The History Of Slavery

Indentured Servants

Wikipedia

History of slavery 1

History of slaveryThe history of slavery covers slave systems in historical perspective in which one human being is legally theproperty of another, can be bought or sold, is not allowed to escape and must work for the owner without any choiceinvolved. As Drescher (2009) argues, "The most crucial and frequently utilized aspect of the condition is acommunally recognized right by some individuals to possess, buy, sell, discipline, transport, liberate, or otherwisedispose of the bodies and behavior of other individuals."[1] An integral element is that children of a slave motherautomatically become slaves.[2] It does not include historical forced labor by prisoners, labor camps, or other formsof unfree labor in which laborers are not considered property.Slavery can be traced back to the earliest records, such as the Code of Hammurabi (c. 1760 BC), which refers to it asan established institution.[3] Slavery is rare among hunter-gatherer populations as slavery depends on a system ofsocial stratification. Slavery typically also requires a shortage of labor and a surplus of land to be viable.[4] David P.Forsythe wrote: "The fact remained that at the beginning of the nineteenth century an estimated three-quarters of allpeople alive were trapped in bondage against their will either in some form of slavery or serfdom."[5]

Slavery is no longer legal anywhere in the world.[6] Mauritania abolished it in law in 1981[7] and was the last countryto do so – see Abolition of slavery timeline. However, the number of slaves today is higher than at any point inhistory,[8] remaining as high as 12 million[9] to 27 million.[10][11]

Origins

C. 1480 BC, fugitive slave treaty between Idrimi ofAlakakh (now Tell Atchana) and Pillia of Kizzuwatna

(now Cilicia).

Evidence of slavery predates written records, and has existed inmany cultures.[12] Slavery is rare among hunter–gathererpopulations, as slavery is a system of social stratification. Massslavery also requires economic surpluses and a high populationdensity to be viable. Due to these factors, the practice of slaverywould have only proliferated after the invention of agricultureduring the Neolithic Revolution about 11,000 years ago.[4]

Slavery was known in civilizations as old as Sumer, as well asalmost every other ancient civilization, including Ancient Egypt,Ancient China, the Akkadian Empire, Assyria, Ancient India,Ancient Greece, the Roman Empire, the Islamic Caliphate, and thepre-Columbian civilizations of the Americas.[12] Such institutionswere a mixture of debt-slavery, punishment for crime, theenslavement of prisoners of war, child abandonment, and the birthof slave children to slaves.[13]

History of slavery 2

Middle East and North Africa

13th-century slave market in Yemen

Capt. William Bainbridge paying tribute to theDey of Algiers. Gradually in the 18th century

slave raids became less frequent, but the Barbarypirates continued to enslave captured crews.

Payments in ransom and tribute to the Barbarystates amounted to 20% of United Statesgovernment annual revenues in 1800.[14]

Ancient times

The earliest records of slavery can be traced to the oldestknown records, which treat it as an established institution, notone newly instituted. The Sumerian Code of Ur-Nammu (c.2100 BC – 2050 BC), the oldest known tablet containing alaw code surviving to today, contains laws regarding to slaves.The Code of Hammurabi (c. 1760 BC), for example, statedthat death was prescribed for anyone who helped a slave toescape, as well as for anyone who sheltered a fugitive.[15] TheBible refers to slavery as an established institution.[12] Hittitetexts from Anatolia include laws regulating the institution ofslavery.

In Egypt, private ownership of slaves, captured in war andgiven by the king to their captor, certainly occurred at thebeginning of the Eighteenth Dynasty (1550 – 1295 BC). Salesof slaves occurred in the Twenty-fifth Dynasty (732 – 656BC), and contracts of servitude survive from the Twenty-sixthDynasty (c. 672 – 525 BC) and from the reign of Darius:apparently such a contract then required the consent of theslave.

Medieval period

Slavery was common in Medieval Europe in both Christianand Muslim lands.[16]

The Arab slave trade lasted more than a millennium.[17][18]

Slaves in the Arab World came from many different regions,including Sub-Saharan Africa (mainly Zanj), the Caucasus(mainly Circassians),[19] Central Asia (mainly Tartars), andCentral and Eastern Europe (mainly Saqaliba).[20]

The medieval scholar and traveler Ibn Battuta states severaltimes that he was given or purchased slaves.[21] The Arabslave trade is thought to have originated with trans-Saharanslavery.[22][23] Arab, Indian, Somali and Asian traders wereinvolved in the capture and transport of slaves northwardacross the Sahara desert and the Indian Ocean region intoArabia and the Middle East, Persia, Somalia, Central Asia andthe Indian subcontinent.[24][25] The slave trade from EastAfrica to Arabia was dominated by Arab and Somali traders inthe coastal cities of Zanzibar, Dar Es Salaam and Mombasa.[25][26] Tens of thousands of black Zanj slaves wereimported to lower Iraq, where they may have, according to Richard Hellie, constituted at least a half of the totalpopulation there in the 9th and 10th centuries. At the same time, many tens of thousands of slaves in the region werealso imported from Central Asia and the Caucasus.[27]

History of slavery 3

Newly Arrived at the harem (Giulio Rosati)

Male slaves were employed as servants, soldiers, or laborers, whilefemale slaves were traded to Middle Eastern countries and kingdomsby Arab, Indian, Somali or Asian traders, some as domestic servantsand others in harems.[28][29][30] Some historians estimate that between11 and 17 million slaves crossed the Red Sea, Indian Ocean, andSahara Desert from 650 to 1900 AD.[31][32] The Moors, starting in the8th century, raided coastal areas around the Mediterranean and AtlanticOcean, and became known as the Barbary pirates. It is estimated thatthey captured 1.25 million slaves from Western Europe and NorthAmerica between the 16th and 19th centuries.[33][34]

In 1400 Tamerlane invaded the Kingdom of Georgia and its fiefArmenia. More than 60,000 people from the Caucasus were capturedas slaves, and many districts of Armenia were depopulated.[35] From1569 the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth suffered a series of Tatar invasions, the goal of which was to loot,pillage and capture slaves into jasyr. The borderland area to the south-east was in a state of semi-permanent warfareuntil the 18th century. Some researchers estimate that altogether more than 3 million people, predominantlyUkrainians but also Circassians, Russians, Belarusians, Poles and Jews were captured and enslaved during the timeof the Crimean Khanate.[20][36] Russian conquest of the Crimea led to the abolition of slavery by the 1780s.[37]

Slavery was an important part of Ottoman society.[38] In Constantinople (today Istanbul), about 1/5 of the populationconsisted of slaves.[39] As late as 1908 women slaves were still sold in the Ottoman Empire.[40] In the middle of the14th century, Murad I built his own personal slave army called the Kapıkulu. The new force was based on thesultan's right to a fifth of the war booty, which he interpreted to include captives taken in battle. The captive slaveswere converted to Islam and trained in the sultan's personal service. In the devşirme (Turkish for 'gathering'), youngChristian boys from the Balkans were taken away from their homes and families, converted to Islam and enlistedinto special soldier classes of the Ottoman army or the civil service. These soldier classes were named Janissaries,the most famous branch of the Kapıkulu. The Janissaries eventually became a decisive factor in the Ottomaninvasions of Europe.[41] Most of the military commanders of the Ottoman forces, imperial administrators and defacto rulers of the Ottoman Empire, such as Pargalı İbrahim Pasha and Sokollu Mehmet Paşa, were recruited in thisway.[42][43] By 1609 the Sultan's Kapıkulu forces increased to about 100,000.[44] By this time however, theexpeditions for young Christian boys were rare. The increased numbers of janissaries came from Muslim peasantswho were now allowed into service as a result of increased military demands of 17th-century warfare.The Mamluks were slave soldiers who converted to Islam and served the Muslim caliphs and the Ayyubid sultansduring the Middle Ages. The first mamluks served the Abbasid caliphs in 9th-century Baghdad. Over time theybecame a powerful military caste, and on more than one occasion they seized power for themselves, for example,ruling Egypt in the years 1250–1517. From 1250 Egypt had been ruled by the Bahri dynasty of Kipchak Turk origin.White slaves from the Caucasus served in the army and formed an elite corps of troops eventually revolting in Egyptto form the Burgi dynasty. Mamluks were mainly responsible for the expulsion of the Crusaders from Palestine andpreventing the Mongol Ilkhanate of Persia and Iraq from entering Egypt.[45]

The Moroccan Sultan Moulay Ismail "the Bloodthirsty" (1672–1727) raised a corps of 150,000 black slaves, calledhis Black Guard, who coerced the country into submission.[46]

Nautical traders from the United States became targets, and frequent victims, of the Barbary pirates, as soon as thatnation began trading with Europe and refused to pay the required tribute to the North African states.[47][48]

History of slavery 4

Barbary pirates

British captain witnessing the miseries of the Christian slaves inAlgiers, 1815

According to Robert Davis between 1 million and 1.25million Europeans were captured by Barbary piratesand sold as slaves in North Africa and Ottoman Empirebetween the 16th and 19th centuries.[49] The coastalvillages and towns of Italy, Portugal, Spain andMediterranean islands were frequently attacked bythem and long stretches of the Italian, Portuguese andSpanish coasts were almost completely abandoned bytheir inhabitants; after 1600 Barbary piratesoccasionally entered the Atlantic and struck as far northas Iceland.[50]

In 1544, Hayreddin Barbarossa captured Ischia, taking4,000 prisoners in the process, and deported to slaverysome 9,000 inhabitants of Lipari, almost the entirepopulation.[51] In 1551, Turgut Reis (known as Dragut in the West) enslaved the entire population of the Malteseisland Gozo, between 5,000 and 6,000, sending them to Libya. When pirates sacked Vieste in southern Italy in 1554they took 7,000 slaves. In 1555, Turgut Reis sailed to Corsica and ransacked Bastia, taking 6,000 prisoners. In 1558Barbary corsairs captured the town of Ciutadella (Minorca), destroyed it, slaughtered the inhabitants and carried off3,000 survivors to Istanbul as slaves.[52] In 1563 Turgut Reis landed at the shores of the province of Granada, Spain,and captured the coastal settlements in the area like Almuñécar, along with 4,000 prisoners. Barbary piratesfrequently attacked the Balearic islands, resulting in many coastal watchtowers and fortified churches being erected.The threat was so severe that the island of Formentera became uninhabited.[53][54][55]

In Portugal for instance, the coastal city of Nazaré was raided several times during until the 16th century when thelocal fortress was built (according to Pedro Penteado and his book based in the historical ecclesiastic diaries ofNazaré). The city of Lisbon built the Torre de Belém to defend the capital against these pirates.Between 1609 and 1616 England alone had a staggering 466 merchant ships lost to Barbary pirates. 160 Englishships were captured by Algerians between 1677 and 1680.[56] Slave-taking persisted into the 19th century whenBarbary pirates would capture ships and enslave the crew.[57] Even the United States was not immune. In 1783 theUnited States made peace with, and gained recognition from, the British monarchy, and in 1784 the first Americanship was seized by pirates from Morocco. Payments in ransom and tribute to the Barbary states amounted to 20% ofUnited States government annual revenues in 1800.[14] It was not until 1815 that naval victories in the Barbary Warsended tribute payments by the U.S., although some European nations continued annual payments until the 1830s.[47]

Among the most important slave markets where Pirates operated in Mediterranean Europe were the ports of Majorca,Toulon, Marseille, Genoa, Pisa, Livorno and Malta. In Africa, the most important were the ports of Morocco,Tripoli, Algiers and Tunis.[58]

History of slavery 5

Asia

Selling a child-slave in Central Asia. By VasilyVereshchagin

Indian subcontinent

Slavery in India is evidenced since ancient times.[59] Manu theLawgiver, in his Manu Smriti lists seven different kinds ofslaves.[59] The nature of slavery in India was extremely complexand cut across boundaries of caste, gender, kin, religion, androle.[59]

The early Arab invaders of Sind in the 8th century, the armies ofthe Umayyad commander Muhammad bin Qasim, are reported tohave enslaved tens of thousands of Indian prisoners, includingboth soldiers and civilians.[60][61] In the early 11th century Tarikhal-Yamini, the Arab historian Al-Utbi recorded that in 1001 thearmies of Mahmud of Ghazna conquered Peshawar and Waihand(capital of Gandhara) after Battle of Peshawar (1001), "in themidst of the land of Hindustan", and captured some 100,000youths.[62][63] Later, following his twelfth expedition into India in1018–19, Mahmud is reported to have returned with such a largenumber of slaves that their value was reduced to only two to tendirhams each. This unusually low price made, according toAl-Utbi, "merchants [come] from distant cities to purchase them, so that the countries of Central Asia, Iraq andKhurasan were swelled with them, and the fair and the dark, the rich and the poor, mingled in one common slavery".Elliot and Dowson refers to "five hundred thousand slaves, beautiful men and women.".[64][65][66] Later, during theDelhi Sultanate period (1206–1555), references to the abundant availability of low-priced Indian slaves abound. Leviattributes this primarily to the vast human resources of India, compared to its neighbours to the north and west(Mughal Indian population being approximately 12 to 20 times that of Turan and Iran at the end of the 16th century).[67]

Arab slave traders also brought slaves as early as the 1st century AD from Africa. Most of the African slaves werebrought, however, in the 17th century and were taken into Western India. The Siddi people are of mainly EastAfrican descent.Much of the northern and central parts of the subcontinent was ruled by the so-called Slave Dynasty of Turkic originfrom 1206 to 1290: Qutb-ud-din Aybak, a slave of Muhammad Ghori rose to power following his master's death. Foralmost a century, his descendants ruled presiding over the introduction of Tankas and building of Qutub Minar.According to Sir Henry Bartle Frere (who sat on the Viceroy's Council), there were an estimated 8,000,000 or9,000,000 slaves in India in 1841. In Malabar, about 15% of the population were slaves. Slavery was officiallyabolished in India by the Indian Slavery Act V. of 1843. Provisions of the Indian Penal Code of 1861 effectivelyabolished slavery in India by making the enslavement of human beings a criminal offense.[68][69][70][71]

Modern times

There are several million bonded laborers in India,[72] who work as slaves to pay off debts; a majority of them are Dalits.[73] There are also an estimated five million bonded workers in Pakistan, even though the government has passed laws and set up funds to eradicate the practice and rehabilitate the labourers.[74] As many as 200,000 Nepali girls, many under 14, have been sold into sex slavery in India. Nepalese women and girls, especially virgins, are favored in India because of their fair skin and young looks.[75][76] In 1997, a human rights agency reported that 40,000 Nepalese workers are subject to slavery and 200,000 kept in bonded labour.[77] Nepal's Maoist-led

History of slavery 6

government has abolished the slavery-like Haliya system in 2008.[78]

Afghanistan"The country generally between Caubul (Kabul) and the Oxus appears to be in a very lawless state; slavery isas rife as ever, and extends through Hazara, Badakshan, Wakhan, Sirikul, Kunjūt (Hunza), &c. A slave, if astrong man likely to stand work well, is, in Upper Badakshan, considered to be of the same value as one of thelarge dogs of the country, or of a horse, being about the equivalent of Rs 80. A slave girl is valued at from fourhorses or more, according to her looks &c.; men are, however, almost always exchanged for dogs. When I wasin Little Tibet (Ladakh), a returned slave who had been in the Kashmir army took refuge in my camp; he saidhe was well enough treated as to food &c., but he could never get over having been exchanged for a dog, andconstantly harped on the subject, the man who sold him evidently thinking the dog the better animal of thetwo. In Lower Badakshan, and more distant places, the price of slaves is much enhanced, and payment is madein coin."[79]

In response to the Hazara uprising of 1892, the Afghan Emir Abdur Rahman Khan declared a "Jihad" against theShiites. His large army defeated the rebellion at its center, in Oruzgan, by 1892 and the local population was beingmassacred. According to S. A. Mousavi, "thousands of Hazara men, women, and children were sold as slaves in themarkets of Kabul and Qandahar, while numerous towers of human heads were made from the defeated rebels as awarning to others who might challenge the rule of the Amir". Until the 20th century, some Hazaras were still kept asslaves by the Pashtuns; although Amanullah Khan banned slavery in Afghanistan during his reign,[80] the practicecarried on unofficially for many more years.[81]

ChinaSlavery throughout pre-modern Chinese history has repeatedly come in and out of favor. Due to the enormouspopulation and relatively high development of the region throughout most of its history, China has always had alarge workforce.Historically, Chinese families customarily had an average of four children or more. This custom was well suited tothe agrarian societies of the period. In times of hardship such as widespread famine or severe financial difficulty,parents of poor families sold some of their children to wealthy homes, to be treated as future brides, servants orslaves. This depended on the compassion and good grace of the master. However, more often it was teenagers oryoung adults who turned themselves in to become servants. They were not technically slaves since they receivedperiodic payments, which they usually sent home to their families.

History of slavery 7

Tang Dynasty

A contract from the Tang dynasty that records thepurchase of a 15 year-old slave for six bolts of

plain silk and five Chinese coins.

During the Tang dynasty, Chinese captured Korean civilians fromKoguryo, Paekche, and Silla to sell as slaves.[82][83]

Qing Dynasty

In the 17th century Qing Dynasty, there was a hereditarily servilepeople called Booi Aha (Manchu:booi niyalma; Chinese transliteration:包 衣 阿 哈), which is a Manchu word literally translated as"household person" and sometimes rendered as "nucai" or "slaves".

In his book China Marches West, Peter C. Perdue stated:"In1624(After Nurhachi's invasion of Liaodong) "Chinesehouseholds....while those with less were made into slaves." TheManchu was establishing close personal and paternalist relationshipbetween masters and their slaves, as Nurhachi said:" The Mastershould love the slaves and eat the same food as him".[84] Perdue furtherpointed out that booi aha "did not correspond exactly to the Chinesecategory of "bondservant-slave" (Chinese:奴 僕); instead, it was arelationship of personal dependency on a master which in theoryguaranteed close personal relationships and equal treatment, eventhough many western scholars would directly translate "booi" as"bondservant".[85]

Various classes of Booi

1. booi niru a Manchu word (Chinese:包 衣 佐 領), meaning Neiwufu Upper Three Banner's platoon leader ofabout 300 men .

2. Booi guanlin a Manchu word (Chinese:包 衣 管 領), meaning the manager of booi doing all the domestic dutiesof Neiwufu.

3. Booi amban is also a Manchu word, meaning high official, (Chinese:包 衣 大 臣).4. Estate bannerman (Chinese:庄 头 旗 人) are those renegade Chinese who joined the Jurchen, or original

civilians-soldiers working in the fields. These people were all turned into booi aha, or field slaves.Chinese muslim (Tungans) Sufis who were charged with practicing xiejiao (heterodox religion), were punished byexile to Xinjiang and being sold as a slave to other muslims, such as the Sufi begs.[86]

Han chinese who committed crimes such as those dealing with opium became slaves to the begs, this practice wasadministered by Qing law.[87] Most Chinese in Altishahr were exile slaves to Turkestani Begs.[88] Ironically, whilefree Chinese merchants generally did not engage in relationships with East Turkestani women, some of the Chineseslaves belonging to begs, along with Green Standard soldiers, Bannermen, and Manchus, engaged in affairs with theEast Turkestani women that were serious in nature.[89]

The Qing dynasty procured 420 women and girl slaves, all of them Mongol, to service Oirat Mongol bannermenstationed in Xinjiang in 1764.[90] Many Torghut Mongol boys and girls were sold to Central Asian markets or on thelocal Xinjiang market to native Turkestanis.[91]

Here are two accounts of slavery given by two Westerners in the late 19th century and early 20th century:"In the houses of wealthy citizens, it is not unusual to find twenty to thirty slaves attending upon a family. Even citizens in the humbler walks of life deem it necessary to have each a slave or two. The price of a slave varies, of course, according to age, health, strength, and general appearance. The average price is from fifty to one hundred dollars, but in time of war, or revolution, poor parents, on the verge of starvation, offer their sons and daughters for sale at remarkably low prices. I remember instances of parents, rendered destitute by the

History of slavery 8

marauding bands who invested the two southern Kwangs in 1854–55, offering to sell their daughters in Cantonfor five dollars apiece. . . .The slavery to which these unfortunate persons are subject, is perpetual and hereditary, and they have noparental authority over their offspring. The great-grandsons of slaves, however, can, if they have sufficientmeans, purchase their freedom. . . .Masters seem to have the same uncontrolled power over their slaves that parents have over their children. Thusa master is not called to account for the death of a slave, although it is the result of punishment inflicted byhim."[92]

"In former times slaves were slain and offered in sacrifice to the spirit of the owner when dead, or by him tohis ancestors: sometimes given as a substitute to suffer the death penalty incurred by his owner or in fulfilmentof a vow. It used to be customary in Kuei-chou (and Szü-chuan too, I believe) to inter living slaves with theirdead owners; the slaves were to keep a lamp burning in the tomb...."Slavery exists in China, especially in Canton and Peking.... It is a common thing for well-to-do people topresent a couple of slave girls to a daughter as part of her marriage dowery [sic]. Nearly all prostitutes areslaves. It is, however, customary with respectable people to release their slave girls when marriageable. Somepeople sell their slave girls to men wanting a wife for themselves or for a son of theirs."I have bought three different girls: two in Szü-chuan for a few taels each, less than fifteen dollars. One Ireleased in Tientsin, another died in Hongkong; the other I gave in marriage to a faithful servant of mine.Some are worth much money at Shanghai."[93]

Modern times

All forms of slavery have been illegal in China since 1910,[94] although the practice still exists through illegaltrafficking in some areas.[95]

JapanSlavery in Japan was, for most of its history, indigenous, since the export and import of slaves was restricted byJapan being a group of islands. However, Koreans were shipped to Japan as slaves during the Japanese invasions ofKorea in the 16th century.[96][97] The export of a slave from Japan is recorded in a 3rd-century Chinese document,although the system involved is unclear. These people were called seiko (生 口), lit. "living mouth". "Seiko" fromhistorical theories are thought to be as prisoner, slave, a person who has technical skill and also students studyingabroad to China.[98]

In the 8th century, a slave was called nuhi (奴 婢) and a series of laws on slavery was issued. In an area ofpresent-day Ibaraki Prefecture, out of a population of 190,000, around 2,000 were slaves; the proportion is believedto have been even higher in western Japan.Slavery persisted into the Sengoku period (1467–1615), but the attitude that slavery was anachronistic had becomewidespread.[99] Oda Nobunaga is said to have had an African slave or former-slave in his retinue.[100]

In late-16th-century Japan, slavery was officially banned; but forms of contract and indentured labor persistedalongside the period penal codes' forced labor. Somewhat later, the Edo period penal laws prescribed "non-freelabor" for the immediate family of executed criminals in Article 17 of the Gotōke reijō (Tokugawa House Laws), butthe practice never became common. The 1711 Gotōke reijō was compiled from over 600 statutes promulgatedbetween 1597 and 1696.[101]

History of slavery 9

World War II

As the Empire of Japan annexed Asian countries, from the late 19th century onwards, archaic institutions includingslavery were abolished in those countries. However, during the Second Sino-Japanese War and the Pacific War, theJapanese military used millions of civilians and prisoners of war as forced labor, on projects such as the BurmaRailway.According to a joint study by historians including Zhifen Ju, Mitsuyoshi Himeta, Toru Kubo and Mark Peattie, morethan 10 million Chinese civilians were mobilized by the Kōa-in (Japanese Asia Development Board) for forcedlabour.[102] According to the Japanese military's own record, nearly 25% of 140,000 Allied POWs died whileinterned in Japanese prison camps where they were forced to work (U.S. POWs died at a rate of 37%).[103][104] Morethan 100,000 civilians and POWs died in the construction of the Burma-Siam Railway.[105] The U.S. Library ofCongress estimates that in Java, between 4 and 10 million romusha (Japanese: "manual laborer"), were forced towork by the Japanese military.[106] About 270,000 of these Javanese laborers were sent to other Japanese-held areasin South East Asia. Only 52,000 were repatriated to Java, meaning that there was a death rate of 80%. (For furtherdetails, see Japanese war crimes.)[107]

Approximately 5,400,000 Koreans were conscripted from 1939 to 1945. About 670,000 of them were taken to Japan,where about 60,000 died between 1939 and 1945 due mostly to exhaustion or poor working conditions. Many ofthose taken to Karafuto Prefecture (modern-day Sakhalin) were trapped there at the end of the war, stripped of theirnationality and denied repatriation by Japan; they became known as the Sakhalin Koreans.[108] The total deaths ofKorean forced laborers in Korea and Manchuria for those years is estimated to be between 270,000 and 810,000.[109]

As many as 200,000 women,[110] mostly from Korea and China, and some other countries such as the Philippines,Taiwan, Burma, the Dutch East Indies, Netherlands,[111] and Australia[112] were forced into sexual slavery duringWorld War II. (See Comfort women)

KoreaIndigenous slaves existed in Korea. Slavery was officially abolished with the Gabo Reform of 1894 but remainedextant in reality until 1930. During the Joseon Dynasty (1392–1910), Korea was a hierarchical society, and slavesaccounted for 30 to 40 percent of society as well as half of the population in the capital. The lowest classes in Koreawere the Cheonmin, which included slaves called Nobi. Low status was hereditary, but members of higher classescould be reduced to Cheonmin as a form of legal punishment.[113] During poor harvests and famine, many peasantswould voluntarily sell themselves into slavery in order to survive.[114][115][116] Cheonmin were looked down upon inKorean society; however, they could have private property, while slaves could not own private property. Unlessfreed by their masters, slaves were never able to move into a higher class.

Southeast AsiaThere was a large slave class in Khmer Empire who built the enduring monuments in Angkor Wat and did most ofthe heavy work.[117] Slaves had been taken captive from the mountain tribes.[118] People unable to pay back a debt tothe upper ruling class could be sentenced to work as a slave too.[119] Between the 17th and the early 20th centuriesone-quarter to one-third of the population of some areas of Thailand and Burma were slaves.[120]

In Siam (Thailand), the war captives became the property of the king. During the reign of Rama III (1824–1851),there were an estimated 46,000 war slaves. Slaves from independent hill populations were "hunted incessantly andcarried off as slaves by the Siamese, the Anamites, and the Cambodians" (Colquhoun 1885:53).[121] Slavery was notabolished in Siam until 1905.[122]

Yi people in Yunnan practiced a complicated form of slavery. People were split into the Black Yi (nobles, 7% of thepopulation), White Yi (commoners), Ajia (33% of the Yi population) and the Xiaxi (10%). Ajia and Xiaxi were slavecastes. The White Yi were not slaves but had no freedom of movement. The Black Yi were famous for theirslave-raids on Han Chinese communities. After 1959 some 700,000 slaves were freed.[123][124][125]

History of slavery 10

Slaves in Toraja society in Indonesia were family property. Sometimes Torajans decided to become slaves when theyincurred a debt, pledging to work as payment. Slaves could be taken during wars, and slave trading was common.Torajan slaves were sold and shipped out to Java and Siam. Slaves could buy their freedom, but their children stillinherited slave status. Slaves were prohibited from wearing bronze or gold, carving their houses, eating from thesame dishes as their owners, or having sex with free women—a crime punishable by death. Slavery was abolished in1863 in all Dutch colonies.[126][127]

Slavery in pre-Spanish Philippines was practiced by the tribal Austronesian peoples who inhabited the culturallydiverse islands.

Modern times

There are currently an estimated 300,000 women and children involved in the sex trade throughout SoutheastAsia.[128] It is common that Thai women are lured to Japan and sold to Yakuza-controlled brothels where they areforced to work off their price.[129][130]

According to the International Labor Organization (ILO), an estimated 800,000 people are subject to forced labor inMyanmar.[131] In November 2006, the International Labor Organization announced it will be seeking "to prosecutemembers of the ruling Myanmar junta for crimes against humanity" over the continuous forced labor of its citizensby the military at the International Court of Justice.[132]

According to Kevin Bales, a professor of human rights and consultant to the United Nations, there are about 27million slaves in the world, as of the year 2010. Professor Bales is co-founder of Free the Slaves, anon-governmental organization.[133]

Crimean KhanateIn the time of the Crimean Khanate, Crimeans engaged in frequent raids into the Danubian principalities,Poland-Lithuania, and Muscovy. For each captive, the khan received a fixed share (savğa) of 10% or 20%. Thecampaigns by Crimean forces categorize into "sefers", officially declared military operations led by the khansthemselves, and çapuls, raids undertaken by groups of noblemen, sometimes illegally because they contravenedtreaties concluded by the khans with neighbouring rulers). For a long time, until the early 18th century, the khanatemaintained a massive Slave Trade with the Ottoman Empire and the Middle East. Caffa was one of the best knownand significant trading ports and slave markets.[134] Crimean Tatar raiders enslaved more than 1 million EasternEuropeans.[135]

Central Asia and the CaucasusRussian conquest of the Caucasus led to the abolition of slavery by the 1860s[136][137] and the conquest of theCentral Asian Islamic khanates of Bukhara, Samarkand, and Khiva by the 1870s.[138] The Russian administrationliberated the slaves of the Kazakhs in 1859.[139] A notorious slave market for captured Russian and Persian slaveswas centred in the Khanate of Khiva from the 17th to the 19th century.[140] During the first half of the 19th centuryalone, some one million Persians, as well as an unknown number of Russians, were enslaved and transported toCentral Asian khanates.[141][142] When the Russian troops took Khiva in 1898 there were 29,300 Persian slaves,captured by Turkoman raiders. According of Josef Wolff (Report of 1843–1845) the population of the Khanate ofBukhara was 1,200,000, of whom 200,000 were Persian slaves.[143] At the beginning of the 21st century Chechensand Ingush kept Russian captives as slaves or in slave-like conditions in the mountains of the northern Caucasus.[144]

History of slavery 11

Europe

Slaves working in a mine. Ancient Greece.

Cast of the corpse of a slave (as evidenced by themanacles that remain on his ankles) recovered

from the ruins of Pompeii, 79 AD

Gustave Boulanger's painting The Slave Market

Ancient Greece

Records of slavery in Ancient Greecego as far back as Mycenaean Greece.The origins are not known, but itappears that slavery became animportant part of the economy andsociety only after the establishment ofcities.[145] Slavery was commonpractice and an integral component ofancient Greece throughout its richhistory, as it was in other societies ofthe time including ancient Israel andearly Christian societies.[146][147][148]

It is estimated that in Athens, themajority of citizens owned at least oneslave. Most ancient writers consideredslavery not only natural but necessary,but some isolated debate began toappear, notably in Socratic dialogueswhile the Stoics produced the firstcondemnation of slavery recorded inhistory.[148]

During the 8th and the 7th centuriesBC, in the course of the two MessenianWars the Spartans reduced an entirepopulation to a pseudo-slavery calledhelotry.[149] According to Herodotus(IX, 28–29), helots were seven timesas numerous as Spartans. Followingseveral helot revolts around the year600 BC, the Spartans restructured theircity-state along authoritarian lines, forthe leaders decided that only byturning their society into an armedcamp could they hope to maintaincontrol over the numerically dominanthelot population.[150] In some AncientGreek city states about 30% of thepopulation consisted of slaves, but paid and slave labor seem to have been equally important.[151]

RomeRomans inherited the institution of slavery from the Greeks and the Phoenicians.[152] As the Roman Republic expanded outward, entire populations were enslaved, thus creating an ample supply to work in Rome's farms and

History of slavery 12

households. The people subjected to Roman slavery came from all over Europe and the Mediterranean. Suchoppression by an elite minority eventually led to slave revolts; the Third Servile War led by Spartacus was the mostfamous and severe. Greeks, Berbers, Germans, Britons, Slavs, Thracians, Gauls (or Celts), Jews, Arabs, and manymore were slaves used not only for labor, but also for amusement (e.g. gladiators and sex slaves). If a slave ranaway, he was liable to be crucified. By the late Republican era, slavery had become a vital economic pillar in thewealth of Rome.[153] In the Roman Empire, probably over 25% of the empire's population,[154] and 30 to 40% of thepopulation of Italy[155] was enslaved.

Celtic TribesCeltic tribes of Europe are recorded by various Roman sources as owning slaves. The extent of slavery inprehistorical Europe is not well known however.[156]

The Vikings and ScandinaviaIn the Viking era beginning circa 793, the Norse raiders often captured and enslaved militarily weaker peoples theyencountered. In the Nordic countries the slaves were called thralls (Old Norse: Þræll).[157] The thralls were mostlyfrom Western Europe, among them many Franks, Anglo-Saxons, and Celts. Many Irish slaves participated in thecolonization of Iceland.[158] There is evidence of German, Baltic, Slavic and Latin slaves as well. The slave tradewas one of the pillars of Norse commerce during the 6th through 11th centuries. The Persian traveller Ibn Rustahdescribed how Swedish Vikings, the Varangians or Rus, terrorized and enslaved the Slavs. The thrall system wasfinally abolished in the mid-14th century in Scandinavia.[159]

Middle AgesChaos and invasion made the taking of slaves habitual throughout Europe in the early Middle Ages. St. Patrick,himself captured and sold as a slave, protested against an attack that enslaved newly baptized Christians in his Letterto the Soldiers of Coroticus.

Ottoman advances resulted in many captiveChristians being carried deep into Muslim

territory.

Slavery during the Early Middle Ages had several distinct sources.Jewish participation in the slave trade was recorded starting in the 5thcentury.[160] After the Muslim conquests of North Africa and most ofthe Iberian peninsula, the Islamic world became a huge importer ofSaqaliba (Slavic) slaves from central and eastern Europe.[161] OliviaRemie Constable wrote: "Muslim and Jewish merchants brought slavesinto al-Andalus from eastern Europe and Christian Spain, and thenre-exported them to other regions of the Islamic world."[162] This tradecame to an end after the Christianisation of Slavic countries. Theetymology of the word slave comes from this period, the word sklabosmeaning Slav.[163][164]

The Vikings raided across Europe, though their slave raids were themost destructive in the British Isles and Eastern Europe. While theVikings kept some slaves for themselves as servants, known as thralls,most people captured by the Vikings would be sold on the Byzantineor Islamic markets. In the West the targets of Viking slavery wereprimarily English, Irish, and Scottish, while in the East they weremainly Slavs. The Viking slave trade slowly ended in the 11th century, as the Vikings settled in the Europeanterritories they once raided, Christianized serfdom, and merged with the local populace.[157]

History of slavery 13

The Islamic World was a main factor slavery. Although slavery had different implications for slaves:(i) Islamic lawforbade Muslims to enslave fellow Muslims or so-called People of the Book: Christians, Jews, and Zoroastrians. (ii)If they converted to Islam their master had the obligation to free them and if they did not they have to teach them.(iii) Slaves could rise socially by marriage and attain high office. (iv) The principal requirement was for militaryservice.[165] However, Muslims did not always treat with slaves in accordance with Islamic law.[166] The Muslimpowers of Iberia both raided for slaves and purchased slaves from European merchants, often the Jewish Radhanites,one of the few groups that could easily move between the Christian and Islamic worlds.[162] The Middle Ages from1100 to 1500 saw a continuation of the European slave trade, though with a shift from the Western MediterraneanIslamic nations to the Eastern, as Venice and Genoa, in firm control of the Eastern Mediterranean from the 12thcentury and the Black Sea from the 13th century sold both Slavic and Baltic slaves, as well as Georgians, Turks, andother ethnic groups of the Black Sea and Caucasus, to the Muslim nations of the Middle East. The sale of Europeanslaves by Europeans slowly ended as the Slavic and Baltic ethnic groups Christianized by the Late Middle Ages.European slaves in the Islamic World would, however, continue into the Modern time period as Muslim pirates,primarily Algerians, with the support of the Ottoman Empire, raided European coasts and shipping from the 16th tothe 19th centuries, ending their attacks with the naval decline of the Ottoman Empire in the late 16th and 17thcenturies, as well as the European conquest of North Africa throughout the 19th century.[167]

The Mongol invasions and conquests in the 13th century made the situation worse.[168] The Mongols enslavedskilled individuals, women and children and marched them to Karakorum or Sarai, whence they were soldthroughout Eurasia. Many of these slaves were shipped to the slave market in Novgorod.[169][170][171]

The ransoming of Christians slaves held in Turkish hands, 17thcentury

Slave commerce during the Late Middle Ages was mainlyin the hands of Venetian and Genoese merchants andcartels, who were involved in the slave trade with theGolden Horde. In 1382 the Golden Horde under KhanTokhtamysh sacked Moscow, burning the city andcarrying off thousands of inhabitants as slaves. Between1414 and 1423, some 10,000 eastern European slaveswere sold in Venice.[172] Genoese merchants organizedthe slave trade from the Crimea to Mamluk Egypt. Foryears the Khanates of Kazan and Astrakhan routinelymade raids on Russian principalities for slaves and toplunder towns. Russian chronicles record about 40 raidsof Kazan Khans on the Russian territories in the first halfof the 16th century.[173] In 1521, the combined forces ofCrimean Khan Mehmed Giray and his Kazan allies attacked Moscow and captured thousands of slaves.[174]

In 1441, Haci I Giray declared independence from the Golden Horde and established the Crimean Khanate. For along time, until the early 18th century, the khanate maintained a massive slave trade with the Ottoman Empire andthe Middle East. In a process called the "harvesting of the steppe", they enslaved many Slavic peasants. About 30major Tatar raids were recorded into Muscovite territories between 1558 and 1596.[175] In 1571, the Crimean Tatarsattacked and sacked Moscow, burning everything but the Kremlin and taking thousands of captives as slaves.[176] InCrimea, about 75% of the population consisted of slaves.[39]

Medieval Spain and Portugal were the scene of almost constant warfare between Muslims and Christians. Periodicraiding expeditions were sent from Al-Andalus to ravage the Iberian Christian kingdoms, bringing back booty andslaves. In a raid against Lisbon, Portugal in 1189, for example, the Almohad caliph Yaqub al-Mansur took 3,000female and child captives, while his governor of Córdoba, in a subsequent attack upon Silves, Portugal in 1191, took3,000 Christian slaves.[177]

History of slavery 14

The Byzantine-Ottoman wars and the Ottoman wars in Europe brought large numbers of Christian slaves into theIslamic world too.[178] After the battle of Lepanto approximately 12,000 Christian galley slaves were freed from theOttoman fleet.[179] Christians were also selling Muslim slaves captured in war. The Knights of Malta attacked piratesand Muslim shipping, and their base became a centre for slave trading, selling captured North Africans and Turks.Malta remained a slave market until well into the late 18th century. It required a thousand slaves to equip merely thegalleys (ships) of the Order.[180][181]

Slavery in Poland was forbidden in the 15th century; in Lithuania, slavery was formally abolished in 1588; they werereplaced by the second enserfment. Slavery remained a minor institution in Russia until the 1723, when the Peter theGreat converted the household slaves into house serfs. Russian agricultural slaves were formally converted into serfsearlier in 1679.[182] The runaway Polish and Russian serfs and kholops known as Cossacks ('outlaws') formedautonomous communities in the southern steppes.[183]

PortugalThe 15th-century Portuguese exploration of the African coast is commonly regarded as the harbinger of Europeancolonialism. In 1452, Pope Nicholas V issued the papal bull Dum Diversas, granting Afonso V of Portugal the rightto reduce any "Saracens, pagans and any other unbelievers" to hereditary slavery which legitimized slave trade underCatholic beliefs of that time. This approval of slavery was reaffirmed and extended in his Romanus Pontifex bull of1455. These papal bulls came to serve as a justification for the subsequent era of slave trade and Europeancolonialism. Although for a short period as in 1462, Pius II declared slavery to be "a great crime".[184] The followersof the church of England and Protestants did not use the papal bull as a justification. The position of the church wasto condemn the slavery of Christians, but slavery was regarded as an old established and necessary institution whichsupplied Europe with the necessary workforce. In the 16th century African slaves had substituted almost all otherethnicities and religious enslaved groups in Europe.[185] Within the Portuguese territory of Brazil, and even beyondits original borders, the enslavement of native Americans was carried out by the Bandeirantes.Among many other European slave markets, Genoa, and Venice were some well-known markets, their importanceand demand growing after the great plague of the 14th century which decimated much of the European workforce.[186] The maritime town of Lagos, Portugal, was the first slave market created in Portugal for the sale ofimported African slaves – the Mercado de Escravos, opened in 1444.[187][188] In 1441, the first slaves were broughtto Portugal from northern Mauritania.[188] Prince Henry the Navigator, major sponsor of the Portuguese Africanexpeditions, as of any other merchandise, taxed one fifth of the selling price of the slaves imported to Portugal.[188]

By the year 1552 African slaves made up 10 percent of the population of Lisbon.[189][190] In the second half of the16th century, the Crown gave up the monopoly on slave trade and the focus of European trade in African slavesshifted from import to Europe to slave transports directly to tropical colonies in the Americas – in the case ofPortugal, especially Brazil.[188] In the 15th century one third of the slaves were resold to the African market inexchange of gold.[185]

As Portugal increased its presence along China's coast, they began trading in slaves. Many Chinese slaves were sold to Portugal.[191][192] Since the 16th century Chinese slaves existed in Portugal, most of them were Chinese children and a large amount were shipped to the Indies.[193] Chinese prisoners were sent to Portugal, where they were sold as slaves, they were prized and regarded better than moorish and black slaves.[194] The first known visit of a Chinese person to Europe dates to 1540, when a Chinese scholar, enslaved during one of several Portuguese raids somewhere on the southern China coast, was brought to Portugal. Purchased by João de Barros, he worked with the Portuguese historian on translating Chinese texts into Portuguese.[195] Dona Maria de Vilhena, a Portuguese noble woman from Évora, Portugal, owned a Chinese male slave in 1562.[196][197][198] In the 16th century, a small number of Chinese slaves, around 29–34 people were in southern Portugal, where they were used in agricultural labor.[199] Chinese boys were captured in China, and through Macau were brought to Portugal and sold as slaves in Lisbon. Some were then sold in Brazil, a Portuguese colony.[200][201][202] Due to hostilty from the Chinese regarding the trafficking in

History of slavery 15

Chinese slaves, in 1595 a law was passed by Portugal banning the selling and buying of Chinese slaves.[203] On 19February 1624, the King of Portugal forbade the enslavement of Chinese of either sex.[204][205]

Spain

Emperor Charles V captured Tunis in 1535, liberatingthousands of Christian slaves

Spain had to fight against relatively powerful civilizations of theNew World. However, the Spanish conquest of the indigenouspeoples in the Americas was also facilitated by the spread ofdiseases (e.g. smallpox) due to lack of biological immunity.[206]

(like the Europeans that had lack of biological immunity toAfrican diseases) The Spaniards were the first Europeans to useAfrican slaves in the New World on islands such as Cuba andHispaniola, where the native population starved themselves ratherthan work for the Spanish. Although the natives were used asforced labor (the Spanish employed the pre-Columbian draftsystem called the mita),[207] the spread of disease caused ashortage of labor, and so the Spanish colonists gradually becameinvolved in the Atlantic slave trade. The first African slavesarrived in Hispaniola in 1501;[208] by 1517, the natives had been"virtually annihilated" by the settlers.[209]

Netherlands

Although slavery was illegal inside the Netherlands it flourished inthe Dutch Empire, and helped support the economy.[210] By 1650the Dutch had the pre-eminent slave trade in Europe.[211] They were overtaken by Britain around 1700. Historiansagree that in all the Dutch shipped about 550,000 African slaves across the Atlantic, about 75,000 of whom died onboard before reaching their destinations. From 1596 to 1829, the Dutch traders sold 250,000 slaves in the DutchGuianas, 142,000 in the Dutch Caribbean islands, and 28,000 in Dutch Brazil.[212] In addition, tens of thousands ofslaves, mostly from India and some from Africa, were carried to the Dutch East Indies.[213]

Great Britain and IrelandSlavery was practised by the Romans, but when they left in the 5th century they took their slaves with them.Anglo-Saxon Germanic settlers brought in slaves. Capture in war, voluntary servitude and debt slavery becamecommon, and slaves were routinely bought and sold, but running away was common and slavery was never a majoreconomic factor. Ireland and Denmark were markets for captured Anglo Saxon and Celtic slaves. Pope Gregory Ireputedly made the pun, Non Angli, sed Angeli ("Not Angles, but Angels"), after a response to his query regardingthe identity of a group of fair-haired Angles slave children whom he had observed in the marketplace. After 1100slavery faded away as uneconomical.[214]

Barbary Corsairs

From the 16th to 19th century, Barbary Corsairs raided the coasts of Europe and attacked lone ships at sea. From 1609 to 1616, England lost 466 merchant ships to Barbary pirates. 160 English ships were captured by Algerians between 1677 and 1680.[56] Many of the captured sailors were made into slaves and held for ransom. The corsairs were no strangers to the South West of England where raids were known in a number of coastal communities. In 1627 Barbary Pirates under command of the Dutch renegade Jan Janszoon operating from the Moroccan port of Salé occupied the island of Lundy.[215] During this time there were reports of captured slaves being sent to

History of slavery 16

Algiers.[216][217]

Ireland, despite its northern position, was not immune from attacks by the corsairs. In June 1631 Murat Reis, withpirates from Algiers and armed troops of the Ottoman Empire, stormed ashore at the little harbor village ofBaltimore, County Cork. They captured almost all the villagers and took them away to a life of slavery in NorthAfrica.[218] The prisoners were destined for a variety of fates—some lived out their days chained to the oars asgalley slaves, while others would spend long years in the scented seclusion of the harem or within the walls of thesultan's palace. Only two of them ever saw Ireland again.

Atlantic slave trade

Britain played a prominent role in the Atlantic slave trade, especially after 1600. Slavery was a legal institution in allof the 13 American colonies and Canada (acquired by Britain in 1763). The profits of the slave trade and of WestIndian plantations amounted to 5% of the British economy at the time of the Industrial Revolution.[219] TheSomersett's case in 1772 was generally taken at the time to have decided that the condition of slavery did not existunder English law in England. In 1785, English poet William Cowper wrote: "We have no slaves at home – Thenwhy abroad? Slaves cannot breathe in England; if their lungs receive our air, that moment they are free. They touchour country, and their shackles fall. That's noble, and bespeaks a nation proud. And jealous of the blessing. Spread itthen, And let it circulate through every vein."[220] In 1807, following many years of lobbying by the Abolitionistmovement, the British Parliament voted to make the slave trade illegal anywhere in the Empire with the Slave TradeAct 1807. Thereafter Britain took a prominent role in combating the trade, and slavery itself was abolished in theBritish Empire with the Slavery Abolition Act 1833. Between 1808 and 1860, the West Africa Squadron seizedapproximately 1,600 slave ships and freed 150,000 Africans who were aboard.[221] Action was also taken againstAfrican leaders who refused to agree to British treaties to outlaw the trade, for example against "the usurping King ofLagos", deposed in 1851. Anti-slavery treaties were signed with over 50 African rulers.[222] In 1839, the world'soldest international human rights organization, Anti-Slavery International, was formed in Britain by Joseph Sturge,which worked to outlaw slavery in other countries.[223]

In 1811, Arthur William Hodge was the first slave owner executed for the murder of a slave in the British WestIndies.[224] He was not, however, as some have claimed, the first white person to have been lawfully executed for thekilling of a slave.[225][226]

Pre-industrial EuropeIt became the custom among the Mediterranean powers to sentence condemned criminals to row in the war-galleysof the state (initially only in time of war).[227] The French Huguenots filled the galleys after the revocation of theEdict of Nantes in 1685 and Camisard rebellion.[228] Galley-slaves lived in unsavoury conditions, so even thoughsome sentences prescribed a restricted number of years, most rowers would eventually die, even if they survivedshipwreck and slaughter or torture at the hands of enemies or of pirates.[229] Naval forces often turned 'infidel'prisoners-of-war into galley-slaves. Several well-known historical figures served time as galley slaves after beingcaptured by the enemy—the Ottoman corsair and admiral Turgut Reis and the Knights Hospitaller Grand MasterJean Parisot de la Valette among them.[230]

From the 1440s into the 18th century hundreds of thousands of Ukrainians were sold into slavery to the Turks. In1575, the Tatars captured over 35,000 Ukrainians; a 1676 raid took almost 40,000. About 60,000 Ukrainians werecaptured in 1688; some were ransomed, but most were sold into slavery.[231][232] Some of the Roma people wereenslaved over five centuries in Romania until abolition in 1864 (see Slavery in Romania).[233]

Denmark-Norway was the first European country to ban the slave trade. This happened with a decree issued by theking in 1792, to become fully effective by 1803. Slavery itself was not banned until 1848. At this time Iceland was apart of Denmark-Norway but slave trading had been abolished in Iceland in 1117 and had never beenreestablished.[234]

History of slavery 17

Slavery in the French Republic was abolished on 4 February 1794 however it was re-established by NapoleonBonaparte in 1804. Slavery would be permanently abolished in the French empire during the French Revolution of1848. The Haitian Revolution established Haiti as a free republic ruled by blacks, the first of its kind.[235] At the timeof the revolution, Haiti was known as Saint-Domingue and was a colony of France.[236]

Modern EuropeDuring The Holocaust, the Germans used slave labor from across occupied Europe to support their war effort, andnumbering perhaps 6 million people.[237][238][239]

The communist Soviet Union had 10–20 million people working in Gulags during its existence. This camp systemwas also used to colonize Siberia.

Africa

Two slightly differing ManillasOkpoho manillasas used to purchase slaves

In most African societies, there was very little difference between thefree peasants and the feudal vassal peasants. Vassals of the SonghayMuslim Empire were used primarily in agriculture; they paid tribute totheir masters in crop and service but they were slightly restricted incustom and convenience. These people were more an occupationalcaste, as their bondage was relative. In the Kanem Bornu Empire,vassals were three classes beneath the nobles. Marriage between captorand captive was far from rare, blurring the anticipated roles.[240]

French historian Fernand Braudel noted that slavery was endemic inAfrica and part of the structure of everyday life. "Slavery came indifferent disguises in different societies: there were court slaves, slavesincorporated into princely armies, domestic and household slaves,slaves working on the land, in industry, as couriers and intermediaries,even as traders" (Braudel 1984 p. 435). During the 16th century,Europe began to outpace the Arab world in the export traffic, with itsslave traffic from Africa to the Americas. The Dutch imported slavesfrom Asia into their colony in South Africa. In 1807 Britain, which

held extensive, although mainly coastal colonial territories on the African continent (including southern Africa),made the international slave trade illegal, as did the United States in 1808. The end of the slave trade and the declineof slavery was imposed upon Africa by outside powers.

The nature of the slave societies differed greatly across the continent. There were large plantations worked by slavesin Egypt, the Sudan and Zanzibar, but this was not a typical use of slaves in Africa as a whole. In most African slavesocieties, slaves were protected and incorporated into the slave-owning family.

History of slavery 18

13th-century Africa – Map of the main trade routes and states, kingdoms and empires

In Senegambia, between 1300 and1900, close to one-third of thepopulation was enslaved. In earlyIslamic states of the western Sudan,including Ghana (750–1076), Mali(1235–1645), Segou (1712–1861), andSonghai (1275–1591), about a third ofthe population were slaves. In SierraLeone in the 19th century about half ofthe population consisted of slaves. Inthe 19th century at least half thepopulation was enslaved among theDuala of the Cameroon, the Igbo andother peoples of the lower Niger, theKongo, and the Kasanje kingdom andChokwe of Angola. Among theAshanti and Yoruba a third of thepopulation consisted of slaves. Thepopulation of the Kanem was about athird-slave. It was perhaps 40% in Bornu (1396–1893). Between 1750 and 1900 from one- to two-thirds of the entirepopulation of the Fulani jihad states consisted of slaves. The population of the Sokoto caliphate formed by Hausas inthe northern Nigeria and Cameroon was half-slave in the 19th century. It is estimated that up to 90% of thepopulation of Arab-Swahili Zanzibar was enslaved. Roughly half the population of Madagascar wasenslaved.[241][242][243][244][245][246][247]

The Anti-Slavery Society estimated that there were 2,000,000 slaves in the early 1930s Ethiopia, out of an estimatedpopulation of between 8 and 16 million.[248] Slavery continued in Ethiopia until the brief Second Italo-AbyssinianWar in October 1935, when it was abolished by order of the Italian occupying forces.[249] In response to pressure byWestern Allies of World War II Ethiopia officially abolished slavery and serfdom after regaining its independence in1942. On 26 August 1942 Haile Selassie issued a proclamation outlawing slavery.[250][251]

When British rule was first imposed on the Sokoto Caliphate and the surrounding areas in northern Nigeria at theturn of the 20th century, approximately 2 million to 2.5 million people there were slaves.[252] Slavery in northernNigeria was finally outlawed in 1936.[253]

Elikia M'bokolo, April 1998, Le Monde diplomatique. Quote: "The African continent was bled of its humanresources via all possible routes. Across the Sahara, through the Red Sea, from the Indian Ocean ports and across theAtlantic. At least ten centuries of slavery for the benefit of the Muslim countries (from the ninth to the nineteenth)."He continues: "Four million slaves exported via the Red Sea, another four million through the Swahili ports of theIndian Ocean, perhaps as many as nine million along the trans-Saharan caravan route, and eleven to twenty million(depending on the author) across the Atlantic Ocean"[254]

History of slavery 19

Sub-Saharan Africa

Arab slave traders and their captives along the Ruvuma river (in today's Tanzaniaand Mozambique), 19th-century engraving.

David Livingstone wrote of the slave trades:"To overdraw its evils is asimple impossibility.... Wepassed a slave woman shot orstabbed through the body andlying on the path. [Onlookers]said an Arab who passed earlythat morning had done it inanger at losing the price he hadgiven for her, because she wasunable to walk any longer. Wepassed a woman tied by theneck to a tree and dead.... Wecame upon a man dead from starvation.... The strangest disease I have seen in this country seems reallyto be broken heartedness, and it attacks free men who have been captured and made slaves."

Livingstone estimated that 80,000 Africans died each year before ever reaching the slave markets ofZanzibar.[255][256][257][258] Zanzibar was once East Africa's main slave-trading port, and under Omani Arabs in the19th century as many as 50,000 slaves were passing through the city each year.[259]

Prior to the 16th century, the bulk of slaves exported from Africa were shipped from East Africa to the Arabianpeninsula. Zanzibar became a leading port in this trade. Arab slave traders differed from European ones in that theywould often conduct raiding expeditions themselves, sometimes penetrating deep into the continent. They alsodiffered in that their market greatly preferred the purchase of female slaves over male ones.The increased presence of European rivals along the East coast led Arab traders to concentrate on the overland slavecaravan routes across the Sahara from the Sahel to North Africa. The German explorer Gustav Nachtigal reportedseeing slave caravans departing from Kukawa in Bornu bound for Tripoli and Egypt in 1870. The slave traderepresented the major source of revenue for the state of Bornu as late as 1898. The eastern regions of the CentralAfrican Republic have never recovered demographically from the impact of 19th-century raids from the Sudan andstill have a population density of less than 1 person/km².[260] During the 1870s, European initiatives against the slavetrade caused an economic crisis in northern Sudan, precipitating the rise of Mahdist forces. Mahdi's victory createdan Islamic state, one that quickly reinstituted slavery.[261][262]

The Middle Passage, the crossing of the Atlantic to the Americas, endured by slaves laid out in rows in the holds ofships, was only one element of the well-known triangular trade engaged in by Portuguese, Dutch, French and British.Ships having landed slaves in Caribbean ports would take on sugar, indigo, raw cotton, and later coffee, and makefor Liverpool, Nantes, Lisbon or Amsterdam. Ships leaving European ports for West Africa would carry printedcotton textiles, some originally from India, copper utensils and bangles, pewter plates and pots, iron bars morevalued than gold, hats, trinkets, gunpowder and firearms and alcohol. Tropical shipworms were eliminated in thecold Atlantic waters, and at each unloading, a profit was made.The Atlantic slave trade peaked in the late 18th century, when the largest number of slaves were captured on raiding expeditions into the interior of West Africa. These expeditions were typically carried out by African kingdoms, such as the Oyo empire (Yoruba), Kong Empire, Kingdom of Benin, Kingdom of Fouta Djallon, Kingdom of Fouta Tooro, Kingdom of Koya, Kingdom of Khasso, Kingdom of Kaabu, Fante Confederacy, Ashanti Confederacy, Aro Confederacy and the kingdom of Dahomey.[263][264] Europeans rarely entered the interior of Africa, due to fear of disease and moreover fierce African resistance. The slaves were brought to coastal outposts where they were traded for goods. The people captured on these expeditions were shipped by European traders to the colonies of the New

History of slavery 20

World. As a result of the War of the Spanish Succession, the United Kingdom obtained the monopoly (asiento denegros) of transporting captive Africans to Spanish America. It is estimated that over the centuries, twelve to twentymillion people were shipped as slaves from Africa by European traders, of whom some 15 percent died during theterrible voyage, many during the arduous journey through the Middle Passage. The great majority were shipped tothe Americas, but some also went to Europe and Southern Africa.

African participation in the slave trade

Some African states played a role in the slave trade. They would sell their captives or prisoners of war to Europeanbuyers.[265] Selling captives or prisoners was common practice among Africans and Arabs during that era. However,as the Atlantic slave trade increased its demand, local systems which primarily serviced indentured servitude becamecorrupted and started to supply the European slave traders, changing social dynamics. It also ultimately underminedlocal economies and political stability as villages' vital labor forces were shipped overseas as slave raids and civilwars became commonplace. Crimes which were previously punishable by some other punishment becamepunishable by enslavement.[266]

The prisoners and captives that were sold were usually from neighboring or enemy ethnic groups.[267] These captiveslaves were not considered as part of the ethnic group or 'tribe' and kings did not have a particular loyalty to them. Attimes, kings and chiefs would sell criminals into slavery so that they could no longer commit crimes in that area.Most other slaves were obtained from kidnappings, or through raids that occurred at gunpoint through joint ventureswith the Europeans.[265] Some African kings refused to sell any of their captives or criminals. King Jaja of Opobo, aformer slave himself, completely refused to do business with slavers.[267] Ashanti King Agyeman Prempeh (Ashantiking, b. 1872) also sacrificed his own freedom so that his people would not face collective slavery.[267]

The viewpoint that “Africans” enslaved “Africans” is obfuscating if not troubling. The deployment of “African”in African history tends to coalesce into obscurantist constructions of identities that allow scholars, forinstance, to subtly call into question the humanity of “all” Africans. Whenever Asante rulers sold non-Asantesinto slavery, they did not construct it in terms of Africans selling fellow Africans. They saw the victims forwhat they were, for instance, as Akuapems, without categorizing them as fellow Africans. Equally, whenChristian Scandinavians and Russians sold war captives to the Islamic people of the Abbasid Empire, theydidn’t think that they were placing fellow Europeans into slavery. This lazy categorizing homogenizesAfricans and has become a part of the methodology of African history; not surprisingly, the Western media’scottage industry on Africa has tapped into it to frame Africans in inchoate generalities allowing the media todescribe local crisis in one African state as “African” problem.[268]

— Dr. Akurang-Parry, Ending the Slavery Blame

The inspection and sale of a slave

Before the arrival of the Portuguese, slavery hadalready existed in Kingdom of Kongo. Despite itsestablishment within his kingdom, Afonso I of Kongobelieved that the slave trade should be subject to Kongolaw. When he suspected the Portuguese of receivingillegally enslaved persons to sell, he wrote letters to theKing João III of Portugal in 1526 imploring him to puta stop to the practice.[269]

The kings of Dahomey sold their war captives intotransatlantic slavery, who otherwise would have beenkilled in a ceremony known as the Annual Customs. Asone of West Africa's principal slave states, Dahomey

History of slavery 21

became extremely unpopular with neighbouring peoples.[270][271][272] Like the Bambara Empire to the east, theKhasso kingdoms depended heavily on the slave trade for their economy. A family's status was indicated by thenumber of slaves it owned, leading to wars for the sole purpose of taking more captives. This trade led the Khassointo increasing contact with the European settlements of Africa's west coast, particularly the French.[273] Benin grewincreasingly rich during the 16th and 17th centuries on the slave trade with Europe; slaves from enemy states of theinterior were sold, and carried to the Americas in Dutch and Portuguese ships. The Bight of Benin's shore soon cameto be known as the "Slave Coast".[274]

In the 1840s, King Gezo of Dahomey said:[275]

"The slave trade is the ruling principle of my people. It is the source and the glory of their wealth…themother lulls the child to sleep with notes of triumph over an enemy reduced to slavery…"

In 1807, the UK Parliament passed the Bill that abolished the trading of slaves. The King of Bonny (now in Nigeria)was horrified at the conclusion of the practice:[276]

"We think this trade must go on. That is the verdict of our oracle and the priests. They say that yourcountry, however great, can never stop a trade ordained by God himself."

Some historians conclude that the total loss in persons removed, those who died on the arduous march to coastalslave marts and those killed in slave raids, far exceeded the 65–75 million inhabitants remaining in Sub-SaharanAfrica at the trade's end. Others believe that slavers had a vested interest in capturing rather than killing, and inkeeping their captives alive; and that this coupled with the disproportionate removal of males and the introduction ofnew crops from the Americas (cassava, maize) would have limited general population decline to particular regions ofwestern Africa around 1760–1810, and in Mozambique and neighbouring areas half a century later. There has alsobeen speculation that within Africa, females were most often captured as brides, with their male protectors being a"bycatch" who would have been killed if there had not been an export market for them.During the period from late 19th century and early 20th century, demand for the labor-intensive harvesting of rubberdrove frontier expansion and slavery. The personal monarchy of Belgian King Leopold II in the Congo Free Statesaw mass killings and slavery to extract rubber.[277]

Modern timesThe trading of children has been reported in modern Nigeria and Benin. In parts of Ghana, a family may be punishedfor an offense by having to turn over a virgin female to serve as a sex slave within the offended family. In thisinstance, the woman does not gain the title or status of "wife". In parts of Ghana, Togo, and Benin, shrine slaverypersists, despite being illegal in Ghana since 1998. In this system of ritual servitude, sometimes called trokosi (inGhana) or voodoosi in Togo and Benin, young virgin girls are given as slaves to traditional shrines and are usedsexually by the priests in addition to providing free labor for the shrine.It is estimated that as many as 200,000 black south Sudanese children and women (mostly from the Dinka tribe soldby the Sudanese Arabs of the north) have been taken into slavery in Sudan during the Second Sudanese CivilWar.[278][279] In Mauritania it is estimated that up to 600,000 men, women and children, or 20% of the population,are currently enslaved, many of them used as bonded labor.[280] Slavery in Mauritania was criminalized in August2007.[281]

Evidence emerged in the late 1990s of systematic slavery in cacao plantations in West Africa; see the chocolate andslavery article.[275]

History of slavery 22

The Americas

White boy with a slave maid, Brazil, 1860.

Among indigenous peoples

In Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica the most common forms ofslavery were those of prisoners-of-war and debtors. People unableto pay back a debt could be sentenced to work as a slave to theperson owed until the debt was worked off. Warfare was importantto the Maya society, because raids on surrounding areas providedthe victims required for human sacrifice, as well as slaves for theconstruction of temples.[282] Most victims of human sacrifice wereprisoners of war or slaves.[283] According to Aztec writings, asmany as 84,000 people were sacrificed at a temple inauguration in1487.[284] Slavery was not usually hereditary; children of slaveswere born free. In the Inca Empire, workers were subject to a mitain lieu of taxes which they paid by working for the government.Each ayllu, or extended family, would decide which familymember to send to do the work. It is unclear if this labor draft orcorvée counts as slavery. The Spanish adopted this system,particularly for their silver mines in Bolivia.[285]

Other slave-owning societies and tribes of the New World were,for example, the Tehuelche of Patagonia, the Comanche of Texas,the Caribs of Dominica, the Tupinambá of Brazil, the fishingsocieties, such as the Yurok, that lived along the coast from what is now Alaska to California, the Pawnee andKlamath.[286] Many of the indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast, such as the Haida and Tlingit, weretraditionally known as fierce warriors and slave-traders, raiding as far as California. Slavery was hereditary, theslaves being prisoners of war. Among some Pacific Northwest tribes about a quarter of the population wereslaves.[287][288] One slave narrative was composed by an Englishman, John R. Jewitt, who had been taken alivewhen his ship was captured in 1802; his memoir provides a detailed look at life as a slave, and asserts that a largenumber were held.

Brazil

Slavery in Brazil, Jean Baptiste Debret.

Slavery was a mainstay of the Brazilian colonialeconomy, especially in mining and sugar caneproduction.[289] Brazil obtained 38% of all Africanslaves traded, and more than 3 million slaves were sentto this one country. Starting around 1550, thePortuguese began to trade African slaves to work thesugar plantations, once the native Tupi peopledeteriorated. Although Portuguese Prime MinisterMarquês de Pombal abolished slavery in mainlandPortugal on 12 February 1761, slavery continued in heroverseas colonies. Slavery was practiced among allclasses. Slaves were owned by upper and middleclasses, by the poor, and even by other slaves.[290]

History of slavery 23

A Guaraní family captured by Indian slave hunters. By Jean BaptisteDebret

From São Paulo, the Bandeirantes, adventurers mostlyof mixed Portuguese and native ancestry, penetratedsteadily westward in their search for Indian slaves.Along the Amazon river and its major tributaries,repeated slaving raids and punitive attacks left theirmark. One French traveler in the 1740s describedhundreds of miles of river banks with no sign of humanlife and once-thriving villages that were devastated andempty. In some areas of the Amazon Basin, andparticularly among the Guarani of southern Brazil andParaguay, the Jesuits had organized their JesuitReductions along military lines to fight the slavers. Inthe mid-to-late 19th century, many Amerindians wereenslaved to work on rubber plantations.[291][292][293]

Resistance and abolition

Escaped slaves formed Maroon communities which played an important role in the histories of Brazil and othercountries such as Suriname, Puerto Rico, Cuba, and Jamaica. In Brazil, the Maroon villages were called palenques orquilombos. Maroons survived by growing vegetables and hunting. They also raided plantations. At these attacks, themaroons would burn crops, steal livestock and tools, kill slavemasters, and invite other slaves to join theircommunities.

Jean-Baptiste Debret, a French painter who was active in Brazil in the first decades of the 19th century, started outwith painting portraits of members of the Brazilian Imperial family, but soon became concerned with the slavery ofboth blacks and indigenous inhabitants. His paintings on the subject (two appear on this page) helped bring attentionto the subject in both Europe and Brazil itself.The Clapham Sect, a group of evangelical reformers, campaigned during much of the 19th century for the UnitedKingdom to use its influence and power to stop the traffic of slaves to Brazil. Besides moral qualms, the low cost ofslave-produced Brazilian sugar meant that British colonies in the West Indies were unable to match the market pricesof Brazilian sugar, and each Briton was consuming 16 pounds (7 kg) of sugar a year by the 19th century. Thiscombination led to intensive pressure from the British government for Brazil to end this practice, which it did bysteps over several decades.First, foreign slave trade was banned in 1850. Then, in 1871, the sons of the slaves were freed. In 1885, slaves agedover 60 years were freed. The Paraguayan War contributed to ending slavery, since many slaves enlisted in exchangefor freedom. In Colonial Brazil, slavery was more a social than a racial condition. In fact, some of the greatestfigures of the time, like the writer Machado de Assis and the engineer André Rebouças had black ancestry.Brazil's 1877–78 Grande Seca (Great Drought) in the cotton-growing northeast led to major turmoil, starvation,poverty and internal migration. As wealthy plantation holders rushed to sell their slaves south, popular resistance andresentment grew, inspiring numerous emancipation societies. They succeeded in banning slavery altogether in theprovince of Ceará by 1884.[294] Slavery was legally ended nationwide on 13 May by the Lei Aurea ("Golden Law")of 1888. In fact, it was an institution in decadence at these times, as since the 1880s the country had begun to useEuropean immigrant labor instead. Brazil was the last nation in the Western Hemisphere to abolish slavery.

History of slavery 24

Other South American countries

Funeral at slave plantation during Dutch colonial rule, Suriname.Colored lithograph printed circa 1840–1850, digitally restored.

During the period from late 19th century and early 20thcentury, demand for the labor-intensive harvesting ofrubber drove frontier expansion and slavery in LatinAmerica and elsewhere. Indigenous people wereenslaved as part of the rubber boom in Ecuador, Peru,Colombia, and Brazil.[295] In Central America, rubbertappers participated in the enslavement of theindigenous Guatuso-Maleku people for domesticservice.[296]

British and French Caribbean

Slavery was commonly used in the parts of theCaribbean controlled by France and the British Empire.The Lesser Antilles islands of Barbados, St. Kitts,Antigua, Martinique and Guadeloupe, which were the first important slave societies of the Caribbean, began thewidespread use of African slaves by the end of the 17th century, as their economies converted from sugarproduction.[297]

By the middle of the 18th century, British Jamaica and French Saint-Domingue had become the largest slavesocieties of the region, and the Caribbean was rivaling Brazil as a destination for enslaved Africans. Due tooverwork and tropical diseases, the death rates for Caribbean slaves were greater than birth rates. The conditions ledto increasing numbers of slave revolts, escaped slaves forming Maroon communities and fighting guerrilla warsagainst the plantation owners.To regularise slavery, in 1685 Louis XIV had enacted the code noir, which accorded certain human rights to slavesand responsibilities to the master, who was obliged to feed, clothe and provide for the general well-being of hisslaves. Free blacks owned one-third of the plantation property and one-quarter of the slaves in Saint Domingue (laterHaiti).[298] Slavery in the French Republic was abolished on 4 February 1794. When it became clear that Napoleonintended to re-establish slavery, Dessalines and Pétion switched sides, in October 1802. On 1 January 1804,Jean-Jacques Dessalines, the new leader under the dictatorial 1801 constitution, declared Haiti a free republic.[235]

Thus Haiti became the second independent nation in the Western Hemisphere, after the United States, and the onlysuccessful slave rebellion in world history.[299]

History of slavery 25

18th century painting of Dirk Valkenburgshowing plantation slaves during a Ceremonial

dance.

Whitehall in England announced in 1833 that slaves in its territorieswould be totally freed by 1840. In the meantime, the government toldslaves they had to remain on their plantations and would have thestatus of "apprentices" for the next six years.

In Port-of-Spain, Trinidad, on 1 August 1834, an unarmed group ofmainly elderly Negroes being addressed by the Governor atGovernment House about the new laws, began chanting: "Pas de sixans. Point de six ans" ("Not six years. No six years"), drowning out thevoice of the Governor. Peaceful protests continued until a resolution toabolish apprenticeship was passed and de facto freedom was achieved.Full emancipation for all was legally granted ahead of schedule on 1August 1838, making Trinidad the first British colony with slaves tocompletely abolish slavery.[300]

After Great Britain abolished slavery, it began to pressure other nationsto do the same. France, too, abolished slavery. By thenSaint-Domingue had already won its independence and formed theindependent Republic of Haiti. French-controlled islands were then limited to a few smaller islands in the LesserAntilles.

North America

Early events

The first slaves used by Europeans in what later became United States territory were among Lucas Vásquez deAyllón's colonization attempt of North Carolina in 1526. The attempt was a failure, lasting only one year; the slavesrevolted and fled into the wilderness to live among the Cofitachiqui people.[301]

The first historically significant slave in what would become the United States was Estevanico, a Moroccan slaveand member of the Narváez expedition in 1528 and acted as a guide on Fray Marcos de Niza's expedition to find theSeven Cities of Gold in 1539.In 1619 twenty Africans were brought by a Dutch soldier and sold to the English colony of Jamestown, Virginia asindentured servants. It is possible that Africans were brought to Virginia prior to this, both because neither JohnRolfe our source on the 1619 shipment nor any contemporary of his ever says that this was the first contingent ofAfricans to come to Virginia and because the 1625 Virginia census lists one black as coming on a ship that appearsto only have landed people in Virginia prior to 1619.[302] The transformation from indentured servitude to racialslavery happened gradually. It was not until 1661 that a reference to slavery entered into Virginia law, directed atCaucasian servants who ran away with a black servant. It was not until the Slave Codes of 1705 that the status ofAfrican Americans as slaves would be sealed. This status would last for another 160 years, until after the end of theAmerican Civil War with the ratification of the 13th Amendment in December 1865.Only a fraction of the enslaved Africans brought to the New World ended up in British North America—perhaps 5%.The vast majority of slaves shipped across the Atlantic were sent to the Caribbean sugar colonies, Brazil, or SpanishAmerica.By the 1680s with the consolidation of England's Royal African Company, enslaved Africans were imported toEnglish colonies in larger numbers, and the practice continued to be protected by the English Crown. Colonistsbegan purchasing slaves in larger numbers.

History of slavery 26

Slavery in American colonial law

Well-dressed plantation owner and family visiting the slave quarters.

• 1642: Massachusetts becomes the first colony tolegalize slavery.

• 1650: Connecticut legalizes slavery.• 1661: Virginia officially recognizes slavery by

statute.• 1662: A Virginia statute declares that children

born would have the same status as their mother.• 1663: Maryland legalizes slavery.• 1664: Slavery is legalized in New York and New

Jersey.[303]

Development of slavery

The shift from indentured servants to African slaveswas prompted by a dwindling class of former servants who had worked through the terms of their indentures andthus became competitors to their former masters. These newly freed servants were rarely able to support themselvescomfortably, and the tobacco industry was increasingly dominated by large planters. This caused domestic unrestculminating in Bacon's Rebellion. Eventually, chattel slavery became the norm in regions dominated by plantations.

Many slaves in British North America were owned by plantation owners who lived in Britain. The British courts hadmade a series of contradictory rulings on the legality of slavery[304] which encouraged several thousand slaves to fleethe newly independent United States as refugees along with the retreating British in 1783. The British courts havingruled in 1772 that such slaves could not be forcibly returned to North America, the British government resettled themas free men in Sierra Leone.Several slave rebellions took place during the 17th and 18th centuries.

Early United States law

James Hopkinson's plantation, South Carolina ca. 1862.

Through the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 under theCongress of the Confederation, slavery wasprohibited in the territories north west of the OhioRiver. By 1804, abolitionists succeeded in passinglegislation that would eventually (in conjunction withthe 13th amendment) emancipate the slaves in everystate north of the Ohio River and the Mason-DixonLine. However, emancipation in the free states wasso gradual that both New York and Pennsylvanialisted slaves in their 1840 census returns, and a smallnumber of black slaves were held in New Jersey in1860.[305] The importation or export of slaves wasbanned on 1 January 1808;[306] but not the internalslave trade.

Despite the actions of abolitionists, free blacks were subject to racial segregation in the Northern states.[307] Slaverywas legal in most of Canada until 1833, but after that it offered a haven for hundreds of runaway slaves. Refugeesfrom slavery fled the South across the Ohio River to the North via the Underground Railroad. Midwestern stategovernments asserted States Rights arguments to refuse federal jurisdiction over fugitives. Some juries exercisedtheir right of jury nullification and refused to convict those indicted under the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850.

History of slavery 27

After the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act in 1854, armed conflict broke out in Kansas Territory, where thequestion of whether it would be admitted to the Union as a slave state or a free state had been left to the inhabitants.The radical abolitionist John Brown was active in the mayhem and killing in "Bleeding Kansas." The true turningpoint in public opinion is better fixed at the Lecompton Constitution fraud. Pro-slavery elements in Kansas hadarrived first from Missouri and quickly organized a territorial government that excluded abolitionists. Through themachinery of the territory and violence, the pro-slavery faction attempted to force an unpopular pro-slaveryconstitution through the state. This infuriated Northern Democrats, who supported popular sovereignty, and wasexacerbated by the Buchanan administration reneging on a promise to submit the constitution to a referendum –which it would surely fail. Anti-slavery legislators took office under the banner of the newly formed RepublicanParty. The Supreme Court in the Dred Scott decision of 1857 asserted that one could take one's property anywhere,even if one's property was chattel and one crossed into a free territory. It also asserted that African Americans couldnot be federal citizens. Outraged critics across the North denounced these episodes as the latest of the Slave Power(the politically organized slave owners) taking more control of the nation.[308]

Civil War

Further information: American Civil War

Peter, a slave from Baton Rouge, Louisiana,1863. The scars are a result of a whipping by hisoverseer, who was subsequently discharged. It

took two months to recover from the beating. Thepattern of scarring seen here is highly suggestive

of keloid formation.[309]

Approximately one Southern family in four held slaves prior to war.According to the 1860 United States Census, about 385,000individuals[310] (i.e. 1.4% of White Americans in the country, or 4.8%of southern whites) owned one or more slaves.[311][312] and the slavepopulation in the United States stood at four million.[313] 95% ofblacks lived in the South, comprising one third of the population thereas opposed to 1% of the population of the North. Consequently, fearsof eventual emancipation were much greater in the South than in theNorth.[314]

In the election of 1860, the Republicans swept Abraham Lincoln intothe Presidency (with only 39.8% of the popular vote) and legislatorsinto Congress. Lincoln however, did not appear on the ballots in mostsouthern states and his election split the nation along sectional lines.After decades of controlling the Federal Government, several of thesouthern states declared they had seceded from the U.S. (the Union) inan attempt to form the Confederate States of America.

Northern leaders like Lincoln viewed the prospect of a new Southernnation, with control over the Mississippi River and the West, asunacceptable. This led to the outbreak of the Civil War, which spelledthe end for chattel slavery in America. However, in August 1862,Lincoln wrote to editor Horace Greeley that despite his own moralobjection to slavery, the objective of the war was to save the Union andnot either to save or to destroy slavery . Lincoln's EmancipationProclamation of 1863 was a powerful move that proclaimed freedomfor slaves within the Confederacy as soon as the Union Army arrived; Lincoln had no power to free slaves in theborder states or the rest of the Union, so he promoted the Thirteenth Amendment, which freed all the remainingslaves in December 1865. The proclamation made the abolition of slavery an official war goal and it wasimplemented as the Union captured territory from the Confederacy. Slaves in many parts of the south were freed byUnion armies or when they simply left their former owners. Over 150,000 joined the Union Army and Navy assoldiers and sailors.

History of slavery 28

The remaining slaves within the United States remained enslaved until the final ratification of the ThirteenthAmendment to the Constitution on 6 December 1865 (with final recognition of the amendment on 18 December),eight months after the cessation of hostilities. Only in Kentucky did a significant slave population remain by thattime, although there were some in West Virginia and Delaware.After the failure of Reconstruction, freed slaves in the United States were treated as second class citizens. Fordecades after their emancipation, many former slaves living in the South sharecropped and had a low standard ofliving. In some states, it was only after the civil rights movement of the 1950s and 60s that blacks obtained legalprotection from racial discrimination (see segregation).

OceaniaIn the first half of the 19th century, small-scale slave raids took place across Polynesia to supply labor and sexworkers for the whaling and sealing trades, with examples from both the westerly and easterly extremes of thePolynesian triangle. By the 1860s this had grown to a larger scale operation with Peruvian slave raids in the SouthSea Islands to collect labor for the guano industry.

HawaiiAncient Hawaii was a caste society. People were born into specific social classes. Kauwa were the outcast or slaveclass. They are believed to have been war captives, or the descendents of war captives. Marriage between highercastes and the kauwa was strictly forbidden. The kauwa worked for the chiefs and were often used as humansacrifices at the luakini heiau. (They were not the only sacrifices; law-breakers of all castes or defeated politicalopponents were also acceptable as victims.)[315]

New ZealandIn traditional Māori society of Aotearoa, prisoners of war became taurekareka, slaves, unless released, ransomed ortortured.[316] With some exceptions, the child of a slave remained a slave. As far as it is possible to tell, slaveryseems to have increased in the early 19th century, as a result of increased numbers of prisoners being taken by Māorimilitary leaders such as Hongi Hika and Te Rauparaha in the Musket Wars, the need for labor to supply whalers andtraders with food, flax and timber in return for western goods, and the missionary condemnation of cannibalism.Slavery was outlawed when the British annexed New Zealand in 1840, immediately prior to the signing of the Treatyof Waitangi, although it did not end completely until government was effectively extended over the whole of thecountry with the defeat of the Kingi movement in the Wars of the mid-1860s.

Chatham IslandsOne group of Polynesians who migrated to the Chatham Islands became the Moriori who developed a largely pacifistculture. It was originally speculated that they settled the Chathams direct from Polynesia, but it is now widelybelieved they were disaffected Māori who emigrated from the South Island of New Zealand.[317][318][319][320] Theirpacifism left the Moriori unable to defend themselves when the islands were invaded by mainland Māori in the1830s. Some 300 Moriori men, women and children were massacred and the remaining 1,200 to 1,300 survivorswere enslaved.[321][322]

History of slavery 29

Rapa Nui / Easter IslandThe isolated island of Rapa Nui/Easter Island was inhabited by the Rapanui, who suffered a series of slave raidsfrom 1805 or earlier, culminating in a near genocidal experience in the 1860s. The 1805 raid was by Americansealers and was one of a series that changed the attitude of the islanders to outside visitors, with reports in the 1820sand 1830s that all visitors received a hostile reception. In December 1862, Peruvian slave raiders took between 1,400and 2,000 islanders back to Peru to work in the guano industry; this was about a third of the island's population andincluded much of the island's leadership, the last ariki-mau and possibly the last who could read Rongorongo. Afterintervention by the French ambassador in Lima, the last 15 survivors were returned to the island, but brought withthem smallpox, which further devastated the island.

Abolitionist movements

Proclamation of the abolition of slavery by VictorHugues in the Guadeloupe, 1 November 1794

Slavery has existed, in one form or another, throughout the whole ofhuman history. So, too, have movements to free large or distinctgroups of slaves. However, abolitionism should be distinguished fromefforts to help a particular group of slaves, or to restrict one practice,such as the slave trade.

Drescher (2009) provides a model for the history of the abolition ofslavery, emphasizing its origins in Western Europe. Around the year1500, slavery had virtually died out in Western Europe, but was anormal phenomenon practically everywhere else. The imperial powers,France, Spain, Britain, Portugal, the Netherlands and a few others, builtworldwide empires based primarily on plantation agriculture usingslaves imported from Africa. However, the powers took care tominimize the presence of slavery in their homelands. During the "Ageof Revolutions" (c. 1770–1815), Britain abolished its internationalslave trade and imposed similar restrictions upon other westernnations; the U.S. followed suit in 1808. Although there were numerousslave revolts in the Caribbean, the only successful uprising came in theFrench colony of St. Domingue, where the slaves rose up, killed themulattoes and whites, and established the independent Republic of Haiti. The continuing profitability of slave-basedplantations and the threats of race war slowed the development of abolition movements during the first half of the19th century. These movements were strongest in Britain, and after 1840 in the United States, in both instances theywere based on evangelical religious enthusiasm that stressed the horrible impact on the slaves themselves. TheNorthern states of the United States abolished slavery, partly in response to the Declaration of Independence,between 1777 and 1804. Britain ended slavery in its empire in the 1830s. However the plantation economies of thesouthern United States, based on cotton, and those in Brazil and Cuba, based on sugar, expanded and grew evenmore profitable. The bloody American Civil War ended slavery in the United States in the 1860s; the system endedin Cuba and Brazil in the 1880s because it was no longer profitable for the owners. Slavery continued to exist inAfrica, where Arab slave traders raided black areas for new captives to be sold in the system. European colonial ruleand diplomatic pressure slowly put an end to the trade, and eventually to the practice of slavery itself.[323]

History of slavery 30

Britain

A painting of the 1840 Anti-Slavery Conference.

In 1772, the Somersett Case (R. v. Knowles, exparte Somersett)[324] of the English Court of King'sBench ruled that slavery was unlawful in England(although not elsewhere in the British Empire). Asimilar case, that of Joseph Knight, took place inScotland five years later and ruled slavery to becontrary to the law of Scotland.

Following the work of campaigners in the UnitedKingdom, such as William Wilberforce and ThomasClarkson, the Act for the Abolition of the SlaveTrade was passed by Parliament on 25 March 1807,coming into effect the following year. The actimposed a fine of £100 for every slave found aboarda British ship. The intention was to outlaw entirelythe Atlantic slave trade within the whole British Empire.

The significance of the abolition of the British slave trade lay in the number of people hitherto sold and carried byBritish slave vessels. Britain shipped 2,532,300 Africans across the Atlantic, equalling 41% of the total transport of6,132,900 individuals. This made the British empire the biggest slave-trade contributor in the world due to themagnitude of the empire. A fact that made the abolition act all the more damaging to the global trade of slaves.[325]

The Slavery Abolition Act, passed on 23 August 1833, outlawed slavery itself in the British colonies. On 1 August1834 all slaves in the British West Indies, were emancipated, but still indentured to their former owners in anapprenticeship system. The intention of, was to educate former slaves to a trade but instead allowed slave owners tomaintain ownership illegally. The act was finally repealed in 1838.[326]

Britain abolished slavery in both Hindu and Muslim India by the Indian Slavery Act V. of 1843.[327]

Domestic slavery practised by the educated African coastal elites (as well as interior traditional rulers) in SierraLeone was abolished in 1928. A study found practices of domestic slavery still widespread in rural areas in the1970s.[328][329]

FranceThere were slaves in mainland France (especially in trade ports such as Nantes or Bordeaux).,[330] but the institutionwas never officially authorized there. The legal case of Jean Boucaux in 1739 clarified the unclear legal position ofpossible slaves in France, and was followed by laws that established registers for slaves in mainland France, whowere limited to a three-year stay, for visits or learning a trade. Unregistered "slaves" were regarded as free. However,slavery was of vital importance in France's Caribbean possessions, especially Saint-Domingue. In 1793, influencedby the French Declaration of the Rights of Man of August 1789 and alarmed as the massive slave revolt of August1791 that had become the Haitian Revolution threatened to ally itself with the British, the French Revolutionarycommissioners Sonthonax and Polverel declared general emancipation to reconcile them with France. In Paris, on 4February 1794, Abbé Grégoire and the Convention ratified this action by officially abolishing slavery in all Frenchterritories outside mainland France, freeing all the slaves both for moral and security reasons.Napoleon sent troops to the Caribbean in 1802 to try to re-establish slavery due to the economic stress France wassuffering while fighting all over Europe. They succeeded in Guadeloupe, but the ex-slaves of Saint-Dominguedefeated the French corps that was sent and declared independence. This colony became Haiti, the first blackrepublic, on 1 January 1804, with at its head the leader of the revolt, Toussaint Louverture.[235] Slavery in the Frenchcolonies was finally abolished only in 1849.

History of slavery 31

United StatesIn 1688, four German Quakers in Germantown presented a protest against the institution of slavery to their localQuaker Meeting. It was ignored for 150 years but in 1844 it was rediscovered and was popularized by theabolitionist movement. The 1688 Petition was the first American public document of its kind to protest slavery, andin addition was one of the first public documents to define universal human rights.The American Colonization Society, the primary vehicle for returning black Americans to greater freedom in Africa,established the colony of Liberia in 1821–22, on the premise former American slaves would have greater freedomand equality there.[331] The ACS assisted in the movement of thousands of African Americans to Liberia, with itsfounder Henry Clay stating; "unconquerable prejudice resulting from their color, they never could amalgamate withthe free whites of this country. It was desirable, therefore, as it respected them, and the residue of the population ofthe country, to drain them off". Abraham Lincoln, an enthusiastic supporter of Clay, adopted his position onreturning the blacks to their own land.[332]

Slaves in the United States who escaped ownership would often make their way to Canada via the "UndergroundRailroad". The more famous of the African American abolitionists include former slaves Harriet Tubman, SojournerTruth and Frederick Douglass. Many more people who opposed slavery and worked for abolition were northernwhites, such as William Lloyd Garrison and John Brown. Slavery was legally abolished in 1865 by the ThirteenthAmendment to the United States Constitution.While abolitionists agreed on the evils of slavery, there were differing opinions on what should happen after AfricanAmericans were freed. By the time of Emancipation, African-Americans were now native to the United States anddid not want to leave. Most believed that their labor had made the land theirs as well as that of the whites.[333]

Congress of ViennaThe Declaration of the Powers, on the Abolition of the Slave Trade, of 8 February 1815 (Which also formed ACT,No. XV. of the Final Act of the Congress of Vienna of the same year) included in its first sentence the concept of the"principles of humanity and universal morality" as justification for ending a trade that was "odious in itscontinuance".[334]

Twentieth century worldwideThe 1926 Slavery Convention, an initiative of the League of Nations, was a turning point in banning global slavery.Article 4 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted in 1948 by the UN General Assembly, explicitlybanned slavery. The United Nations 1956 Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery was convened tooutlaw and ban slavery worldwide, including child slavery. In December 1966, the UN General Assembly adoptedthe International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, which was developed from the Universal Declaration ofHuman Rights. Article 8 of this international treaty bans slavery. The treaty came into force in March 1976 after ithad been ratified by 35 nations. As of November 2003, 104 nations had ratified the treaty. According to the BritishAnti-Slavery Society, "Although there is no longer any state which recognizes any claim by a person to a right ofproperty over another, there are an estimated 27 million people throughout the world, mainly children, in conditionsof slavery."[335][336][337][338]

History of slavery 32

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Africa and Middle East• Campbell, Gwyn. The Structure of Slavery in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia (Frank Cass, 2004)• Lovejoy, Paul. Transformations in Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa (Cambridge UP, 1983)• Toledano, Ehud R. As If Silent and Absent: Bonds of Enslavement in the Islamic Middle East (Yale University

Press, 2007) ISBN 978-0-300-12618-1

Latin America and British Empire• Blackburn, Robin. The American Crucible: Slavery, Emancipation, and Human Rights (Verso; 2011) 498 pages;

on slavery and abolition in the Americas from the 16th to the late 19th centuries.• Klein, Herbert S. African Slavery in Latin America and the Caribbean (Oxford University Press, 1988)• Klein, Herbert. The Atlantic Slave Trade (1970)• Klein, Herbert S. Slavery in Brazil (Cambridge University Press, 2009)• Morgan, Kenneth. Slavery and the British Empire: From Africa to America (2008)• Stinchcombe, Arthur L. Sugar Island Slavery in the Age of Enlightenment: The Political Economy of the

Caribbean World (Princeton University Press, 1995)• Walvin, James. Black Ivory: Slavery in the British Empire (2nd ed. 2001)• Ward, J. R. British West Indian Slavery, 1750–1834 (Oxford U.P. 1988)

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United States• Fogel, Robert. Without Consent or Contract: The Rise and Fall of American Slavery (1989)• Genovese, Eugene. Roll Jordan, Roll: The World the Slaves Made (1974)• Miller, Randall M., and John David Smith, eds. Dictionary of Afro-American Slavery (1988)• Phillips, Ulrich B. American Negro Slavery: A Survey of the Supply, Employment and Control of Negro Labor as

Determined by the Plantation Regime (1918)• Rodriguez, Junius P. ed. Slavery in the United States: A Social, Political, and Historical Encyclopedia (2 vol

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[217] Europe: a History (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=jrVW9W9eiYMC& pg=PA561& lpg=PA561& dq=barbary+ lundy). . Retrieved25 November 2007.

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[220][220] Rhodes, Nick (2003). William Cowper: Selected Poems. p.84. Routledge, 2003[221] Sailing against slavery. By Jo Loosemore (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ devon/ content/ articles/ 2007/ 03/ 20/ abolition_navy_feature. shtml)

BBC[222] "The West African Squadron and slave trade" (http:/ / www. pdavis. nl/ Background. htm#WAS). Pdavis.nl. . Retrieved 4 December 2011.[223] Anti-Slavery International (http:/ / portal. unesco. org/ education/ en/ ev. php-URL_ID=9462& URL_DO=DO_PRINTPAGE&

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lpg=PP1& dq="hanging+ of+ arthur+ hodge") The Hanging of Arthur Hodge (http:/ / www2. xlibris. com/ bookstore/ bookdisplay.asp?bookid=970), Xlibris, 2000, ISBN 978-0-7388-1930-3. The assertion is probably correct; there appear to be no other records of anyBritish slave owners being executed for holding slaves, and, given the excitement which the Hodge trial excited, it seems improbable thatanother execution could have occurred without attracting attention. Slavery itself as an institution in the British West Indies only continued foranother 23 years after Hodge's death.

[225] Vernon Pickering, A Concise History of the British Virgin Islands, ISBN 978-0-934139-05-2, page 48[226] Records indicate at least two earlier incidents. On 23 November 1739, in Williamsburg, Virginia, two white men, Charles Quin and David

White, were hanged for the murder of another white man's black slave; and on 21 April 1775, the Fredericksburg newspaper, the VirginiaGazette reported that a white man William Pitman had been hanged for the murder of his own black slave. Blacks in Colonial America (http:/ /books. google. com/ books?vid=ISBN078640339X& id=quwi6J7GZ6wC& pg=PA101& lpg=PA101& dq="murder+ of+ a+negro#PPA101,M1), p101, Oscar Reiss, McFarland & Company, 1997; Virginia Gazette, 21 April 1775 (http:/ / departments. umw. edu/ hipr/www/ Fredericksburg/ newspapers/ vagaz/ 12may75s_1_3. htm), University of Mary Washington Department of Historic Preservationarchives

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html). Roconsulboston.com. 21 February 2006. . Retrieved 4 December 2011.[234] The Historical encyclopedia of world slavery, Volume 1 By Junius P. Rodriguez (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/

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[236] Jeremy Popkin, You Are All Free: The Haitian Revolution and the Abolition of Slavery(Cambridge University Press; 2010)[237] Yale Law School Avalon Project (http:/ / avalon. law. yale. edu/ imt/ chap_10. asp) retrieved 8 January 2011[238] "German Firms That Used Slave or Forced Labor During the Nazi Era" (http:/ / www. jewishvirtuallibrary. org/ jsource/ Holocaust/

germancos. html). Jewish Virtual Library. 27 January 2000. . Retrieved 19 September 2010.[239] United States Holocaust Museum (http:/ / www. ushmm. org/ wlc/ en/ article. php?ModuleId=10005180) retrieved 8 January 2011[240] "Slavery In Arabia" (http:/ / www. arabslavetrade. com). "Owen 'Alik Shahadah". .[241] "Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History" (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ blackhistory/ article-24157).

Britannica.com. . Retrieved 4 December 2011.[242] Slow Death for Slavery – Cambridge University Press (http:/ / www. cambridge. org/ us/ catalogue/ catalogue. asp?isbn=0521374693)[243] Digital History, Steven Mintz. "Digital History Slavery Fact Sheets" (http:/ / www. digitalhistory. uh. edu/ historyonline/ slav_fact. cfm).

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December 2011.[246] Fulani slave-raids (http:/ / www. nigeriavillagesquare. com/ board/ showpost. php?p=187188& postcount=25)[247] "Central African Republic: History" (http:/ / www. infoplease. com/ ce6/ world/ A0857229. html). Infoplease.com. 13 August 1960. .

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External links• Mémoire St Barth : Saint-Barthelemy's history (slave trade, slavery, abolitions) (http:/ / www. memoirestbarth.

com/ EN/ )• UN.GIFT (http:/ / www. ungift. org) – Global Initiative to Fight Human Trafficking• Slave Trade Archives Project, UNESCO (http:/ / portal. unesco. org/ ci/ en/ ev. php-URL_ID=8780&

URL_DO=DO_TOPIC& URL_SECTION=201. html)• Parliament & The British Slave Trade 1600 – 1807 (http:/ / www. parliament. uk/ slavetrade)• Digital History – Slavery Facts & Myths (http:/ / www. digitalhistory. uh. edu/ historyonline/ slav_fact. cfm)• Muslim Slave System in Medieval India (http:/ / www. voiceofdharma. com/ books/ mssmi)• Arab Slave Trade (http:/ / www. arabslavetrade. com)• Scotland and the Abolition of the Slave Trade – schools resource (http:/ / www. ltscotland. org. uk/ abolition/ )• African Holocaust Society (http:/ / www. africanholocaust. net) – Anti-slavery and self-determination working to

educate via media• The Forgotten Holocaust: The Eastern Slave Trade (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20091026211238/ http:/ /

www. geocities. com/ CollegePark/ Classroom/ 9912/ easterntrade. html)• Teaching resources about Slavery and Abolition on blackhistory4schools.com (http:/ / www.

blackhistory4schools. com/ slavetrade/ )• "What really ended slavery?" (http:/ / www. isj. org. uk/ index. php4?id=332& issue=115) Robin Blackburn,

author of a two-volume history of the slave trade, interviewed by International Socialism• David Brion Davis, "American and British Slave Trade Abolition in Perspective" (http:/ / southernspaces. org/

2009/ american-and-british-slave-trade-abolition-perspective), Southern Spaces, 4 February 2009.

History of slavery 44

• The Slave Next Door: Human Trafficking and Slavery in America Today (http:/ / www. democracynow. org/2009/ 9/ 9/ the_slave_next_door_human_trafficking) – video report by Democracy Now!

• Archives on slavery at the University of London (http:/ / www. ull. ac. uk/ specialcollections/ archives/slaveryarchivesources. shtml)

• Slavery Museum. Great Britain. (http:/ / www. slaverymuseum. co. uk/ )

Article Sources and Contributors 45

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Recorder, D6, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DBigXray,DCB4W, Dabomb87, Dalton00106, Danlyndon, Darkfrog24, Dash77, David Edgar, David Straub, Dawidbernard, Dbaughman9, Dcljr, Dcooper, DeCausa, DeadEyeArrow, Deivo, Delldot,Dentren, DerHexer, Derild4921, Deutschgirl, Dgw, Diannaa, Discospinster, Discott, DocWatson42, Docludi, Doktorspin, Doric Loon, DoubleBlue, Doulcy, DreamGuy, Dropbul, Drunkest1,Durova, E Wing, E123, Eachkeyes, Eckersleyl, Edderso, Edgar181, Editore99, Edward, Edward130603, Eilev G. Myhren, Ekabhishek, El C, Emilio Juanatey, Epbr123, Ephix, Erebus Morgaine,Ergative rlt, Euryalus, Ex0pos, Excirial, Ezeu, Fairlane75, Falcon Kirtaran, Faradayplank, Favonian, Fetu's dad, Fieldday-sunday, Fifty7, Floaterfluss, Florentino floro, Flying tiger, Fork44,Fratrep, Freakmighty, Frehley, Full Shunyata, Fusionmix, Fyyer, Gabi S., Gadfium, Gaff, Galoubet, Gareth Griffith-Jones, Garhowell, Gcle2003, Gcorral, Gensanders, Giorgos Tzimas, Glapa,Gobonobo, Goethean, Gogo Dodo, Goldfritha, GoodBlackCat, Goustien, Greenbreen, Ground Zero, Gscshoyru, Gunslinger1812, Gurch, Gurchzilla, Gökhan, H2g2bob, H8erade, Hakeem.gadi,Halaqah, Harvin96, Hatster301, Haukurth, Hdt83, Headbomb, Henrygb, Hesperian, Hibernian, Hind meri jaan, Hisacw, HkCaGu, Hmains, Howcheng, Hydrogen Iodide, Hypnosadist, IW.HG,Icarus3, Ida Shaw, Idnawutnum, Iguadont, Imagebasis33, Immunize, Imnotjohn, Iridescent, Irikas, Ixfd64, J mareeswaran, J-stan, J.delanoy, J04n, JLaTondre, Ja 62, Jab843, Jackmass, Jagged 85,James grats, January, Jarble, Jayjg, Jd027, Jerec576, JimWae, Jimmynogood, Jj137, Jlittlet, Jmlk17, JoDonHo, JoJan, John, John Hill, John of Reading, John254, JohnI, Johnbod, Johnpseudo,Jomifica, Joren, Joshh76, JrDRoberts, Julian2990, Juliancolton, Kablammo, Kafuffle, Kaianna09, Kam Solusar, Katalaveno, KathrynLybarger, Katiexoxo, Kevin, Kevlar67, Kielsky, Kimon, KingLopez, Kingpin13, Kirachinmoku, Kjb, KnowledgeLord, Kozuch, Krich, Krinkle, Kungfuadam, Kungming2, Kusunose, L-Bit, LCE1506, Labnoor, Larno Man, LarryJeff, Laurips, Lbparker40,Leandrod, LeaveSleaves, Lecen, Legis, LeilaStar, Lemmey, LestatdeLioncourt, Leuko, Liamfairbairn, Lickmycake, Lights, LilHelpa, Lindert, Ling.Nut, Literacola, LizardWizard, Loonymonkey,Loren.wilton, Lost 10tribes, Lotje, Lovetimes9, Lucyintheskywithdada, LukeScalone, LukeSurl, Luna Santin, Lyingover67, M-le-mot-dit, Magioladitis, Mahakaya, Majorly, Malangthon, Malc82,Malerhia, Malik Shabazz, Mandarax, Manoj Hare Krishna, Manuel de Sousa, Manway, Mardetanha, Marechal Ney, Marek69, Marhault, Mark Arsten, Mark91, Markellion, Martarius, Martey,Marv moskowitz, Mary quite contrary, Master Jay, Master of all Puppets, Matt91486, Maxdancona, Maximusveritas, Maxjunk, Mdann52, Mdwh, Meabandit, Mebden, Meekywiki, Megaboz,Meissen, Menah the Great, Mercenario97, Mervyn, Michael Hardy, Michael Jones jnr, Michael riber jorgensen, Michaelbusch, Middayexpress, Mike R, Mike in Aus, Mikeo, Mikm, Mild BillHiccup, Miranda, Modey K I, Mohamed Magdy, Mononomic, Moriori, Morning Sunshine, Morning277, Motothomas, Mount shit, Mpsgirl, Mr P00, Mr.Z-man, MrOllie, Mrzaius, MsTingaK,Mschel, MuZemike, Mujokan, Muntuwandi, Musliman08, Mynamesbob, N419BH, N5iln, Na zdravy, Nannus, Nanuck, Narsil, NawlinWiki, Neddyseagoon, Nedpow, Nenya17, NerdyNSK,Neurolysis, New Hampshirite, NewEnglandYankee, Nezzadar, Nicehumor, Nitpyck, Nja@andlev.com, No More Mr Nice Guy, NoPartido, Noah Salzman, North Shoreman, Ntsimp,Octahedron80, Oda Mari, Ohconfucius, Ohnoitsjamie, OlEnglish, Oneprincesslea, Op47, Orangebodhi, Ostap R, Ottawakismet, Ottis, Oydman, PBS, Pad.davies, Paddymc68, Pagliuco,Pandora.adams, Panwan, Park70, Parkwells, Party, PatGallacher, Paul foord, Paulmlieberman, Pegaszos, Penniedreadful, Persian Poet Gal, Peter G Werner, Peter Isotalo, Petrunov, Pfly,PhilKnight, Philip Trueman, Philwelch, Piano non troppo, Pinethicket, Piotrus, Piquant, Plangent, Plasin, Pokysamgg, Possum, Prometheusg, Provocateur, Psychonaut, Pularoid, Pupster21,Pushbreak, Pzavon, Qatter, Quibik, Qxz, RA0808, RB972, Radon210, RandomP, Ravenswing, Rdunsmore, Reach Out to the Truth, Rebel, Recurring dreams, Redthoreau, Reubster9911,Rexparry sydney, Rgsmith2b, Rhopkins8, Rich Farmbrough, Richard temple, Rinkle gorge, Rivea, Rjensen, Rjwilmsi, Rlbarton, Rob462, Robert A West, Rockincon1, Rosser1954, Runehelmet,RuthCobb, RyanTaylor1987, Ryanhuntsbears, SD5, SJP, SJUPadin, SP-KP, Sacar, Saddhiyama, SaltyBoatr, Sammykins27, SamuelTheGhost, Sanya3, Sarahwolf96, Sarcelles, SasiSasi, SatoriSon, Sbowers3, SchfiftyThree, Sdbsball10, Secthayrabe, Senzangakhona, Seth Nimbosa, Severo, Shandaken, Shanes, Shanker Pur, ShelfSkewed, Shell Kinney, Shikoo123, Shoy, Sinaloa, SirNicholas de Mimsy-Porpington, Slakr, Slazenger, Sleptrip, Sluzzelin, Smappy, Smurdah, Snowolf, Sonyray, Souls91, Special-T, Spicemix, Spudiman123, SpuriousQ, Sqll43, Squids and Chips,Sreekanthv, Srnec, St.daniel, Steevo714, StephenMacmanus, Steven J. 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Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:Slave treaty tablet.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Slave_treaty_tablet.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:FæFile:Slaves Zadib Yemen 13th century BNF Paris.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Slaves_Zadib_Yemen_13th_century_BNF_Paris.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: Aa77zz, AndreasPraefcke, Ashrf1979, Calame, Dcoetzee, Dsmdgold, G.dallorto, Gryffindor, Moez, UrbanFile:BainbridgeTribute.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BainbridgeTribute.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Merovingian aten.wikipediaFile:Giulio Rosati 3.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Giulio_Rosati_3.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AnonMoos, Barbe-Noire, Deerstop, Kilom691,Mattes, Pe-Jo, Zolo, 1 anonymous editsFile:Captain walter croker horror stricken at algiers 1815.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Captain_walter_croker_horror_stricken_at_algiers_1815.jpg  License:Public Domain  Contributors: Walker CrokerFile:Продажа ребенка-невольника.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Продажа_ребенка-невольника.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Berillium, Butko,Havang(nl), 3 anonymous editsFile:Chinese Slave trade.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chinese_Slave_trade.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:User:DiscottFile:Mines 1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mines_1.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: HuescaFile:ADIPompeii-27527-6.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ADIPompeii-27527-6.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Ken ThomasFile:Boulanger Gustave Clarence Rudolphe The Slave Market.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Boulanger_Gustave_Clarence_Rudolphe_The_Slave_Market.jpg License: Public Domain  Contributors: Beetjedwars, Bejnar, BrokenSphere, G.dallorto, Goldfritha, Kilom691, Pierpao, Shakko, Slomox, TwoWings, Vissarion, Warburg, 7 anonymous editsFile:360Niklas Stör Entführung in die Sklaverei.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:360Niklas_Stör_Entführung_in_die_Sklaverei.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: Niklas StörFile:Giovanni Maria Morandi - Religieux.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Giovanni_Maria_Morandi_-_Religieux.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:Aushulz, Oxxo, TakabegFile:Capture of Tunis 1535 liberation of 20000 Christian captives.jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Capture_of_Tunis_1535_liberation_of_20000_Christian_captives.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bukk, Flominator, Jane023,Moumou82, Vincent Steenberg, World ImagingFile:ManillaOkhapos.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ManillaOkhapos.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: ZykasaaFile:African slave trade.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:African_slave_trade.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:User:Aliesin, User:RunehelmetFile:Slaves ruvuma.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Slaves_ruvuma.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Béka, FSII, G.dallorto, JMCC1, JotaCartas, Mircea,Santosga

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 46

File:The inspection and sale of a slave.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_inspection_and_sale_of_a_slave.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Magog the Ogre,Ranveig, TwoWingsFile:João Ferreira Villela com a Ama-de-Leite Mônica, 1860.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:João_Ferreira_Villela_com_a_Ama-de-Leite_Mônica,_1860.jpg License: Public Domain  Contributors: Autor desconhecido / Unknown photographerFile:024debret.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:024debret.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Dantadd, Darwinius, Emijrp, G.dallorto, Javierme, Kajk,Origamiemensch, Ratatosk, Sitenl, Urban, Vonvon, 8 anonymous editsFile:Indian Soldiers from the Coritiba Province Escorting Native Prisoners.jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Indian_Soldiers_from_the_Coritiba_Province_Escorting_Native_Prisoners.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Cirt, QuibikFile:Tropenmuseum Royal Tropical Institute Objectnumber 3444-7 Begrafenis bij plantageslaven2.jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tropenmuseum_Royal_Tropical_Institute_Objectnumber_3444-7_Begrafenis_bij_plantageslaven2.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: 99of9,Berrucomons, Durova, Infrogmation, Yomangani, 1 anonymous editsFile:Slave Dance.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Slave_Dance.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Daniel jorge marques FFile:Virginia one hundred years ago.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Virginia_one_hundred_years_ago.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Harper's WeeklyFile:James Hopkinsons Plantation Slaves Going to Field.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:James_Hopkinsons_Plantation_Slaves_Going_to_Field.jpg  License:Public Domain  Contributors: Henry P. MooreFile:Cicatrices de flagellation sur un esclave.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cicatrices_de_flagellation_sur_un_esclave.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:Unknown. Part of the Blakeslee Collection, apparently collected by John Taylor of Hartford, Connecticut, USAFile:Proclamation esclavage.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Proclamation_esclavage.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Anne97432, Man vyi, Mathias-S,RamaFile:The Anti-Slavery Society Convention, 1840 by Benjamin Robert Haydon.jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_Anti-Slavery_Society_Convention,_1840_by_Benjamin_Robert_Haydon.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Berrucomons, BertholdWerner, Dcoetzee, Deadstar, Foroa, Innotata, Julia W, Man vyi, Mattes, Thierry Caro, Trycatch, Verne Equinox, Victuallers

LicenseCreative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported//creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/

Indentured servant 1

Indentured servantIndentured servitude was a form of debt bondage, established in the early years of the American colonies. Farmers,planters, and shopkeepers in the colonies found it very difficult to hire free workers, primarily because it was so easyfor potential workers to set up their own farms.[1] Consequently, a common solution was to transport a young workerfrom England or Germany, who would work for several years to pay off the debt of their travel costs. During theindenture period the servants were not paid wages, but were provided with food, accommodation, clothing andtraining. The indenture document specified how many years the servant would be required to work, after which theywould be free.Not all were sent willingly. Several instances of kidnapping for transportation to the Americas are recorded and thisfalls more clearly into the bracket of "white slave". Whilst these white slaves were often indentured in the same wayas their willing counterparts it is an important distinction to make. A good example of such a kidnap story is that ofPeter Williamson (Indian Peter) (1730-1799).Most white immigrants arrived in Colonial America as indentured servants, usually as young men and women fromBritain or Germany, under the age of 21. Typically, the father of a teenager would sign the legal papers, and workout an arrangement with a ship captain, who would not charge the father any money.[2] The captain would transportthe indentured servants to the American colonies, and sell their legal papers to someone who needed workers. At theend of the indenture, the young person was given a new suit of clothes and was free to leave. Many immediately setout to begin their own farms, while others used their newly acquired skills to pursue a trade.[3][4][5]

Indenture contract signed with an X by HenryMeyer in 1738

In the 17th century, nearly two-thirds of settlers to the New Worldfrom the British Isles came as indentured servants. Given the highdeath rate, many servants did not live to the end of their terms.[6] In the18th and early 19th century, numerous Europeans traveled to thecolonies as redemptioners, a form of indenture.[7]

It has been estimated that the redemptioners comprised almost 80% ofthe total British and continental emigration to America prior to theRevolution.[8] Indentured servants were a separate category frombound apprentices. The latter were American-born children, usuallyorphans or from an impoverished family who could not care for them.They were under the control of courts and were bound out to work asan apprentice until a certain age. Two famous bound apprentices wereBenjamin Franklin who illegally fled his apprenticeship to his brother,and Andrew Johnson, who later became president.[9]

Costs and wages

In the 18th century, wages in Great Britain were low because of a surplus of labor. The average was about 50shillings (£2.5) a year for a plowman, and 40 shillings (£2) a year for an ordinary unskilled worker. Ships' captainsnegotiated prices for transporting and feeding a passenger on the seven or eight week journey across the ocean,averaging about £5 to £7, the equivalent of four or five years of work back in England.[10][11]

Indentured servant 2

Indenture of apprenticeship bindingEvan Morgan, a child aged 6 years and11 months, for a period of 14 years, 1

month. Dated Feb. 1, 1823, Sussex Co.,Delaware.

Legal documents

An indenture was a legal contract enforced by the courts. One indenture readsas follows:[12]

This INDENTURE Witnesseth that James Best a Laborer dothVoluntarily put himself Servant to Captain Stephen Jones Masterof the Snow Sally to serve the said Stephen Jones and his Assigns,for and during the full Space, Time and Term of three Years fromthe first Day of the said James’ arrival in Philadelphia inAMERICA, during which Time or Term the said Master or hisAssigns shall and will find and supply the said James withsufficient Meat, Drink, Apparel, Lodging and all other necessariesbefitting such a Servant, and at the end and expiration of saidTerm, the said James to be made Free, and receive according tothe Custom of the Country. Provided nevertheless, and thesePresents are on this Condition, that if the said James shall pay thesaid Stephen Jones or his Assigns 15 Pounds British in twenty oneDays after his arrival he shall be Free, and the above Indentureand every Clause therein, absolutely Void and of no Effect. InWitness whereof the said Parties have hereunto interchangeablyput their Hands and Seals the 6th Day of July in the Year of ourLord, One Thousand Seven Hundred and Seventy Three in thePresence of the Right Worshipful Mayor of the City of London.(signatures)

When the ship arrived, the captain would often advertise in a newspaper that indentured servants were for sale:[13]

Just imported, on board the Snow Sally, Captain Stephen Jones, Master, from England, A number of healthy,stout English and Welsh Servants and Redemptioners, and a few Palatines [Germans], amongst whom are thefollowing tradesmen, viz. Blacksmiths, watch-makers, coppersmiths, taylors, shoemakers, ship-carpenters andcaulkers, weavers, cabinet-makers, ship-joiners, nailers, engravers, copperplate printers, plasterers, bricklayers,sawyers and painters. Also schoolmasters, clerks and book-keepers, farmers and labourers, and some livelysmart boys, fit for various other employments, whose times are to be disposed of. Enquire of the Captain onboard the vessel, off Walnut-street wharff, or of MEASE and CALDWELL.

When a buyer was found, the sale would be recorded at the city court. The Philadelphia Mayor’s Court IndentureBook, page 742, for September 18, 1773 has the following entry:[14]

James Best, who was under Indenture of Redemption to Captain Stephen Jones now cancelled inconsideration of £ 15, paid for his Passage from London bound a servant to David Rittenhouse of theCity of Philadelphia & assigns three years to be found all necessaries.

Indentured servant 3

RestrictionsIndentures could not marry without the permission of their owner, were subject to physical punishment (like manyyoung ordinary servants), and saw their obligation to labor enforced by the courts. To ensure uninterrupted work bythe female servants, the law lengthened the term of their indenture if they became pregnant. But unlike slaves,servants were guaranteed to be eventually released from bondage. At the end of their term they received a paymentknown as "freedom dues" and become free members of society.[15] One could buy and sell indentured servants'contracts, and the right to their labor would change hands, but not the person as a piece of property.Both male and female laborers could be subject to violence, occasionally even resulting in death. Richard Hofstadternotes that, as slaves arrived in greater numbers after 1700, white laborers became a "privileged stratum, assigned tolighter work and more skilled tasks".[16]

Redemptionist profileIndentured servitude was a method of increasing the number of colonists, especially in the English and later Britishcolonies. Voluntary migration and convict labor only provided so many people, and since the journey across theAtlantic was dangerous, other means of encouraging settlement were necessary. Contract-laborers became animportant group of people and so numerous that the United States Constitution counted them specifically inappointing representatives:

Representatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States which may be included withinthis Union, according to their respective Numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole Numberof free Persons, including those bound to Service for a Term of Years....[17]

Displaced from their land and unable to find work in the cities, many of these people signed contracts of indentureand took passage to the Americas. In Massachusetts, religious instruction in the Puritan way of life was often part ofthe condition of indenture, and people tended to live in towns.The labor-intensive cash crop of tobacco was farmed in the American South by indentured laborers in the 17th and18th centuries.[18] Indentured servitude was not the same as the apprenticeship system by which skilled trades weretaught, but similarities do exist between the two, since both require a set period of work. The majority of Virginianswere Anglican, not Puritan, and while religion did play a large role in everyday lives, the culture was morecommercially based. In the Chesapeake and North Carolina, tobacco constituted a major percentage of the totalagricultural output. (In the Deep South (mainly Georgia and South Carolina), cotton and rice plantations dominated.)In the lower Atlantic colonies where tobacco was the main cash crop, the majority of labor that indentured servantsperformed was related to field work. In this situation, social isolation could increase the possibilities for both directand indirect abuse, as could lengthy, demanding labor in the tobacco fields.The system was still widely practiced in the 1780s, picking up immediately after a hiatus during the AmericanRevolution. Fernand Braudel (The Perspective of the World 1984, pp 405f) instances a 1783 report on "the importtrade from Ireland" and its large profits to a ship owner or a captain, who:

"puts his conditions to the emigrants in Dublin or some other Irish port. Those who can pay for theirpassage—usually about 100 or 80 [livres tournois]—arrive in America free to take any engagement that suitsthem. Those who cannot pay are carried at the expense of the shipowner, who in order to recoup his money,advertises on arrival that he has imported artisans, laborers and domestic servants and that he has agreed withthem on his own account to hire their services for a period normally of three, four, or five years for men andwomen and 6 or 7 years for children."

In modern terms, the shipowner was acting as an contractor, hiring out his laborers. Such circumstances affected thetreatment a captain gave his valuable human cargo. After indentures were forbidden, the passage had to be prepaid,giving rise to the inhumane conditions of Irish 'coffin ships' in the second half of the 19th century.[19]

Indentured servant 4

DeclineIndentured servitude was a major element of colonial labor economics, from the 1620s until the AmericanRevolution. Few indentures arrived during the revolutionary war, and the indenturing practice subsequently declined.Several factors contributed to the decline of indentured servitude. The expansion of staple crop production in thecolonies led to an increased demand for skilled workers, and the price of indentured agricultural labor increased. Forexample, the cost of indentured labor rose by nearly 60 percent throughout the 1680s in some colonial regions.[20]

Relative labor costs changed, with an increase in real income in Europe and England. This, along with improvedtransportation productivity and efficiency with smaller crew sizes, and cheaper insurance rates reduced the cost ofthe voyage to the colonies, so immigrants could pay for it themselves and refrain from entering indentured contracts.Rising prices for English servants made the rather elastic supply of Africans comparatively less expensive and moredesirable. Colonial farmers preferred not to train adult slaves to do skilled labor, and chose to train younger Africanswhen they reached the colonies or to train the children of adult slaves already in British America. By the turn of the17th century, unskilled labor positions were often filled by African slaves and skilled service positions were stillfilled by white indentured servants.[20] Thereafter, Africans began to replace indentured servants in both skilled andunskilled positions.

CaribbeanA half million Europeans went as indentured servants to the Caribbean (primarily the south Caribbean, Trinidad,French Guiana, and Surinam) before 1840.[21][22] Most were young men, with dreams of owning their land orstriking it rich quick would essentially sell years of their labor in exchange for passage to the islands. Thelandowners on the islands would pay for a servant’s passage and then provide them with food, clothes, shelter andinstruction during the agreed upon term. The servant would then be required to work in the landowner’s (master)field for a term of bondage (usually four to seven years). During this term of bondage the servant had a status similarto a son of the master. For example they were not allowed to marry without the master’s permission. They could ownpersonal property. They could also complain to a local magistrate about mistreatment that exceeded communitynorms. However, his contract could be sold or given away by his master. After the servant’s term was complete hebecame independent and was paid “freedom dues”. These payments could take the form of land which would give theservant the opportunity to become an independent farmer or a free laborer. As free men with little money theybecame a political force that stood in opposition to the rich planters.[23]

Indentured servitude was a common part of the social landscape in England and Ireland during the 17th century.During the 17th century, many Irish were also taken to Barbados. In 1643, there were 37,200 whites in Barbados(86% of the population).[24] During the Wars of the Three Kingdoms many Scottish and Irish prisoners of war weresold as indentured labors to the colonies.[25]

After 1660, fewer indentured servants came from Europe to the Caribbean. Newly freed servant farmers, given a fewacres of land, were unable to make a living because profitable sugar plantations needed to cover hundreds of acres.The landowners’ reputation as cruel masters became a deterrence to the potential indentured servant. In the 17thcentury, the islands became known as a death traps, as between 33 to 50 percent of indentured servants died beforethey were freed, many from Yellow fever, malaria and other diseases.[26]

When slavery ended in the British Empire in 1833, plantation owners turned to indentured servitude for inexpensivelabor. These servants arrived from across the globe; the majority came from India where many Indians departed asindentured laborers to work in colonies requiring manual labor. As a result, today Indo-Caribbeans form a majorityin Guyana, a plurality in Trinidad and Tobago and Suriname, and a substantial minority in Jamaica, Grenada,Barbados, and other Caribbean islands.[27][28]

Indentured servant 5

Australia and the PacificConvicts transported to the Australian colonies before the 1840s often found themselves hired out in a form ofindentured labor.[29] Indentured servants also emigrated to New South Wales.[30]

During the 1860s planters in Australia, Fiji, New Caledonia, and the Samoa Islands, in need of laborers, encourageda trade in long-term indentured labor called "blackbirding". At the height of the labor trade, more than one-half theadult male population of several of the islands worked abroad.Over a period of 40 years, from the mid-19th century to the early 20th century, labor for the sugar-cane fields ofQueensland, Australia included an element of coercive recruitment and indentured servitude of the 62,000 South SeaIslanders. The workers came mainly from Melanesia - mainly from the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu - with a smallnumber from Polynesian and Micronesian areas such as Samoa, the Gilbert Islands (subsequently known as Kiribati)and the Ellice Islands (subsequently known as Tuvalu). They became collectively known as "Kanakas".It remains unknown how many Islanders the trade controversially kidnapped (or blackbirded). Whether the systemlegally recruited Islanders, persuaded, deceived, coerced or forced them to leave their homes and travel by ship toQueensland remains difficult to determine. Official documents and accounts from the period often conflict with theoral tradition passed down to the descendants of workers. Stories of blatantly violent kidnapping tend to relate to thefirst 10–15 years of the trade.Australia deported many of these Islanders to their places of origin in the period 1906-1908 under the provisions ofthe Pacific Island Labourers Act 1901.[31]

Australia's own colonies of Papua and New Guinea (joined after the Second World War to form Papua New Guinea)were the last jurisdictions in the world to use indentured servitude.

AfricaA significant number of construction projects, principally British, in East Africa and South Africa, required vastquantities of labor, exceeding the availability or willingness of local tribesmen. Coolies from India were imported,frequently under indenture, for such projects as the Uganda Railway, as farm labor, and as miners. They and theirdescendants and formed a significant portion of the population and economy of Kenya and Uganda, although notwithout engendering resentment from others. Idi Amin's expulsion of the "Asians" from Uganda in 1972 was anexpulsion of Indo-Africans.[32]

Indian OceanThe islands of the Indian Ocean, especially Mauritius, with extensive sugar cane plantations sought a cheaperworkforce than emancipated workers negotiating for higher wages. Mauritius was the country of coolitude,[33] the'Great Experiment' of widespread recourse to indentured labor having started there. Mauritius acted as a hub orplaque tournante for this indentured population of coolies, receiving and onward dispatching hundreds of thousandsof coolies to Africa and the Indies through the Aapravasi ghat.

Legal statusThe Universal Declaration of Human Rights (adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1948) declares inArticle 4 "No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and the slave trade shall be prohibited in all theirforms".[34] However, only national legislation can establish its unlawfulness. In the United States, the Victims ofTrafficking and Violence Protection Act (VTVPA) of 2000 extended servitude to cover peonage as well asInvoluntary Servitude.[35]

Indentured servant 6

Notes[1] Fred Shannon, Economic History of the People of the United States (1934) pp 73-79[2] William Moraley and Susan E. Klepp, The infortunate: the voyage and adventures of William Moraley an indentured servant, Google Books,

page xx[3] James Curtis Ballagh, White Servitude In The Colony Of Virginia: A Study Of The System Of Indentured Labor In The American Colonies

(1895)[4] Frank R. Diffenderffer, The German Immigration into Pennsylvania Through the Port of Philadelphia, 1700-1775, (1979); this book

describes the indenturing process in detail for immigrants from numerous European countries.[5] Moraley, William; Klepp, Susan E. and Smith, Billy Gordon (2005). The infortunate: the voyage and adventures of William Moraley, an

indentured servant (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=FPk4MtlX9oUC). Pennsylvania State University Press. ISBN 0-271-02676-6. .[6] White Servitude (http:/ / www. montgomerycollege. edu/ Departments/ hpolscrv/ whiteser. html), by Richard Hofstadter, Montgomery

College[7] "Price & Associates: Immigrant Servants Database" (http:/ / www. immigrantservants. com/ ). Immigrantservants.com. . Retrieved

2009-07-04.[8] See Richard B. Morris, "Emergence of American Labor." (http:/ / www. dol. gov/ oasam/ programs/ history/ chapter1. htm) U.S. Department

of Labor, August 30, 2005.[9] Ruth Wallis Herndon and John E. Murray, eds., Children Bound to Labor: The Pauper Apprentice System in Early America (2009)[10] Shannon, Economic History of the People of the United States (1934) pp. 75-76[11] Kerby A. Miller et al,, eds. (2003). Irish Immigrants in the Land of Canaan: Letters and Memoirs from Colonial and Revolutionary

America, 1675-1815 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=bq79_YZ8ViIC& pg=PA75). Oxford U.P.. p. 75. .[12] Frank R. Diffenderffer, The German Immigration into Pennsylvania Through the Port of Philadelphia, 1700-1775, Genealogical Pub. Co.,

Baltimore, 1979.[13] Pennsylvania Gazette (weekly Philadelphia newspaper), August 17, 1774[14] Record of Indentures, Philadelphia, 1771-1773, Genealogical Publishing Co., Baltimore, 1973.[15] Eric Foner: Give me liberty. W.W.Norton & Company, 2004. ISBN 978-0-393-97873-5.[16] White Servitude (http:/ / www. mc. cc. md. us/ Departments/ hpolscrv/ whiteser. html), by Richard Hofstadter[17][17] U.S. Constitution, Article 1, Section 2.[18] "Laws on Indentured Servants" (http:/ / www. virtualjamestown. org/ servlaws. html). VirtualJamestown.org. circa 1619-1654. . Retrieved

2008-08-18.[19][19] Jackson, Pauline (1984). "Women in 19th Century Irish Emigration"[20] Galenson 1984, p. 1–26[21] Michael D. Bordo, Alan M. Taylor, Jeffrey G. Williamson, eds. Globalization in historical perspective (2005) p. 72[22] Gordon K. Lewis and Anthony P. Maingot, Main Currents in Caribbean Thought: The Historical Evolution of Caribbean Society in Its

Ideological Aspects, 1492-1900 (2004) pp 96-97[23][23] Lewis and Maingot (2004) p 97[24] Population (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ history/ british/ empire_seapower/ barbados_03. shtml), Slavery and Economy in Barbados, BBC.[25][25] Higman 1997, p. 108[26] A failed settler society: marriage and demographic failure in early Jamaica (http:/ / findarticles. com/ p/ articles/ mi_m2005/ is_n1_v28/

ai_16106981/ pg_2), Journal of Social History, Fall, 1994, by Trevor Burnard[27] Walton Lai, Indentured labor, Caribbean sugar: Chinese and Indian migrants to the British West Indies, 1838-1918 (1993)[28] Steven Vertovik, "Indian Indentured Migration to the Caribbean," in Robin Cohen, ed. The Cambridge survey of world migration (1995) pp

57-62[29] Atkinson, James (1826). An account of the state of agriculture & grazing in New South Wales (http:/ / books. google. co. nz/

books?id=RV0BsFB3BPoC). London: J. Cross. p. 110. . Retrieved 2012-11-14. "On Sir Thomas Brisbane assuming the Government, it wasordered, that all persons should, for every 100 acres of land granted to them, take and keep one convict until the expiration or remission of hissentence."

[30] Perkins, John (1988), "Convict Labour and the Australian Agricultural Company" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=PX2hli7W8WkC),in Nicholas, Stephen, The Convict Workers: Reinterpeting Australia's Past, Studies in Australian History, Cambridge University Press, p. 168,ISBN 9780521361262, , retrieved 2012-11-14, "A feature of the Australian Agricultural Company's operation at Port Stephens was thesimultaneous employment [...] of various forms of labour. The original nucleus of the workforce consisted of indentured servants brought outfrom Europe on seven-year contracts."

[31] "Documenting Democracy" (http:/ / www. foundingdocs. gov. au/ item. asp?sdID=86). Foundingdocs.gov.au. . Retrieved 2009-07-04.[32] Patel, Hasu H. (1972). "General Amin and the Indian Exodus from Uganda". Issue: A Journal of Opinion 2 (4): 12–22.

doi:10.2307/1166488.[33][33] M Carter and K Torabully.Coolitude: An Anthology of the Indian Labour Diaspora (Anthem South Asian Studies)ISBN 978-1843310068[34] "Universal Declaration of Human Rights" (http:/ / www. un. org/ en/ documents/ udhr/ index. shtml). United Nations. . Retrieved

2011-10-14.[35] "US Peonage and involuntary servitude laws" (http:/ / www. justice. gov/ crt/ about/ crm/ 1581fin. php). justice.gov. . Retrieved 2011-10-14.

Indentured servant 7

References• Galenson, David (March 1984). "The Rise and Fall of Indentured Servitude in the Americas: An Economic

Analysis". The Journal of Economic History 44 (1): 1–26.• Higman, B. W. (1997). Knight, Franklin W.. ed. General History of the Caribbean: The slave societies of the

Caribbean. 3 (illustrated ed.). UNESCO. p. 108. ISBN 978-0-333-65605-1.

Further reading• Abramitzky, Ran; Braggion, Fabio. "Migration and Human Capital: Self-Selection of Indentured Servants to the

Americas," Journal of Economic History, Dec 2006, Vol. 66 Issue 4, pp 882–905,• Ballagh, James Curtis. White Servitude In The Colony Of Virginia: A Study Of The System Of Indentured Labor

In The American Colonies (1895)• Brown, Kathleen. Goodwives, Nasty Wenches & Anxious Patriachs: gender, race and power in Colonial Virginia,

U. of North Carolina Press, 1996.• Hofstadter, Richard. America at 1750: A Social Portrait (Knopf, 1971) pp 33–65 online (http:/ / www. mc. cc.

md. us/ Departments/ hpolscrv/ whiteser. html)• Jernegan, Marcus Wilson Laboring and Dependent Classes in Colonial America, 1607-1783 (1931)• Morgan, Edmund S. American Slavery, American Freedom: The Ordeal of Colonial Virginia. (Norton, 1975).• Salinger, Sharon V. To serve well and faithfully: Labor and Indentured Servants in Pennsylvania,

1682-1800. (2000)• Khal Torabully and Marina Carter, Coolitude: An Anthology of the Indian Labour Diaspora Anthem Press,

London, 2002, ISBN 1-84331-003-1• Zipf, Karin L. Labor of Innocents: Forced Apprenticeship in North Carolina, 1715-1919 (2005).• Whitehead, John Frederick, Johann Carl Buttner, Susan E. Klepp, and Farley Grubb. Souls for Sale: Two German

Redemptioners Come to Revolutionary America, Max Kade German-American Research Institute Series, ISBN0-271-02882-3.

• Marion, Pascal. Dictionnaire étymologique du créole réunionnais, mots d'origine asiatique, Carré de sucre, 2009,ISBN 978-2-9529135-0-8

External links• GUIANA 1838 - a film about indentured labourers (http:/ / www. rbcradio. com/ guiana1838. html)

Article Sources and Contributors 8

Article Sources and ContributorsIndentured servant  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=528093003  Contributors: 7, A More Perfect Onion, Access Denied, Acewolf359, Acoma Magic, Acq3, Adambro,Agathoclea, Agent Smith (The Matrix), Aklop, Allentchang, Andrechan, Andy5421, Angr, Apparition11, Arthena, Auntof6, Axlq, BDD, Backenjoy, Beland, Benjamin Gatti, BirdValiant, Bletch,Blethering Scot, Blooooo, Bobo192, Brian3030, Byelf2007, CJ Withers, Calabraxthis, Callanecc, Calvin 1998, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Casewicz, Cassowary, Cbpitt01, Centpacrr, CharlesMatthews, Chillum, ChrisCork, Cireshoe, Ckatz, Clarityfiend, Cleared as filed, Cntras, Coletrain114, Cometstyles, Dainomite, Dakinijones, Dan653, Davewho2, Decumanus, Der Falke,DerHexer, Devil Master, Dhodges, DietLimeCola, Digital Watches, Dipics, Discospinster, Djembayz, Dragon kairo, DragonChi, Dreadstar, Drfryer, Dycedarg, Ed Poor, Eixo, Emaleth728,Emersoni, Epbr123, Erianna, Erik9, Esrever, Evan G, Evice, Evil Monkey, Falcon8765, FastLizard4, Fbv65edel, FeatherPluma, Flips11, Frecklefoot, Funnyhat, Futurejournalist, Garik,George2001hi, Gerda Arendt, Gfoley4, Ghirlandajo, Gilliam, Gingekerr, Girmitya, Glane23, Gnowor, Gong rider, Gonzalo diaz, Grant65, GreatWhiteNortherner, Greensburger, Grinner, Grzebo,Guettarda, Guy Montag, Hadal, Hakluyt bean, Hallows AG, Henrygb, Hertz1888, Hibernian, Highmarkslimit, Hmains, Hornandsoccer, Hucktunes, Husond, Hypnosadist, I dream of horses,IceandWind, Ipatrol, Irishguy, Ixfd64, J.delanoy, JForget, Jack Upland, Jagged 85, Jamesontai, Jbmurray, Jeeny, Jeff G., Jeni, Jiang, John Hill, Johnbod, Jonathan.s.kt, JoshuaZ, Jpatokal,Jpgordon, Junes, JustAGal, Jwalte04, Kansoku, Kazvorpal, Keilana, Kerry Raymond, Khazar2, Kingturtle, Kiore, Kukini, Kungfuadam, Kusma, L Kensington, Lapsed Pacifist, LeeG, Lestari,Leuko, Lightmouse, Longbow4u, Loveeachother, Lowellian, Lunarmovements, MER-C, MPF, MPS, Mais oui!, Malangthon, Master of Puppets, Masterdarwin88, Matt872000, Maximus Rex,Mcohurlids, Michael Hardy, Mike hayes, Miraclediver, MissJanani, Mongeese202, Moonraker, Mooquackwooftweetmeow, Moshe Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg, Mrslippery, Mrt3366,Muntuwandi, Mwenechanga, Mweymar, Mwilso24, Myanw, Mytildebang, N2e, N5iln, NawlinWiki, NellieBlyMobile, NeoJustin, Nerds united123, NewEnglandYankee, Nghofranian, Nipisiquit,Nnemo, Noctibus, Nonel, Norm mit, North Shoreman, Nyttend, Oosoom, Orange Suede Sofa, PBS, PMLawrence, PTiger1985, Patrick, Paul foord, Penubag, Pepper, Petri Krohn, Phantomsteve,Philip Trueman, Philip72, Philthecow, Piano non troppo, Piledhigheranddeeper, Pinethicket, Poetaris, Pol098, Political hack, Possum, Prari, Psinu, Puchiko, Pumpkinjelly2011, Pxma, Queen ofAwesome, R'n'B, RJII, RTG, Rarr, Rbvalle15, Rdsmith4, Red King, RedWordSmith, Rehoboam, Reimon88, Reyk, Rjensen, Ronhjones, RoyBoy, Rsabbatini, Ryuhaku, SG, Saayiit, Sahazel,Sandwich Eater, Sannse, SchfiftyThree, SchmittVanDean, Scyldscefing, Shauni, Shirik, Shortena, Sigmundur, SimonP, Slakr, Snowolf, Some jerk on the Internet, Ssrout, StanZegel,StephenMacmanus, Stephencdickson, Student7, Sundiiiiii, SuzanneIAM, Svick, Tcamps42, Techman224, Teddythetank, Thayts, The Anome, The Land, The Thing That Should Not Be,TheRealTeln, Themfromspace, ThinkBlue, Three-quarter-ten, Thu, Thumperward, Tim Boddington, Tobby72, Toon05, Trasman, Tumadoireacht, Uglybilly6743, UnicornTapestry, Universe,Vaulx, Vintovka Dragunova, Virginian74, Wetman, Wexcan, Whateva09, WhiskyWhiskers, Widr, Wikipediatastic, Wikipelli, William Avery, Winterst, Wjbean, Wknight94, Wkpdia rox, Xxpor,Yamamoto Ichiro, Yvwv, 686 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:Indenturecertificate.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Indenturecertificate.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Greensburger aten.wikipediaFile:Indenture - Servitude 1823.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Indenture_-_Servitude_1823.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Centpacrr

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