeastsoftakingtheguiseofnymphsandsatyrs,andofwearingmaskswhiletheydancedandsanginchorus,seemstohavebeenthebeginningsoftheGreekdrama.

Ancienttragedywasideal,andhadnothingtodowithordinarylife;itarosefromthewinterfeastsofBacchus,whilecomedywastheoutcomeoftheharvestfeasts,andtheaccompanyingBacchanalianprocessions,whichweremoreinthenatureofafrolicthanofrealacting.TheinfluenceoftheMiddleandNew

Greekcomedy,especially,thatofMenander,ontheRomancomedyofTerenceiswelldefined.UnderEnniusandPlautustheRomancomedywasfairlyoriginal;butTerencewroteforthefashionableset,likeCaeciliusandScipioAfricanus,andconsequentlyimitatedGreekmodelsverycarefully.ThedramainRomeneverattainedanynoteworthyheightalthoughtheFrenchtragicpoetstookSenecafortheirmodel.

InthetimeofLorenzotheMagnificenttherewasagreatrevivalinItalyoftheancientclassicdrama,ofwhichPolizianowasthemostsuccessfulexponent.Bothheandthelaterwriters,however,madenoattempttofoundanyNationalItaliandrama--theirworksareentirelyanimitationofthetragediesofSophoclesand

Euripides,andthecomediesofPlautusandTerence.

TheMelodrama,whicharoseintheseventeenthcentury,isdistinctlyItalianandnational,andhasbeenextensivelyproducedalloverthecivilizedworld.Alfieri,intheeighteenthcentury,isthegreatestandmostpatrioticoftheItaliantragedians,andhedidasmuchtorevivethenationalcharacterinmoderntimesasDantedidinthefourteenthcentury.

InFrancewehavethedramaticrepresentationoftheMysteriesin


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thetwelfthandthirteenthcenturies,introducedbythepilgrimswhohadreturnedfromtheCrusades.Atfirsttheseperformancesweregiveninthestreet,butlateracompanywasformed,calledthe"ConfraternityofthePassion,"thesufferingofChristbeingitschiefrepresentation.ThisMysteryisthemostancientdramaticworkofmodernEurope,andgivesthewholeGospelnarrativefromthebirthofourSaviouruntilHisdeath.Beingtoolongforaplayofoneact,itwascontinuedfromdaytoday.WhatwouldseemirreverentonamodernstagewasregardedasperfectlysimpleandnaturalintheMiddleAges,anditwasapotentfactorinteachingthemassesthetruthsoftheirfaith.

FollowingtheseMysteriesofthePassioncameahostofotherplaystakenfromtheOldTestament,orfromthelivesoftheSaints.Theearliest"Miracle"onrecordisthePlayofSt.Catherine,whichwasrepresentedatDunstableabout1119,writteninFrench;itwasinallprobabilityarudepictureofthemiraclesandmartyrdomofthesaint.

Thestagewasdividedintothreedifferentfloors,withHeavenontop,hellonthegroundfloor,andtheearthbetween.Frequentlytheplaywouldproceedinallthreedivisionsatonce,withangelsanddevilsascendinganddescendingbymeansofladders,astheirhelpwasneededinthedifferentworlds.

TheDevilgenerallyplayedthepartofclownorjester.ThemodernpuppetplayofPunchisatraditionhandeddownfromtheseancientmiracles,inwhichtheEvilOnewasalternatelytheconquerororvictimofthehumanBuffoon;whowasalsocalledbythenamesofJesterorVice.

Theseearlymiracleplaysweregenerallywritteninmixedproseandverse.

TheoldestmanuscriptofamiracleplayinEnglishisTheHarrowingofHell,believedtohavebeenwrittenin1350.

TheMoralityplaysweretheoutcomeoftheMysteries;theywereeitherallegoricalorelsetakenfromtheParables,orfromthehistoricaleventsintheBible.ThechiefMoralitieswereEveryman,LustyJuventus,GoodCounsel,andRepentance.TheoldestEnglishMoralityplaynowextantisTheCastleofPerseverance,writtenabout1450.Itisadramaticallegoryofhumanliferepresentingthemanyconflictinginfluencesthatsurroundmanonhiswaythroughtheworld.LustyJuventusdepictsinavividandhumorouswaytheextravagancesandfolliesofayoungheirsurroundedbythevirtuesandvices,andthemiserywhichfollowsadeparturefromthepathofreligionandvirtue.GraduallytheseMoralitieswerecorruptedandbecamemixedwithaspeciesofcomedycalledInterludes,amerryandfarcical

dialogue.TheFourP's,oneofthebestoftheseearlyInterludes,waswrittenbyJohnHeywood,anentertainerattheCourtofHenryVIII.ItturnsuponadisputebetweenaPeddler,aPalmer,aPardonerandaPoticary,inwhicheachtriestotellthegreatestlie;playsofthiskindareseeninFranceatthepresentday.InthefifteenthcenturythedramainFrancebecamemoresecularizedandincludedpoliticaleventsandsatire,buttheFrenchwereundoubtedlythefathersofdramaintheMiddleAges.TheirplayswereknownawholecenturybeforeSpainorItalyhadanytheater,whiletheromanticdramainother


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countriesofEuropewasfoundedontheearlyFrenchdrama.ModerndramainFranceduringthetimeofCorneille,RacineandVoltairewasalmostentirelyclassic.TheFrenchregardedtheGreekstandardasthehighestart;andsoughttoimitateitfaithfully,somuchsothattheFrenchAcademy,criticizingatragedyofCorneille,said"thatthepoet,fromthefearofsinningagainsttherulesofart,hadchosenrathertosinagainsttherulesofnature."

ComicdramainFrancefromtheendofthesixteenthtothemiddleoftheseventeenthcenturywasborrowedfromSpain,andhadtodowithamultiplicationoftrapdoors,darklanterns,intrigues,andpuzzlingdisguises,untilMoliere,inhis"PrecieusesRidicules"successfullyattackedthesefolliesofhisage.

TheRomanticdrama,whicharoseinthesecondquarterofthenineteenthcentury,holdsatpresentthefirstplaceinFrance.ItschiefexponentshavebeenVictorHugo,thetwoDumases,SardouandOctaveFeuillet.BetweenthemandthefollowersoftheClassicSchooltherewasforsometimealivelywar.ThelatterwantedtoexcludetheRomanticistsfromtheTheatreFrancais,butwithoutsuccess.InspiteofthebeautyofitsFrench,andthepolishofitsstyle,thislatestformofthedramainFrancefrequentlyoffendsstronglyagainstmorality.InSpainthedrama

wasatalltimesthoroughlynational.Evenwhentheyintroducedmythological,GreekorRomancharacters,itwasalwaysinaCastiliandress.InthisrespectSpainstandsaloneamongthenationsofEurope,asitborrowednothingfromFrance,ItalyorEngland.ItsearliestplaysweretheMysteries,whichitissupposedtohaveobtainedfromConstantinople,wheretheancienttheatreofGreeceandRomewaskeptup,inagrosserform,farintotheMiddleAges.InlatertimesthisEasterndramabecamesocorruptthattheChristianChurchtriedtooffsetitbyintroducingtheMysteries,anditbecameacommoncustomeveryyearatChristmas,fortheMangeratBethlehem,theWorshipoftheShepherds,andtheAdorationoftheMagi,tobeexhibitedbeforetheAltar,justastheMysteriesofthePassionwere

introducedduringLent.ThePassionPlayatOberammergauandtheCreche,representingtheMangeratBethlehem,asseeninCatholicChurchesatChristmas,arethesolesurvivalsoftheseancientMysteries.

TheseconddramaticperiodinSpainwaspastoralandsatirical.Nothingworthyofnoteadornsthisperiodinthefifteenthcentury.InthesixteenthcenturydeRuedaandLopedeVegafoundedthetruenationaldramaofSpain.Itwasunlikeanythingofanearlierperiod,andyet,restingfaithfullyontradition,itgaveavividpictureoftheNationalSpanishlifeinallclassesofsociety.Fromthegallantriesofthe"dramasoftheCloakandSword,"tothehistoricalplaysinwhichDingsand

Princesfigure;downtothemannersandincidentsofcommonlife,allisessentiallySpanish.AfourthclassstillrepresentedScripturalandsacredscenes.CalderonwroteattheheightoftheSpanishdramaduringthereignofPhilipII;andafterhistimethedramainSpaindeclineduntil,intheeighteencentury,itwasatitslowestebb.Atthistimeplayswerestillheldinopencourtyards,andinthedaytime,asintheearlierages.EffortsweremadetosubjectittoFrenchandItalianrule,butthishadonlyalimitedsuccess;stiff,coldtranslationfromtheFrenchcouldnotpleaseapeoplewhoalwaysfoundintheSpanishdrama


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anessentiallypopularentertainment.

InGermanytracesofthedramafirstappearedinthethirteenthcentury,whenrudeattemptstoimitatetheMysteryplayswereconductedinchurchesbythepriests.ButwhenthepopulacetriedtointroducetheBurlesque,theperformanceswerebanishedtotheopenfields.Studentsintheuniversitiestookpartinthem,andtheycontinueduntilaftertheReformation.BroughtintoEuropefromConstantinoplebytheCrusadersandpilgrims,theMysteryplaysbecamethechiefamusementofanilliterateage.ChristianitywasfirstthoroughlyimpressedonthemindofNorthernEuropebymeansofthem;andthefirstmissionariesfamiliarizedtherudeGothsandHunswithBiblicalincidentsatatimewhenreadingwasunknownoutsideoftheCloister.NochangeinGermandramaoccurreduntiltheseventeenthcentury,whenoperasaftertheItaliansupersededtheMysteriesandMoralities.Theproductionofthisage,however,werecharacterizedbybadtasteandpedantry;anditwasnotuntilGoethebroughthisgeniustobearonthesubject,thattheGermansacquiredanydramaworthyofthename.WhetherinhisnationalplayGotzvonBerlichingenorinhisclassicaldramaofIphigenia,thisgreatGermanmasterstandsatthesummitofhisart.LessingattackedFrenchdramaasenactedinGermanypriortoGoethe,andbroughtforwardtheShakespearianplaysasamodel.

Schiller'sWallensteinobtainedaworldwidereputation,andamongtheRomanticdramatistsWerner'sAttilaandGrillparzer'sAncestressarethebestexamplesoftheextravagantandfertilemindoftheGermanromanticist.

ModernGermandramahasfoundthehighestartithaseverattainedinthecompositionsofRichardWagner,whoseoperasareentirelyGermanandNational,andmostlyfoundedontheoldGermanlegends.Tannhauseristakenfromtheepicpoemof"Parzifal,"writtenbyWolframvonEschenbachintheMiddleAges.Lohengrin,whichistouchedoninthe"Parzifal,"WagneralsofoundinthepoemofanobscureBavarianpoet;andamore

completeaccountofthecelebrated"SwanKnight"appearsinacollectionofstorieseditedbythebrothersGrimm.LohengrinisaKnightoftheHolyGrail,sopartofthelegendisborrowedfromancientBritain.

AlldramaticeffortinEnglandbeforethesixteenthcenturywassorudeastobeoflittleaccount.TheMiracleandMysteryplayswereintroducedintoEnglandinthereignofHenryVI,andmanyofthemhadapersonagecalled"Iniquity,"acoarsebuffoon,whoseobjectwastoamusetheaudience.AftertheReformationtheProtestantBishopBalewroteplaysonthesameplanastheMysteries,intendedtoinstructthepeopleinthesupposederrorsofPopery.Theseplays,whichdeallargelyinsatire,became

popularandaftertheeraofHenryVIIIwereknownasInterludes.Inthebeginningofthesixteenthcenturyrealcomedyandtragedybegantoexistinarudeform.TheoldestknownEnglishcomedy,RalphRoysterDoyster,waswrittenbyNicholasUdall,anddescribesacharacterwhosecomicmisadventuresaresomewhatakintoDonQuixote.

Theearliesttragedy,Gorboduc,knownalsoFerrexandPorrex,wasplayedintheLowerTemple.ItisfoundedonthelegendsoffabulousBritishhistory.ThetragediesofMarloweandthe


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legendaryplaysofGreenecomenextinorder,followedbythegoldenageofEnglishdrama,fromthedawnoftheShakespeareplaysin1585untiltheclosingofthetheatrein1645onthebreakingoutoftheCivilwarinEngland.Foraperiodofsixtyyearsthesplendidgeniusoftheworld'sgreatestdramatistgavetomankindaseriesofplaysthathavenoequalintheliteratureofanycountryorage.

ContemporaneouswithShakespeare,orcomingafterhim,wereBeaumontandFletcher,BenJonson,Massinger,Ford,andShirley;theseElizabethandramatiststooktheirsubjectsfromthestoriesandlegendsofallcountriesandages--orelsetheydepictedthenationallife.ForthisreasonEnglishdramahasbeencalledIrregular,incontrasttotheGreek,whichiscalledtheRegular,andthatofmodernFrance,foundedupontheGreek.ThechiefruleoftheRegularistheUnityofTime,PlaceandAction.IntheGreek,thetimeofactionwasallowedtoextendtotwenty-fourhours,andthescenetochangefromplacetoplaceinthesamecity;butShakespeareandhiscontemporariesacknowledgednofixedlimiteitheroftime,placeoraction.Theoperationoftheirplayscoveredmanydifferentcountries,andthetimeextendedovermanyyears;buttherulethatlaiddownintheGreekdramatheprinciplethatthereshouldbeunityofaction(everythingbeingsubordinatetoaseriesofevents,whichform

thethreadoftheplot),wasadoptedbyShakespeareandhiscontemporaries.Ithasbeencalled"unityofimpression,"asopposedtounityoftimeandplace.

ARABIAN.

TheriseanddevelopmentofArabianliteratureoccursatanepochwhentherestofEuropewasstrugglingthroughaperiodoftransition.Fromthemiddleofthesixthtothebeginningoftheeleventhcentury,atatimewhentheRomandominionswereoverrunbyNorthernhordes,andtheGreekNationwasgroaningundertheByzantinepower,whenbothGreekandLatinliteraturewasexposed

tothedangerofextinction,thesplendorofArabianliteraturereacheditszenithandthroughtheminglingoftheTroubadourswiththeMoorsofthePeninsula,andoftheCrusaderswiththeArabs,itbegantoinfluencetheliteratureofEurope.

Arabia,peopledbywanderingtribes,hadnohistoryotherthanthesongsofthenationalbards,untilaftertheriseofMohammedinthesixthcentury.ThedesireoftheprophetwastobringhispeoplebackfromidolatryandstarworshiptotheprimitiveandtrueworshipofGod.HestudiedtheOldandNewTestament,thelegendsoftheTalmudandthetraditionsofArabianandPersianmythology,thenhewrotetheKoran,whichbecamethesacredbookoftheArabians,andinwhichistracedinoutlinethetrueplan

ofman'ssalvation--Death,Resurrection,theJudgment,Paradiseandtheplaceoftorment.Goodandevilspirits,thefourarchangels,Gabriel,Michael,AzraelandIzrafeel,areallfoundintheKoran;butclothedwithatrueOrientalfancy.Besidestheangelstherearecreatures,partlyhumanandpartlyspiritual,calledGenii,Peris(orfairies)andDeev(orgiants).TheGeniihavethepowerofmakingthemselvesseenorinvisibleatpleasure.Someofthemdelightinmischief,andraisewhirlwinds,orleadtravellersastray.TheArabiansusedtosaythatshootingstarswerearrowsshotbytheangelsagainsttheGeniiwhenthey


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approachedtooneartheforbiddenregionsofbliss.

ThisfairymythologyoftheArabianswasintroducedintoEuropebytheTroubadoursintheeleventhcentury,andbecameanimportantfactorintheliteratureofEurope.Fromit,andtheScandinavianmythologyspringallthefairytalesofmodernnations.AndtheseromancesoftheKoranformthegroundworkofthefabliauxoftheTrouveres,andoftheromanticepicsofBoccaccio,Tasso,Ariosto,SpenserandShakespeare.Mohammed'steachingunifiedthedifferenttribesofArabia,andfosteredafeelingofnationalpride,andadesireforlearning.SorapidlydidthisdevelopthatinlessthanacenturytheArabianpowerandreligion,aswellasitslanguage,hadgainedtheascendencyovernearlyhalfofAfrica,athirdofAsia,andapartofSpain;andfromtheninthcenturytothesixteenth,theArabianliteraturesurpassedthatofanynationsofthesameperiod.

Thispeople,who,inabarbarousstatehadtriedtoabolishallcultivationinscienceandliterature,nowbecamethemastersoflearning,andtheydrewfromthetreasurehousesofthecountriesthattheyhadacquiredbyconquest,alltherichesofknowledgeattheircommand.

ThelearningoftheChaldeansandoftheMagi,thepoetryand

fineartsofAsiaMinor,theeloquenceandintellectofAfrica,allbecametheirs.

GreececountsnearlyeightcenturiesfromtheTrojanwartothesummitofherliterarydevelopment.FromthefoundationofRometilltheageofAugustusthesamenumberofcenturiespassedovertheRomanworld;whileinFrenchliteraturetheageofLouisXIVwastwelvecenturiesremovedfromtheadventofClovis;butinArabianliterature,fromthetimeofthefamilyoftheAbassides,whomountedthethronein750--andwhointroducedapassionateloveforpoetry,scienceandart--untilthetimeofAlMamoun,theAugustusofArabia,thereelapsedonlyonehundredandfiftyyears,arateofprogressinthedevelopmentofliteratureamong

anationthathasnoparallelinhistory.

TournamentsfirstoriginatedamongtheArabs,andthencefoundtheirwayintoFranceandItaly.GunpowderwasknowntothemacenturybeforeitappearedinEurope,andtheywereinpossessionofthecompassintheeleventhcentury,andthisnotwithstandingthefactthataGermanchemistissupposedtohavediscoveredgunpowderacenturyaftertheArabsmadeuseofit,whilethecompassismorefrequentlysupposedtobeaFrenchorItalianinventionofthethirteenthcentury.

BotanyandchemistryweremorefamiliartothemthantheyweretotheGreeksorRomans.BagdadandCordovahadfamousschoolsof

astronomyandmedicine,andhereinthetenthandeleventhcenturiestheArabiansweretheteachersoftheworld.StudentscametothemfromFranceandotherpartsofEurope;andtheirprogress,especiallyinarithmetic,geometryandastronomy,wasmarvellous.ThepoetryoftheArabsisrhymedlikeours,andisalwaysthepoetryofpassionandlove;butitisintheirproseworks,theArabiantalesoftheThousandandOneNights,thattheyhavebecomemostfamous.Theirrichnessoffancyintheseprosetalesisdifferentfromthatoftheotherchivalricnations.Thesupernaturalworldisidenticalinboth;butthe


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moralworldisdifferent.TheArabiantales,liketheoldchivalricromances,takeustotherealmsoffairyland,butthehumanbeingstheyintroduceareveryunlike.Theirpeoplearelessnobleandheroic,moremovedbyloveandpassion,andtheydepictwomenbyturnasslavesanddivinities.TheoriginalauthoroftheArabianNightsisunknown;butthebookhasbecomeahouseholdpossessionineverycivilizedcountryintheworld.

SPANISH.

ForsixcenturiesbeforetheadventoftheArabsinSpainthecountrywasundertheRomanyoke,andhadadoptedthelanguageandartsoftheRomans;butintheeighthcenturytheoverthrowoftheRomans,thecomingoftheArabs,andcontactwithArabiancivilization--aswellasthestruggleagainsttheirMoorishinvaders--begantodevelopintheSpaniardsaspiritthatwasthefoundationoftheirnationalliterature.Nootherpeoplehaveeverpossessedinsostrongadegreethetruenationalfeeling--nootherhasproducedsuchauniformlypure,deeplyreligious,andelevatedtone,inpoetryandliterature.Theirpoetryremainedatalltimesfreefromanyforeigninfluence,andisentirelyromantic,whiletheChristianchivalricpoetryoftheMiddleAgesremainedwiththemlongerthanwithanyothernation,

andreceivedfromtheirhandsamorefinishedandelegantpolish.

AftertheMoorishconquesttheSpaniardswithdrewtothemountainsofAsturias;theytookwiththemacorruptedformoftheLatinlanguage,astheyhadreceiveditfromtheRomans;reachingthesemountains,theyfoundthemselvesthrownwiththeIberians(theearliestoftheSpanishraces).Thesepeoplehadremainedhalfbarbaric,hadresistedbothRomansandGoths,andretainedtheiroriginalorBasquelanguage.Comingnowincontactwiththem,theChristianSpaniardslearnedtheirlanguage.LatertheymetwithanothertribeoftheirownracewhohadremainedwiththeArabians,knownastheMocarabes,apeopleofsuperiorrefinementandcivilization.Henceanewdialectfromthese

contendingelementswasgraduallyformed,andbecameknown,liketheotherlanguagesofsouthernEurope,astheRomanic.ThedistinguishingfeatureofSpanishliterature,fromitsbirth,tothetimeofFerdinandandIsabella,isreligiousfaithandknightlyloyalty.QualitieswhichsustainedthewholenationinitsstruggleagainsttheinfidelMoors.

ThefirstgreatSpanishworkisthepoemoftheCid.ItistheonlyepicSpainhaseverproduced,andisthemostancientofanyintheRomancelanguage.Itisalsovaluableasafaithfulpictureofthemannersandcharactersoftheeleventhcentury.Indeed,thechiefcharacteristicofSpanishsongandpoetryisitsdelineationofthenationallife.ItissaidthattheCidis

theforemostpoemproducedinEuropefromthethousandyearsthatmarkedthedeclineofGreekandRomancivilization,totheappearanceoftheDivineComedy.TheCountLucanor,aworkofthefourteenthcentury,wasoneoftheearliestprosewritingsintheSpanishtongue,astheDecameron,whichwaswrittenaboutthesametime,wasthefirstinItalian.Botharenarrativetales;buttheirmoraltoneisverydissimilar--theDecameronwaswrittentoamuse,whiletheCountLucanorisaddressedtoagraveandseriousnation.Thesestorieshavefrequentlybeendramatized,andoneofthemgaveShakespearetheoutlineofhis


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TamingoftheShrew.

AlfonsotheWise,inthethirteenthcentury,wastheauthorofalegislativecodeknownasLasSietaPartides,ortheSevenParts.ItformstheSpanishcommonlaw,andhasbeenthefoundationofSpanishJurisprudenceeversince;andbeingusedalsointhecoloniesofSpain,ithas,sincetheLouisianaPurchase,becomeinsomecasesthelawinourowncountry.

JuanRuiz,wholivedinthethirteenthandfourteenthcenturies,wroteapoem,partlyfictionandpartlyallegorical,calledtheBattleofDonCarnival,whichstronglyresemblesChaucer;bothpoetsfoundtheirmaterialinnorthernFrenchverse.

Santob,aJewinthefourteenthcentury,wroteapoemcalledtheDanceofDeath,whichbecameafavouritesubjectwithbothpaintersandpoetsforseveralsucceedingages.

TheliteratureofSpainmaybedividedintofourclasses--theoldBallads,theChronicles,theRomancesofChivalry,andtheDrama.Themostinterestingoftheoldballadsarehistorical;buttherearealsoballadsthathavetodowithprivatelifewhereinappeartheeffusionsoflove,theshaftsofsatire,thedescriptionsofpastorallife,andtheodditiesofburlesque.Oneandall,

however,faithfullyrepresentSpanishlife.Nosuchpopularpoetryisfoundinanyotherlanguage.TheEnglishandScotchballadsbelongtoamorebarbarousstateofsociety,andtheirverseislessdignifiedandloftythanthatoftheSpaniards,whowereupliftedbyadeepreligioussense,andanunswervingloyaltytotheirsovereign.Astateoffeelingthatelevatedthemfarabovethemenandeventsofborderfeuds,andthewarsofrivalBarons.

ThegreatSpanishheroes,theCid,BernardodelCarpo,andPelayo,aretothisdayavitalpartofthebeliefandpoetryofthelowerclassesinSpain,andarereveredastheywerehundredsofyearsago.ThewanderingMulateersstillsingofGuarinosand

ofthedefeatatRoncesvallesastheydidwhenDonQuixoteheardthemonhiswaytoToboso;andthestreetshowmeninSevillerehearsetothisdaythesamewonderfuladventuresthattheDonsawintheInnatMontesinos.TheChroniclesdevelopedamongthemorerefinedandeducatedclasses.ThemostcelebratedistheChronicleofSpain,writtenbyAlfonsotheWise.Itstartswiththecreationoftheworld,andendswiththedeathofAlfonso'sfather,St.Ferdinand.Itcontainsallthetime-honoredtraditionsofthecountry,aswellasexacthistoricaltruth.ThestoryoftheCidissupposedtobetakenfromthiswork.

FromthetimeofAlfonsotheWisetotheaccessionofCharlesV(orfromthethirteenthcenturytothesixteenth),Spainwas

floodedbyromanticchronicles.ThemostcelebratedisthatofDonRoderick,oranaccountofthereignofKingRoderickintheeighthcentury,theconquestofthecountrybytheMoors,andtheeffortstowrestitfromthem.OnthischronicleRobertSoutheyhasfoundedmostofhispoemofRoderictheLastoftheGoths.Whetherrestingontruthorfable,theseoldrecordsstrucktheirrootsdeepdownintheheartsofthepeople;andtheirromance,theirchivalry,theirantiquetraditions,andtheirvariedlegends,formarichdepositfromwhichallthenationsofEuropehavedrawnmaterialfortheirownliterature.Itwasnotuntil


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thefourteenthcenturythattheromancesofchivalry--knowninFrancetwocenturiesearlierinthestoriesofArthurandtheRoundTable,andthedeedsofCharlemagne--foundtheirwayacrossthePyrenees.

Spain,soessentiallythelandofknighthood,welcomedthemeagerly,andspeedilyproducedanumberoflikeromanceswhichweretranslatedintoFrenchandbecamefamous.ThemostcelebratedisAmadis,writtenbydeLobeira,aPortuguese.Itssolepurposeistosetforththetypeofaperfectknight,sanspeuretsansreproche.Amadisisanimaginativecharacter;butheisthefirstofalonglineofdoersofknightlydeeds,culminatinginDonQuixote,whoseadventureshavecharmedanddelightedtheSpaniards,aswellasthemenofothernations.

ProvencalliteraturebegantohaveaninfluenceontheSpanishin1113,afterthecrownofProvencehadbeentransferredfromArlestoBarcelonabythemarriageofthethenProvencalheiresstoBeranger,CountofBarcelona.ThisintroductionoftheProvencalliteratureintonortheasternSpainhadabeneficialresultonthetwoliteratures,fusingthemintoamorevigorousspirit.

SpainhadalwaysmaintainedtheclosestrelationswiththeSeeofRome,andnumerousSpanishstudentswereeducatedattheItalian

Universities,hencetheItalianliteraturehadsomeinfluenceontheSpanish,morelastingasawholethantheeffectsofProvencalliterature.From1407to1454KingJohnIItriedtoformanItalianschoolinSpain,gatheringaroundhimapoeticalcourt.ThisItalianinfluenceextendedintothesixteenthcentury.DiegodeMendoza,duringthereignofCharlesVwroteacleversatiricalproseworkcalledLazarillodeTormes,whichbecamethefoundationofaclassoffictionofwhichGilBlas,byLeSage,isthebestknownandmostcelebratedexample.

ExceptfortheCid,Spainhadnohistoricalnarrativepoemsofanyaccount,andherprosehistoricalworks,especiallyonthediscoveryandconquestofAmerica,areofapurelylocal

character,andhadnoinfluenceoutsideofSpain.ThebeginningoftheeighteenthcenturysawtheaccessiontothethroneofPhilipV,agrandsonofLouisXIV;andthisbroughtastrongFrenchinfluenceintothecountry,whichforatimedominatedthenationalliterature.

AnewpoeticalsystemfoundedonBoileauwasintroducedbyLuzaninhisArtofPoetry;butitdidnotseemtobringaboutanyrealadvanceinliterature;anditwasnotuntilSpainthrewoffthisforeignyoke,thatanyrevivalinherliteraturetookplace.Itisduetoamonk,BenitoFeyjoo,inthemiddleoftheeighteencenturythatarenaissanceinSpanishliteraturetookplace.Feyjoo,adevoutCatholic,laboredtobringtolightscientific

truths,andtoshowhowtheyharmonizedwiththetrueCatholicspirit.InthesamecenturyIsla,aJesuit,undertookwithentiresuccess,topurifytheSpanishpulpit,whichhadbecomeloweredbothinstyleandtone.HishistoryofFriarGerund,whichslightlyresemblesDonQuixote,aimedablowatbombasticoratory,causingitsoontodieout.ProverbswhichCervanteshadstyled"shortsentence

The Interdependence of Literature by Curtis, Georgina Pell, 1859-1922

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Transcript of The Interdependence of Literature by Curtis, Georgina Pell, 1859-1922