THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION  Identifies the vast economic changes noted

in many nations in the 19th century Term used to describe the speed up of

technological development, change to the factory system, rise in commercial trade with industrially

produced goods Introduction of more sophisticated banking and

credit systems Featured a period of unparalleled economic

growth especially in western Europe

Slow progress started about 1780s Europe - (started in Britain)

west more advanced than east progress was slow until 1850s because:

people continued to use old methods population increases reduced benefits

Didn’t start in Europe until after 1815 Not complete in Britain until after 1850

Great Britain - started the Industrial Revolution, Britain had many navigable rivers Large demand from the colonies Farm production was greatest Central bank, well-developed credit Rural workers were mobile Stable government First major impact was the

development of large textile mills  

The Agricultural Revolution (This Slide is Review- Refer to

Chapter 15 for Specific Notes !!) Caused by the application of scientific methods to agriculture Brought a dramatic increase in food production while reducing the

required labor Increased agricultural output Improved animal husbandry New agricultural methods such as crop rotation and the discovery of

crops that replenished soil (e.g. clover and turnips) Use of chemical fertilizers began in 19th century

Allowed the support of an expanded population Greater agricultural output per acre Healthier, more fertile population helped cause rapid expansion of the

population Less land used for agriculture expanded land use for living space

Metallurgy developments made iron available for tools and machines

English enclosure movement drove peasants from the country to the city making them available as cheap labor

Enclosure Acts allowed eviction of tenants from village commons Large-scale farming was more efficient: It raised crop production and

wool production Became basis of surplus available for export as England expanded its

trade

Britain’s Industrial Leadership

Britain had the edge in industry, already begun in 18th century French Rev./Napoleon had destroyed French Atlantic

trade/disrupted continental economic life for 20 yrs: Latin American independence opened market of South America to British goods/Britain important in south Asia through India

Continental nations making progress: by 1830s Belgium/France/Germany took up steam engines,

exploited coalfields of the Ruhr/Saar basins, coke replacing charcoal in iron/steel production

Major pockets of production existed in western Europe,

Most continental manufacturing still took place in country

peasants /urban artisans still more politically important than industrial factory workers

Population and Migration Population of Europe continued to grow on base of 18th century

population explosion more people lived in cities Eastern Europe remained really rural

Urbanization made existing housing/water/sewers/food supply/lighting inadequate

slums grew disease(cholera) crime increased w/human misery/degradation

Countryside was scarcely better enclosures/land redistribution of French Rev./ emancipation of

serfs in Prussia/(Austria/Russia) commercialized landholding Emancipation dates important

England/France, people could move freely East of Germany, industrialization slower b/c of no fluid market

Irish Potato Famine 1845-47, 500K Irish peasants starved and emigrated; countryside supplied

factory workers for cities

Urbanization Before 1800 10% of European population lived in cities

(20% in Britain and Netherlands) By 1850 52% of British, 36% of Germans, 25% of French,

7% of Russians, and 10% of Americans lived in cities (biggest shift to cities came in 20th c.)

Even during the Industrial Revolution most European societies were rural, based upon the landed wealth of the Old Regime

Increased growth of cities with little planning poor sanitation No street lighting, Terrible housing, Poor transportation High crime

Wealthy lived in suburbs; Workers in center of industrialized cities

Role of the machine (Once again, this Slide is for Review- Refer to

Chapter 15 notes ) Mechanical inventions preceded industrialization

Textile industry was first to be industrialized: it served as the example for other industries

John Kay's Flying Shuttle (1733) speeded up the weaving process James Hargreaves' Spinning Jenny (1767) produced yarn faster for

weaving Richard Arkwright's Water Frame (1769) used water power to

produce thread faster Samuel Crompton's Spinning Mule (1779) used steam or water

power to spin thread or yarn faster Edward Cartwright's Power Loom (1785) speeded up weaving

process using steam or water power Eli Whitney's Cotton Gin (1793) speeded up the process of cleaning

raw cotton. The “gin” allowed growing more sturdy species of cotton in new areas

Steam engine changes the manufacturing system Thomas Newcomen and James Watt refined and perfected the ancient

principle of steam power for machines 320 steam engines being used in Great Britain by 1800 Allowed the movement of the factories to the cities as population

centers

Coal, Iron, Steel, and Oil ‑ key production Industrial expansion increased the demand for iron and steel which in

turn stimulated coal production Abraham Darby, Sr. and Jr., - smelting of pig iron with coke by

1712 Henry Cort - “puddling” of molten iron ore (1784) Benjamin Huntsman of Sheffield produced quality steel for cutlery

(1750) Henry Bessemer (England) and William Kelly (U.S.) perfected the

process of using compressed air jets to eliminate impurities in iron ore greatly lowering the price of steel (1856)

Sir William Siemens (England) and Pierre Martin (France) developed the open‑hearth process for steel production, 1865

The cost of steel dropped 50% between 1856 and 1870 Steel production and coal mining increased

Leading industrial nations required increasing amounts of steel and coal

Leaders: Great Britain, United States, Germany, Belgium, France Oil (petroleum) production increased greatly after Edwin Drake's first

modern drilled well in Pennsylvania, 1859 Oil used as alternative or addition to coal for power Leaders: United States, Russia,

Road construction

Roads of 1800 Inadequate for industrialization and the

expansion of trade Could not handle the heavier loads or the

increased traffic. Paving and drainage were used to

improve roads Bridges were improved with the use of

iron and steel

Improvements in transportation

Canal construction Dutch and French had an old, already

developed system British expanded their system greatly

in the early 1800's Large scale canals for major trade

routes were built Suez Canal, 1869 Kiel Canal, 1895 Panama Canal, 1914

Steamships Allowed ships to function without

wind power Robert Fulton (U.S.) demonstrated

the steamship for river travel, 1807 First steamship crossed Atlantic in

1838 but steamships were slower than sailing ships for another 40 years

First steel ship powered by steam crossed Atlantic, 1882

Railroads Necessary for heavy transport over

long distance First steam‑powered locomotive invented

c. 1800 but it attracted little attention George Stephenson reduced the weight,

improved the efficiency, and helped to build the first railway in Great Britain, 1825

Great era of railway construction in Great Britain, on European continent, and in United States came after 1850

Automobile First patent was issued to Daimler,

1886 Henry Ford began mass production of

automobiles, 1908, reducing the price Suitable highway construction was

begun during and following World War I

Airplane Wright Brothers (U.S.) made the first flight,

1903 English Channel was crossed by Bleriot

(France), 1909 Airplane used mostly for observation during

World War I until 1917 (Most of early bombings conducted from dirigibles)

Lindbergh's trans‑Atlantic flight, 1927, began the modern era of air transport

   Communication

Telegraph: transmission of electric impulses through a wire Samuel F. B. Morse invented the telegraph (1844) Reuter's, the first news agency, was established

in 1861 Undersea cables linking areas across large bodies

of water: Cyrus Field laid trans‑Atlantic cable (1867)

Telephone: Alexander Graham Bell patented (1876) (transmission of the voice through as wire)

Wireless ‑ Radio (no wire connection necessary) Guglielmo Marconi invented the radio (1895) First trans‑Atlantic radio message was sent, 1901

Banking and credit Expanding need for capital for equipment, buildings, site

locations, raw materials and manpower kept most early businesses small

$$ in Great Britain allowed for its early leadership Limited liability laws encouraged joint stock companies

(corporations) Private merchant bankers operated in London

By 1750, London had replaced Amsterdam as world banking leader

Growth of banking slowed in France by the wars of Louis XIV, reaction to the Mississippi Bubble scandal, and the French Revolution

Growth international banks in 19th century Appearance of the great banking houses of Europe

Baring in London and Rothschild in Paris, London, Vienna, Frankfurt and Naples were leading

international banking houses Central banks won the right from government to issue

notes as legal tender Banks were allowed to issue notes in excess of specie

Labor Force Varied levels in the early 19th century

Varied from decent wages to subsistence wage Some virtual slave labor level jobs

Women and Children in coal mines City based labor

Larger percentage of artisans, craftsmen Workers slowly lost control over their ability to set their

own wages (Proletarianization) New factories and machines eliminated skilled labor

Lower costs = more profits for factories Cottage system eliminated Less skill required for a specific task, less generalization

Factories determined the hours and type of work laborers could obtain

Master and apprentice system eliminated Artisans lost ability to control or create guilds

Chartism In the late 1830s, Britain acquired a mass working class

movement organized around a "People's Charter" - Chartism. Movement began when in 1836 William Lovett (1800-1877)

formed London Working Men's Association.

The Charter had Six Points - all connected to how Parliament was run Universal male suffrage Annual elections Secret ballots Equal electoral districts Abolition of property qualifications for MPs Payments of members of parliament.

The movement was radical and quite sophisticated. Not entirely united as a movement - some would not accept

violence. Once conditions improved in late 1840s it lost some of its force. But

at one stage it had the support of 1/2 the people.

Early 19th c. Social life

Class, Family, and Gender

Changes in Social Structure Growth of bourgeoisie

(bankers, factory and mine owners, merchants, shopkeepers, managers, lawyers, doctors)

Values of work, thrift, ambition, caution critics said materialism, selfishness, callousness

Working class made up of rural laborers farmers, cottage workers), miners,

city workers artisans, factory workers, servants

Artisans construction, printing, tailoring, dress making, food

preparation, craftspeople were being squeezed by cheap, factory produced goods

Servants outnumbered factory workers and the chief profession of working class (esp. women)

Improved Social Conditions Average life expectancy increased Diets became more varied: fruit, dairy products

1800 75% of pop growing food - potato; bread 1900 50% of pop growing food - fruit, vegs; meat 1840s famine reduced the population of Ireland by 20%

After 1850 no more famine 1800 fewer peasants more farmers

1900 31 million lived in cities urban = sophisticated

rural = rustic Only after 1840 did real wages increase In 1850 workers earned and consumed 50% more than in 1770

More goods did not necessarily mean more happiness More money was because of longer hours

Working class solidarity developed in industries

The British government attacked guilds 1799 Combination Acts - outlawed trade unions. Unions fought back and attempted to create one national union 1834 Robert Owen organized the Grand National Consolidated Trades Union - but

it collapsed The Chartist movement developed which wanted the right to vote for all men

Family Structure Family transformed from being basic unit

of production and consumption to being just basic unit of consumption

Early 19th c. families employed as a unit Mid/late 19th c. – factory work for unskilled,

unmarried women and children, supervised by some skilled men

Separation of families

Child Labor High skilled workers could afford to send

children to school Low skilled workers had their children work

with them English Factory Act of 1883

No children under 9 Limited hours for children 9-13 Required factories to pay for education Work day for adults and teens- 12 hours

Younger children –4 – 6 hours

Depiction of Society in Novels

18th c. fiction – focus on individual personalities 19th c. fiction – portrayal of social life in all varieties (manufacturers,

financiers, starving students, workers, bureaucrats, prostitutes, underworld figures, thieves, aristocratic men and women)

Honore de Balzac 95 novels many characters driven to climb social ladder

Charles Dickens Also climbing social ladder (father in debtors’ prison) Daily life of London Affects of industrialization and urbanization Problems of poor

Charlotte Bronte Jane Eyre Life of orphaned girl, becomes a governess, refuses to get ahead through

marriage George Sand (Amandine-Aurore Dupin)

Female French novelist Dressed like a man, smoked cigars

Women in Early Industrial Revolution Gender division of labor Low paid factory work for single women Wages for men allowed some to support

family without wife working Supplements from working children Factory work still in the minority Most women were domestic servants or in

cottage industries Woman’s work more narrowly defined

Domestication and Subordination of Women Domestication

Women should live their lives within the domestic sphere

No education, no professional career, no political life

Women were legal incompetents (children, insane, criminals)

Privileged Classes Boys attended secondary schools/ girls home or church school Men wore practical clothing:

long trousers, short jackets, dark colors, no makeup (previously common – aristocracy), simple cut hair

Women dressed for decorative effect: Tightly corseted waists, long hair, requiring hours of brushing and pinning up, long, cumbersome skirts

Science reinforced stereotype Women were once seen as sexually insatiable (Middle Ages),

now described as incapacitated by menstruation and largely uninterested in sex (morally superior) – “Victorian woman”

Physicians and scholars considered women mentally inferior

Study Group/Individual Notes Create Notes on the following subjects

Problems of Crime and Order New Police Forces Prison Reform

Share your notes with your study group

The Origins of Socialism

What is Socialism? What is Marxism ?

What is Communism?

Industrial Revolution

Necessary prelude to working class politics, Created the working class, Suggested new political opportunities.

The oppression of the working class Industrialization and population growth created poverty on a new and much more

visible scale.  Industry also created wealth on a scale hitherto unknown. Created a new possibility -- that poverty might actually be abolished if only we

organize society better.

Socialism is a response to working class oppression, based on the  belief there is enough wealth to eradicate poverty.

A new possibility. Before the Industrial Revolution, there was not enough wealth to eradicate poverty

even if it had been distributed equally.The creation of class consciousness Working people come to be conscious of themselves as a class. Middle class people shared the intense class consciousness of the 19th century

Newspapers of the time are quite explicit in their discussion of class. The existence of class consciousness created the possibility of working class

political action, from the 1830's on.

Classical Economics Laissez-faire economists dominated commercial policy, assumed

state would maintain enough armed forces/naval power to protect nation’s economic structure/foreign trade – appealed to the middle class

Malthus on Population Thomas Malthus/David Ricardo suggested condition of working

class couldn’t be improved; Malthus published Essay on Principle of Population: contended population must outstrip food supply – if wages were raised, workers made more kids who consumed wages/food

Ricardo on Wages Principles of Political Economy, Ricardo transformed concepts of

Malthus into “iron law of wages” if wages raised, more kids produced, kids lower wages, less kids

produced, repeat…; supported employers in not raising wages – ideas of economists spread to public during 1830s through journals/newspapers/short stories like Harriet Martineau’s series called Illustrations of Political Economy

Govt Policies and Classical Economics

France – July Monarchy built large building projects,

Did not address the issue of poverty Germany

The Zollverein – free trading union to eliminate tariffs Britain

Jeremy Bentham Used Utilitarianism as guide for govt. policies 1834 Poor Law

Dispersed relief at workhouses Poverty became an official social stigma

Repealed the Corn Laws Abolish tariff on grain that would lead to lower food prices

Irish potato famine real reason Started period of free trade in Britain

Early Socialists- French Utopian SocialistsCount Claude Henry de Saint-Simon (1760-1825) Planned economy -

Believed modern society requires modern management. Government by a board of directors.

Did not agree with wealth redistribution, but of making all not-poor by good management.

Followers known as Saint-Simonians

Charles Fourier (1772-1837) - Socialist Communities Dealt with problem of tedium in work - each worker have several

jobs and wander around from one to another so as to avoid tedium.

Proposed that special industrial communities be set up. There were called Phalansteres or Phalanxes. They  were communities on about 200 acres of land with 1500 people. One set up in the US - Brook Farm, Mass, 1842-1847.  T Only place this sort of socialism has ever worked is Israel - the

kibbutz is an example of a Phalansteres.

Louis Blanc (1811-1882) - (Not really a Utopian.) Leader of industrial workers in the Paris region. Part of the French Cabinet (main government committee) in

France in just after the Revolution of 1848. The state should promote socialist programs and guarantee

employment through "National workshops."  Set up for a while, until liberals displaced Blanc from the government.

Pierre Joseph Proudhon (more an Anarchist) Claimed that the worker was source of all wealth, and so

would be able to use it. He ended up working for Louis III Napoleon.

Why Utopian?

Utopian Socialists do not talk about class struggle. See something is wrong, and feel paternal action is the

appropriate response. Lacked any meaningful political following.

Propose certain ideas that remained common to socialism An interest in eradicating poverty. A belief in industrialization, and its proper use to eradicate

poverty. A profound disbelief in the liberal idea that person is

basically an atom in society. Socialists always look at a person's place in a community.

Many of their ideas continue in European socialism,

Early English Socialism

Robert Owen (1771-1858) Important and successful factory owner. Committed to improving life for workers. In his industrial center at  New

Lanark - Built houses and schools for children. Did not pay workers off during a depression. Made a Profit. He later organized an unsuccessful copy in the US at New Harmony.

Owen's Aims: Thought people could be made better by better conditions (goes back to

Locke). Shows no need for bad conditions or low wages. Basically paternalistic. Ended his long life as a spiritualist

The Grand National Consolidated Trade Union The GNCTU was a mass union founded by Owen in 1830s. Tried to unite all workers into once huge union. Suffered a collapse in the 1830s. The idea that workers should be organized in unions was central to later

British socialism.

Marxism Marxist socialist ideas eventually triumphed

over much of Europe through competition w/other socialist formulas and political situation in Germany

At mid-century, Marxism only contribution to social ideas; differed in claims to scientific accuracy/rejection of reform/call for revolution

Karl Marx(1818-1883)edited radical Rhineland Gazette,German authorities drove him outlived as exile in Paris/Brussels/London Partnership with Engels: Marx met Friedrich Engels, became fast friends,

asked to write pamphlet for short-lived Communist League: The Communist Manifesto: most influential document of European history(1848) – chose communism over socialism b/c it implied abolition of private property

Sources of Marx’s Ideas: major ideas derived from German Hegelianism:

thesis/ antithesis into new intellectual synthesis; applied it to social groups

French socialists: showed problems of capitalist society, maybe redistribution

British classic economics: analytical tools for empirical observation of industrial capitalist society

In Marx’s writings, equated fate of proletariat(industrial labor force) w/humanity

Revolution through Class Conflict: Marx/Engel contended that man must

understand history; Classes that owned production conflicted

w/classes that worked for them: necessary engine for historical development

Revolution inevitable: victory of proletariat over bourgeoisie would be culmination of human history: no oppression

Core attraction of Marxism was utopian society

The Appeal of Marxism It is important to note that Marxism was

very appealing to many in Europe. Authority as a Science: 

Marxism claimed to be "scientific." Marx said he had proved his doctrines. There

was the belief what he said would inevitably come about.

1848: Year of Revolutions

Series of liberal/nationalistic revolutions erupted across Continent, Similar conditions:

severe food shortages/widespread unemployment/bad living condition/extreme nationalism, especially in Austria

Dynamic force for change originated w/political liberals; Pushed for more civil liberty/representation/unregulated

economy; motivated by British success; liberals tried to motivate urban working classes, then they

began to fight each other Results stunning:

French monarchy fell, others shaken; Revolutions were false spring, didn’t establish liberal/national

states; liberals isolated themselves from working class, fell easy prey to reactionary armies

France: The Second Republic and Louis Napoleon

• Liberal opposition to corrupt Louis Philippe/minister Guizot hosted criticizing banquets;

• Poor harvests brought working class on liberals side;• Govt. banned banquets Feb21,1848/Parisian workers paraded/clashed on

Feb22, Guizot resigned/Louis Philippe abdicated/fled on Feb24• The National Assembly and Paris Workers:

• Liberal opposition led by Alphonse de Lamartine made provisional govt., wanted to call for assembly to write republican constitution

• Working classes wanted social rev. as well; led by Louis Blanc, they demanded representation in cabinet: Blanc+2 other radicals made ministers and govt. organized national workshops for work/relief for unemployed

• Apr23, election(male suffrage) chose National Assembly• Controlled by moderates and conservatives • small landowning peasants feared socialists

• May, govt. troops/Parisian crowd clashed; • National Assembly phased out workshops • June, barricades went up in Paris/General Cavaignac moved to destroy

opposition; killed 3.4K: • Drive for social revolution had ended

Emergence of Louis Napoleon uprising confirmed political power of conservative property

holders, Wanted safety for property; 1848 presidential election Louis

Napoleon Bonaparte(nephew): doomed the republic – Louis dedicated to own fame,

modern dictator who quarreled w/Assembly: 1851, Assembly refused to let president run for reelection…

Dec2, Napoleon seized power; troops dispersed Assembly, he called for new elections: 200 people died, 26K arrested, 10K transported to Algeria

Napoleon elected through plebiscite, Dec 1852 Plebiscite approved creation of empire(2nd time in 50 yrs,

France turned from republic to Ceasarism)

Frenchwomen in 1848 Major feminist activity 1848-52, some even tried

to vote, Vesuvians: most radical group, demonstrations lost support from modest feminists

Organized Voix des femmes(Women’s voice) newspaper and later society; members relatively

conservative, argued for more liberty – provisional govt. ignored them

Eventually, French feminists defeated/frustrated, crackdown on clubs/close of workshops repressed women – women associated w/newspaper tried to organize workers groups; 2 leaders, Jeanne Deroin/Pauline Roland arrested/tried/ imprisoned – by 1852, entire feminist movement eradicated