The Handbook of Security Sample Pages v-17 Index Introduction by Martin Gill]

41
Contents  List of Tables viii  List of Figures ix  List of Abbreviations xi  Acknowledgement s xv  List of Contributors xvi 1 Introduction 1  Martin Gill Part I Security as a Discipline 19 2 A History of Security 21  Robert D. McCrie 3 The Study of National Security Versus the Study of Cor porate Security: What Can They Learn From Each Other? 45 Craig Stapley, Suzette Grillot and Stephen Sloan 4 Engineering Principles for Security Managers 66  Bradley B. Rogers 5 Contributions of Environmental Studies to Security 90  Richard H. Schneider 6 Forensic Security and the Law 118  Daniel B. Kenne dy 7The Study of Intelligence and Its Contributions to Security 146  James D. Calder 8 Criminology and Security 179 Graham Farrell and Ken Pease Part II Crimes and Organizations 201 9 Employee Theft and Staff Dishonesty 203  Richard C. Hollinger and Jason L . Davis 10 The Ex tent, Na ture a nd Resp onses to Workp lace Violence Globally: Issues and Findings 229  Elena Licu and Bonnie S. Fisher v

Transcript of The Handbook of Security Sample Pages v-17 Index Introduction by Martin Gill]

  • Contents

    List of Tables viii

    List of Figures ix

    List of Abbreviations xi

    Acknowledgements xv

    List of Contributors xvi

    1 Introduction 1Martin Gill

    Part I Security as a Discipline 19

    2 A History of Security 21Robert D. McCrie

    3 The Study of National Security Versus the Study of Corporate Security: What Can They Learn From Each Other? 45Craig Stapley, Suzette Grillot and Stephen Sloan

    4 Engineering Principles for Security Managers 66Bradley B. Rogers

    5 Contributions of Environmental Studies to Security 90Richard H. Schneider

    6 Forensic Security and the Law 118Daniel B. Kennedy

    7 The Study of Intelligence and Its Contributions to Security 146James D. Calder

    8 Criminology and Security 179Graham Farrell and Ken Pease

    Part II Crimes and Organizations 201

    9 Employee Theft and Staff Dishonesty 203Richard C. Hollinger and Jason L. Davis

    10 The Extent, Nature and Responses to Workplace Violence Globally: Issues and Findings 229Elena Licu and Bonnie S. Fisher

    v

  • 11 Combating White-Collar and Organized Economic Crimes: Some Reflections on the Role of Security 261Michael Levi

    12 Commercial Burglary 281Rob I. Mawby

    13 Shoptheft 302Read Hayes and Caroline Cardone

    14 Terrorism 328Paul Wilkinson

    15 Information Security 358Jason Crampton, Kenneth G. Paterson, Fred Piper and Matthew J.B. Robshaw

    Part III Security Services 381

    16 The Security Officer 383Alison Wakefield

    17 Store Detectives and Loss Prevention 408Read Hayes

    18 Private Investigators 423Tim Prenzler

    19 CCTV: Is it Effective? 438Martin Gill

    20 Shrinkage and Radio Frequency Identification (RFID): Prospects, Problems and Practicalities 462Adrian Beck

    Part IV Security Management 483

    21 Management 485Joshua Bamfield

    22 Risk Management 509Mary Lynn Garcia

    23 Disaster and Crisis Management 532Dominic Elliott

    Part V Issues in Security 561

    24 Regulation of Private Security: Models for Analysis 563Mark Button and Bruce George

    vi Contents

  • 25 Corporate Security: A Cost or Contributor to the Bottom Line? 586Dennis Challinger

    26 Trends in the Development of Security Technology 610Clifton Smith

    27 Theorizing About Security 629Giovanni Manunta and Roberto Manunta

    Index 658

    Contents vii

  • 1IntroductionMartin Gill

    The nature of security threats is changing and so too are the types of responses.Worldwide there has generally been a move away from concern about nuclearbombs aimed at countries to terrorist attacks aimed at individuals, organizationsand communities. The focus on a nations ability to strike has largely beenreplaced by individual, community and organizational awareness to resist andreact.

    Yet in only some cases has security achieved a greater significance on the cor-porate agenda. In many ways security suffers from being a grudge purpose,important it may be, but it is not a welcome spend all too often associated withthe unattractive features of a locks and bolts approach, or what is its modernequivalent of cameras, tags and alarms. Measures can be functional, but they arenot always viewed as attractive and it is not always obvious to all parties whatbenefits they generate. Perhaps the real limitation of modern security manage-ment is that it has, in general, failed to talk the language of business not least inshowing how it systematically impacts (positively or negatively) on the bottomline. There are of course many very effective security departments, some ex-cellent security companies, and some extremely astute security personnel, but alltoo often security is seen as the poor relation both in the corporate hierarchy andas a member of the extended law enforcement family.

    At least part of the reason for this is that the study of private/corporate securityhas to be regarded as an embryonic discipline, perhaps at the stage computerscience was 30 years ago and environmental science 20 years ago. There are stillmajor definitional problems that have never been satisfactorily resolved (see fore.g. Johnston, 2000; Johnston and Shearing, 2003). As many texts on securitynote, while in English security and safety are different words with differentmeanings, in other languages one word describes the two. And different dis-ciplines use security to refer to quite different things. For example, it can referto security on the streets and in homes and then it becomes part of the disciplineof policing or crime prevention, where it focuses on organizational assets itcomes under the umbrella of security management and occasionally business ororganizational studies. In a different way it can refer to the defence of a countrywhere it becomes part of the discipline of war studies, or peace studies or defence

    1

  • studies and so on. Indeed, the emergence of private military groups offers newforms of security and new areas of study.1 Moreover, within these disciplinesthere is relatively little cross referencing (but see Chapter 3).

    The problem of definition is not an abstract one deserving only the attentionof academics, it has practical implications. On one level security regulators needto know what to include and what to exclude and definitions are crucial toguiding that choice. In a different way perceptions of what is a security context(see the final chapter of this book for a discussion) will influence what is anappropriate security response. As Johnston and Shearing (2003: 3) note:

    Our objective sense of security (our feelings of safety) is just as important tomost of us as any objective measure of our actual security (i.e. the risks thatwe actually face). However, if the discrepancy between the two grows toowide, we are liable to be warned either that we have a false sense of securityor that we are paranoid. Thus, to be effective security measures must addressour subjective perceptions as well as more objectively identifiable threats to our safety.

    The fact that security is still evolving as a distinct area of study in part explainsthe reason for preparing this book. Later the content and the rationale will beintroduced but as a backdrop there are two issues that are in different ways coreto assessing the current state of security. The first involves a short commentaryon the extent of security which includes a consideration of the way it is pro-vided, and second, a review of what we know about good security in terms of itseffectiveness.

    Security: here, there and everywhere

    Security is omni-present; there are clearly limits to what the State can provide(see, Garland, 1996)2 and this has enabled the private sector to flourish.3 Privatesecurity has expanded (see George and Button, 2000),4 and in many ways the ser-vices offered mirrors and then extends those of the State. As Johnston andShearing (2003: 323) drawing on the work of a range of studies note:

    It is now virtually impossible to identify any function within the governanceof security in democratic states that is not, somewhere and under some cir-cumstances, performed by non-state authorities as well as by state ones. As aresult, policy-makers are now ready to accept that the effective governance ofsecurity requires co-operation, collaboration and networking between part-ners and that exact demarcation between the respective responsibilities ofpartners may be difficult, or even impossible to establish.

    In practice partnerships can be problematic (although what partnerships arent atleast from time to time?), not least because the parties involved emerge from aset of conflicting principles (see, Prenzler and Sarre, 2002). In general, the private

    2 The Handbook of Security

  • sector is accountable only to those who pay for it, and it is geared towards profit,somewhat in contrast to providers of state services. Each type of service generatesdifferent benefits and associated with some limitations leading Johnston andShearing (2003) to advocate a nodal approach with the nodes representing a setof shifting alliances consisting of state sector, corporate or business sector, nongovernmental organizations, and the informal or voluntary sector. As they pointout (p. 148):

    by linking up or networking non state nodes of security with each other,and with state nodes, it is possible that some of the strengths of private formsof provision may be maximised, and some of their dangers minimised.

    There are a range of reasons why partnerships are problematic. Indeed, the studyof the privatization of security has included fairly extensive discussion in the lit-erature where a prime focus has been the relationship between private policingand alternatives forms of provision (especially the State) (e.g. Bayley andShearing, 2001; Button, 2002, 2004; De Waard, 1999; Gill and Hart, 1997;Johnston, 2000; King, and Prenzler, 2003; Prenzler, 2004; Prenzler and Sarre,2002; Sarre, 2005; Sarre and Prenzler, 1999, 2000; Shearing, 1992). The dif-ficulties in a partnership approach extend beyond mere ideological differences(see, McLeod, 2002; Rigakos, 2002). For example, the method used by Govern-ments to allocate budgets is generally prescriptive specifying how money shouldbe spent. It would seem much more sensible to provide a budget to the localpolice chief and ask him or her to develop a policing plan responding to localcircumstances that would then need to be approved by local representatives. Itmay be prudent to have fewer police and more support officers, or perhaps someof the money spent on police would be better spent providing administrativehelp or specialist private security expertise. Indeed, the way budgets are allocatedhas as much to do with the limited role of security as any ideological differences,and as security develops an expertise in a march to professionalization it couldbe the main factor that keeps it at arms length.5 Certainly, it should not beassumed that the public are against the use of private security officers in publicspace (Noakes, 2000).

    Already it can be seen that the term private security used as an umbrellaphase can refer to different activities. Table 1.1 is an attempt to highlight someof the ways in which security can be provided in what I have called The MixedEconomy of Security. For each type or sector of provision some of the key waysthat security is provided are listed with examples. Thus although it is not uncom-mon to discuss policing provision in terms of private, public, voluntary andinformal (see Gill and Mawby, 1990a, b; Mawby, 2005) breaking these downfurther illustrates the very varied types of ways in which security can and is sup-plied and paid for. Private does not just mean a security company providing itsservices directly to clients, there might also be an internal market within an orga-nization, even a public one. Or individuals working for an employer may spendsome of their time working for someone else, including for the benefit of the

    Martin Gill 3

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  • public. Public employees may become involved in different ways too, and thevoluntary sector can include anything from benign vigilantes6 to police volun-teers. And the informal sector is a major provider of security, considerable protection is provided by the family and friends and neighbours.

    The main purpose here is to illustrate the varied and very different ways inwhich security is provided and to note that there are different implications interms of quality and type of service, and accountability issues in these diversearrangements, and this is likely to have different implications for measures ofeffectiveness too. This is not intended to imply that there is a best way of provid-ing security, they all might be best for particular circumstances, it is more a caseof truly understanding the dimensions of each in order to understand what isappropriate or best in a given context. Clearly, the next important step (otherthan to refine and improve Table 1.1) is to assess which types of provision aresuited to a particular set of circumstances and to try and highlight the strengthsand weaknesses of each and to compare them. It says much about the state of research on security and private policing that these issues have yet to be putunder the microscope. Doing so will entail a broader multi-disciplinaryapproach, and will certainly require researchers to move outside the boundariesof single disciplines (Johnston and Shearing, 2003).

    How good is security?

    There is a common-sense answer that it must be good. Few people, it seems,doubt the wisdom and certainly appear to accept detailed screening at airports,or the need for access controls to some premises. And evidence that security isvalued can be derived from business practice which continues to purchase secu-rity, and in some cases invest more each year (Collins et al., 2005). It is difficultto imagine bottom line focused organizations continuing with investments thatthey thought they could do without or did not believe were working. But ofcourse this does not mean to say that they have carefully costed this, nor thatwhat they have is the best. Indeed, many organizations do not have developedreturn on investment models for security operations, and few companies, andthis includes security manufacturers and suppliers have collated credible inde-pendent evidence that their products specifically work to achieve clients objec-tives. Too often a range of measures cause an effect and it is not always easy toidentify which ones can claim credit for the success.

    This does not mean to say that there is no good evidence of security workingboth effectively and cost-effectively (see Welsh and Farrington, 1999). But theproblem is that there is relatively little research explaining what works and why,or for that matter what does not work and why which is arguably just as helpful.Within the criminology literature there has been a lot of work devoted to reduc-ing opportunities for crime by applying a range of situational prevention tech-niques. In a recent review of the approach (Clarke, 2005), its main proponent,Ron Clarke, has helpfully outlined a defence against some of the main criticismsof situational prevention although, from my point of view at least, it misses one

    8 The Handbook of Security

  • important element, and that is that situational prevention over simplifies thesolution. As an approach and it provides an excellent framework for security it has not so far located itself within a management framework, yet many secu-rity projects/measures fail to succeed because they are poorly conceived orbecause they are badly implemented (for example, see, Gill and Spriggs, 2005). Itis all too easy to claim that a measure or measures have not worked withoutbeing clear why, was it a failure of the measure, or the way it was implemented,in short a failure of theory or practice?

    Corporate security is a world desperate for more quality evaluations helpingto explain what works, what does not and crucially, why this is the case.Certainly there is a greater need for evaluation approaches that are more pract-ical for end users. And most importantly, there is a need to communicate thefindings to those at the sharp end of practice. Indeed, the whole process ofcommunicating findings effectively to audiences who have learned to be scep-tical of academic studies is a task in itself. Very little attention has been paidto identifying specific skill sets and thinking through how these can be com-municated or translated into training programmes aimed at practitioners andpolicy makers. Indeed, much more information is needed on how practitionersabsorb information and the forms they need it in in order to make the mostuse of it. Certainly the timescales of research and evaluation do not meet themore immediate requirements of those charged with taking actions thatrequire more immediate solutions. And there has been a lack of investment insecurity theory looking at developing principles and testing theory applicationin different contexts.

    There is one other thing that needs to be discussed in the context of the studyof private or corporate security, and that is a body of writings which question itsvalue or perhaps more its role in democratic societies. This is not necessarily aMarxist critique that calls for the overthrow of anything private, more a case of a critical approach to the role of (private) security that is potentially divisive in ademocracy because it is accountable only to those who can pay. Loader (1997a)is concerned about the inequalities of private security provision, in that it is pro-vided on the basis of an ability to pay and without reference to the commongood. It can be especially problematic, if those able to secure protection in the market place begin to resent paying through general taxation for publicpolicing (on the grounds that they will then be paying twice) (p. 385). Loaderspoint is not that all security should be provided by the State, more that there areissues about how private security is provided that should concern all democraticsocieties, or, specifically:

    What kinds of limits would a political community committed to equal citizen-ship and concerned to encourage social cohesion among its members place onthe market exchange of security provision? (p. 385)

    In a similar way Zedner (2003: 179) notes in the conclusion to her paper entitledToo Much Security?; I have sought to show that the pursuit of security is by no

    Martin Gill 9

  • means an unequivocal good, and she does this by identifying six paradoxes ofsecurity, these are:

    that security pursues risk reduction but presumes the persistence of crime;that the expansion of security has enlarged not diminished the penal state;that security promises reassurance but in fact increases anxiety; that security isposited as a universal good but presumes social exclusion; that securitypromises freedom but erodes civil liberties; and finally that security is positedas a public good but its pursuit is inimical to the good society. (pp. 17980)

    There is not the space here to examine these arguments (see also Loader, 1997b),and others like them, but they do offer an important counter to the belief thatsecurity can only be a good thing (see also, Brodeur and Shearing, 2005), under-standably perhaps a view held by those who work within it. These writings prin-cipally question the social role of security, but economically it has long beenrecognized that organizations, and especially those in business need to build aneconomic as well as social rationality into protecting themselves. Retailers coulddo a lot more to prevent shop theft, they could put more goods behind counters,employ more staff, search all customers entering and exiting the store and so on,but this is not economically rational.

    These critiques are fundamental to developing a rigorous body of knowledgefor the study of security. It is this last point that brings us back to the purpose ofthis book containing, as it does, a range of insights and critiques into the studyof security. The next section introduces the main areas of focus and outlines alittle more about the content of each chapter.

    This book

    At a security symposium held in the USA delegates discussed the various subjectareas or disciplines that contribute to security, and, after some debate concludedthat there were none that didnt. Moving on to consider areas of trade or activitywhere security was important, the delegates concluded there were none where itwas not. Security then, to a lesser or greater degree, is a facet of every feature ofour lives. The difficulty of prioritizing the areas of interest and focus will nodoubt have troubled writers and editors of many a security text, and it certainlyhas this editor of this book. Therefore, the process by which topics and authorshave been chosen is perhaps worthy of comment.

    In each section of the book it will be easy to think of other relevant chaptersthat could, or even should have been included. In my judgment the chaptersfor this Handbook provide the foundation on which future editions may build.The authors were chosen because they are scholars with a recognized expertisein their area. It may be of some interest that of all the authors that wereapproached and asked to contribute only one was unable, because of illness.Precisely because they are all experts, they were invited to propose their ownoutline for the chapter taking into account the need to provide an authorita-

    10 The Handbook of Security

  • tive review of research, current issues and thinking in their area of expertise.Their initial outlines were sometimes modified, often to avoid overlap,7 butnever to any great extent. Once the chapter outline was agreed authors weretypically given about 12 months to think about and write their contribution.When it was received it was sent for independent review, and suggestions andideas were sent back to authors who were asked to prepare a final draft takingaccount of any recommendations that had been made.

    The content

    The first section of this book considers security as a discipline. In Chapter 2 BobMcCrie traces the history of security showing how it facilitated the developmentof early civilization and has remained a core part of the functioning and devel-opment of individuals, enterprises, institutions, regions, and nations. Hisaccount marks the impact of industrialism and modernism on the creation of themodern military, public policing, and the private security industry.

    In Chapter 3 Craig Stapley, Suzette Grillot, and Steve Sloan argue that thefields of corporate and traditional security studies have not readily adjusted tothe changes in international affairs. They argue the need to bridge the gapbetween traditional and corporate security studies, not least because the modernworld where the distinction between domestic and foreign threats has becomeblurred, and where non-state actors are increasingly challenging the monopolyof force and the centrality of the State on the international stage.

    In Chapter 4 Brad Rogers examines the contribution of engineering studies tosecurity. He notes that most managers responsible for the engineering of solu-tions to security problems are not professional engineers, but may benefit from agreater understanding of the engineering design process. He examines a securitysystem as a collection of interacting components, policies and procedures thatare integrated and organized to react to a malevolent human attack in a mannerthat results in a protected asset and a defeated adversary. He outlines a method-ology that is appropriate for examining all security systems.

    In Chapter 5 Richard Schneider examines the link between environmentalscience and security. Schneider shows that while research and practice suggestthere are broad place-based crime prevention theories that describe and predictcriminal behaviour, the application of effective security design tends to becontext dependent. For him environmental studies related to security demon-strate the importance of theory and practice influencing each other and spurringnew developments in each.

    Chapter 6 tackles the study of forensic security and the law. Daniel Kennedyshows how responsibility for security shortcomings which result in attack, canbe attributed. He discusses crime foreseeability and shows how it can beestablished by examining a propertys criminal history and social ecology andhow this can then be linked to determining what is or should have been anappropriate security response.

    In Chapter 7 James D. Calder suggests that the lack of a scholarly approachin security studies could be corrected by learning from the study of national

    Martin Gill 11

  • security intelligence, particularly in terms of the research and analysis func-tions that became core elements in most post-World War II national securitydecision processes. Similarly in Chapter 8 Graham Farrell and Ken Pease high-light the historical lack of interest by criminologists in security, albeit that thesituational crime prevention framework is a good one for studying security.The main contribution of criminology to the security industry is, the authorscontend, to provide a range of approaches and tools for preventing crime andthereby an understanding of the mechanisms whereby they are likely tosucceed or fail. They note the development of a discipline of Crime Science by the incorporation of contributions from a range of crime-relevant sciencedisciplines.

    The second section of this book assesses studies of offence types that are associ-ated with organizations. Once again this does not cover all offences although inthe space available the focus has been on those that are prominent. In Chapter 9Richard Hollinger and Jason Davis discuss the study of dishonest staff. They notethat employee theft is the single most costly form of larceny experienced by thebusiness world, and that in some work settings, from a statistical standpoint, the deviant employee is the worker who is not stealing. No wonder then that amajor proportion of business failures are directly or indirectly related toemployee theft or dishonesty. They trace various ways of explaining dishonestbehaviour which is a basis for determining effective responses. Intriguingly theynote that some companies tolerate some offending because it is significantly less expensive than paying employees a more equitable wage. They suggest acombination of strategies to guide the study and practice of security.

    In Chapter 10 Elena Licu and Bonnie Fisher examine issues relating to work-place violence. They helpfully take a global perspective examining definitionalissues, the scale of victimization and characteristics that are most likely toresult in it, as well as documenting the negative physical, psychological andfinancial toll on employees and the organization. The authors suggest a focusfor prevention efforts that is derived from evidence-based research.

    In Chapter 11 Mike Levi tackles the issue of white collar crime. He looks atthe features that render organizations more vulnerable to both fraud andmoney laundering and the connections between them. He moves on to assessresponses and examines the management of reputational damage, the actualand appropriate roles of the criminal law and policing in the mitigation ofbusiness fraud and money laundering risks, and the role of collective businessaction against white-collar crimes.

    In Chapter 12 Rob Mawby discusses research on commercial burglary acrossthe world. He finds that while the extent of commercial burglary varies betweencountries, it is universally more common than household burglary. And theimpact is considerable in financial and emotional terms. Despite this he findsthat business people are sometimes ambivalent about the threat posed by bur-glars, and demonstrate a reluctance to invest in security. Conversely retailershave invested heavily in security to prevent shop theft, the focus of Chapter 13.Read Hayes and Caroline Cardone found the impact to be considerable, in addi-

    12 The Handbook of Security

  • tion to the obvious financial loss offences also disrupt processes, reduce productavailability and introduce violence into shops. Their analysis of various patternsof offending leads them to assess the characteristics of an effective response.

    In Chapter 14 Paul Wilkinson seeks to clarify our understanding of the conceptof terrorism and other forms of violence, and the New Terrorism of the al-QaedaNetwork and its implications for security are examined highlighting its capabilityfor mass-casualty attack in western cities as well as its continuing intensive ter-rorist activity in the front line states in the Middle East. Wilkinson observes thatterrorists have only rarely attained their strategic objectives by terrorism alone,although the events of 9/11 underline the enormous impact they can have. Anoutline is provided of the main elements of an effective strategy to dismantle theal-Qaeda Network including the management of the media.

    In Chapter 15 Jason Crampton, Kenneth Paterson, Fred Piper and MatthewRobshaw discuss the latest developments in information security research. Theirdiscussion focuses initially on cryptographic algorithms. They argue that whilethey often enjoy a highly visible public profile, in practice they are only a verysmall part of the security solution. They note that the security features offered bymodern computer systems are improving all the time, but care must be takenwhen configuring these features to ensure that they implement the securityrequired. They argue the case for an effective programme of information securitymanagement.

    The third section of the book includes five chapters on key security servicesand products, three of these focus on people services and two on technology,although they overlap. In Chapter 16 Alison Wakefield assesses the role of security officers, which as she notes, are omnipresent. She argues that the deve-lopment of the security industry has included the emergence of new and increas-ingly sophisticated opportunities for security personnel. Consequently thestereotypes of unskilled, uneducated security personnel may have become lessrelevant as the industry has moved into more demanding and prominent areasof work. Thus, in jurisdictions such as the UK and many US states, low pay andlong hours belie the growing levels of responsibility for security officers, whilereward levels in some European countries suggest that lessons may be learnedthrough international comparisons. Her analysis includes a discussion of the roleof private security in and with law enforcement. In Chapter 17 Read Hayestackles another type of security delivered by people, the under-researched area ofstore detectives. He discusses their role and assesses the impact they have instores concluding they have a vital role to play in the protection of assets.

    In Chapter 18 Tim Prenzler assesses the role of private investigators which hesees as extremely diverse and often highly sophisticated, including covert surveil-lance, legal enquiries, fraud investigations, debt recovery, serving of legal notices,tracing missing persons, forensic accounting and security risk assessments. Heassesses the potential inequalities and injustices that can result from the expan-sion of forms of private justice based on a clients capacity to pay. He welcomeslicensing to protect clients and innocent third parties from poor quality serviceand from violations of civil liberties.

    Martin Gill 13

  • In Chapter 19 I discuss research on CCTV and in particular assess the evidenceon its effectiveness taking a broader approach than just a consideration of theimpact on crime rates. Although this is important, the extent of CCTV and theconcerns about intrusions into peoples civil liberties also matter. Discussion isalso focused on the impact of CCTV on the publics feelings of safety and thepressing worry that CCTV merely displaces crime. In short, it is argued that whileCCTV may well become, if it has not already, the essential security tool there isstill a lot of learning to be done to use it to maximum advantage.

    In Chapter 20 Adrian Beck evaluates research on RFID which, as he notes, isviewed by some as the next generation of barcode, enabling products, cases andpallets to be identified uniquely and without the need for direct human inter-vention. Beck believes it could revolutionize the way in which supply chains aremanaged and protected but is less convinced at its potential to seriously impacton theft by staff and customers. In any event he argues that there are still manytechnological hurdles standing in the way of the wider adoption of RFID andconsumer concerns about privacy have yet to be fully addressed. For Beck RFIDshould not be seen as a panacea to the problems of shrinkage, as it clearly is not,but more as a potentially powerful tool to enable stock loss practitioners tomanage the problem much more effectively.

    The fourth section of the book focuses on management issues. In Chapter 21Joshua Bamfield assesses the role of security as a part of management, dealingwith planning, leading, organization, controlling, staffing, co-ordinating, andmotivating. He examines the role of the security manager including their respon-sibility for configuring key variables including tasks, structure, information anddecision processes, security investment, reward systems, and people to produce thegreatest security results from a given security budget without imperilling theorganizations future.

    In Chapter 22 Mary Lynn Garcia discusses security risk management andspecifically its focus on risk assessment, which attempts to establish what can gowrong, the likelihood that this will occur, and the consequences. The answers tothese questions help identify and evaluate risks. She contends that risk manage-ment builds on risk assessment by considering available options, their associatedtradeoffs in terms of costs, benefits, and risks, and the impacts of managementdecisions on future options. Her analysis incorporates a discussion of the businesscase for security and the options for a response including the use of avoidance,reduction, spreading, transfer, and acceptance alternatives.

    In Chapter 23 Dominic Elliott discusses how some organizations possess crisisprone characteristics and how an organizational crisis can result from the actionsand inactions of management regardless of the events that trigger them. Henotes how crises possess both technical and human characteristics which bothneed to be effectively managed. Importantly, he discussed how managers maylearn from the study of organizational failures elsewhere and how the process ofBusiness Continuity Management provides an opportunity to identify potentialweaknesses, the resources and competences required to meet customer needs andto develop crisis resilience alongside contingency plans.

    14 The Handbook of Security

  • The fifth and final section of the book is focused on a range of issues central toany discussion of modern security management. In Chapter 24 Mark Button andBruce George discuss models of regulation including radical ones, and they drawupon world-wide experiences. They also refine and develop the model of privatesecurity regulation they initially presented in 1997. In Chapter 25 DennisChallinger assesses the impact of security on the bottom line. He argues thatcorporate security delivers value to a corporation through a range of activities theabsence of which would likely lead to losses. For Challinger there is potential fora properly embedded security programme to contribute its expertise to all partsof the business.

    In Chapter 26 Clifton Smith reviews trends in security technology. He arguesthat the application of security technology to protect assets needs amongstother things to be justified according to established criteria such as theories andprinciples, and uses the defence in depth and crime prevention through environmentaldesign frameworks to guide his analysis. A hierarchy classification of intrusiondetection systems is presented in an attempt to classify different types of securitytechnology systems. He ends his analysis looking at the potential of securitytechnology in the future.

    In the final chapter Giovanni and Roberto Manunta theorize about what is asecurity context or situation and therefore what is not. They outline a methodol-ogy which invites readers to look at security as part of a much wider set ofprocesses. They argue that to be effective a security system must be driven by aset of ethical, political and economic considerations proper to its specificcontext, level of analysis and situation. To be effective and useful as a system,security needs a clear definition of scope, relations and goals, of inputs, processesand outputs and they suggest how this might be achieved.

    And so this is the first edition of the Handbook of Security. What it confirms,as if it needed confirming, is that security is a broad subject as a practice and as adiscipline. It would be possible to envisage a book this size on each of the chap-ters presented. But it is a foundation on which to build. Indeed, I would bedelighted to receive your thoughts on the content of this Handbook, and yoursuggestions on topics you believe should be covered next time around.8 Thedevelopment of the security body of knowledge is inevitably a long intellectualjourney, this book can perhaps best be viewed as a small contribution along theway.

    Notes1 See interview with Clifford Shearing in the International Observer, produced by the

    International centre for the Prevention of Crime; http://www.crime-prevention-intl.org/io_view.php?io_id=125&io_page_id=559

    2 Much police work is not crime-related (see, Bayley, 1996), indeed only a small propor-tion of the police strength is on the beat at any one time (Morgan and Newburn, 1997).

    3 For a good discussion of the expansion of private security see, Jones and Newburn(1998).

    4 It is worth noting the growing recognition that all staff in a company fulfil a securityfunction. In a recent study of shop theft conducted by the author, shoplifters drew

    Martin Gill 15

  • attention to sales staff interest in them being a deterrent, good customer service is aneffective crime prevention measure.

    5 It needs to be emphasized that whatever plan emerged would need to be agreed withlocal representatives but it would mean that the full range of different forms of securityprovision could be incorporated into a single plan.

    6 A malign form would be organized protection rackets which can inflict serious violence.They are of course another way of providing security illustrating still further the dimen-sions of the mixed economy of security.

    7 There has been no attempt to present a specific line of argument in this book, indeedthat would be counter productive. Rather the objective has been to tap into the exper-tise of the authors in defining the salient themes and issues. Unsurprisingly then, as willbecome evident, contrary views emerge.

    8 Please forward any suggestions or ideas to Martin Gill on, [email protected].

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    of Accountability, Crime Prevention and Community Safety: An International Journal, 1(3):1728.

    Sarre, R. and Prenzler, T. (2000) The Relationship Between Police and Private Security:Models and Future Directions, International Journal of Comparative and Applied CriminalJustice, 24(1): 91113.

    Shearing, C. (1992) The Relation Between Public and Private Policing. In Tonry, M. andMorris, N. (eds) Modern Policing: An Annual Review of Research. Chicago: University ofChicago Press, 15: 399434.

    Welsh, B. and Farrington, D. (1999) Value for Money? A Review of the Costs and Benefitsof Situational Prevention, British Journal of Criminology, 39(3): 34568.

    Zedner, L. (2003) Too Much Security, International Journal of the Sociology of Law, 31(3):15584.

    Martin Gill 17

  • Abele, J., 138access control, 8, 39, 92, 1023, 108, 1323,

    591, 600, 604, 614, 6256Access Control Entries (ACEs), 374Access Control List (ACL), 374biometric systems, 42, 109, 193, 354,

    619, 624identification card, 39signature match, 625smart card, 623techniques, 354

    car parking revenue, 604in computer/network systems, 359,

    3678, 3714, 378as a deterrent, 472devices, 934, 109, 221, 353, 488, 619methods of implementation, 103physical security measure, 611principles, 93smart card rapid response, 624symbolic and real barriers/methods of,

    97, 100, 221, 274in WV risk reduction, 253

    Acousto-Magnetic (AM), Radio Frequency(RF), Electromagnetic, and Microwave,469

    adversary attack, 824al-Qaeda Network, see under terrorismalarms, 37Aldo Moro, 348American Civil War, 35American community oriented policing

    (COPS) strategy, 105, see also underpolice/policing

    American criminal justice system, 271American Federation of State County and

    Municipal Employees (AFSCME), 249American Hotel and Lodging Association,

    129American intelligence history, prominent

    names in, 156American National Standards Institute

    (ANSI), 130American Revolution, 152American Society for Industrial Security

    (ASIS), 37, 125, 129, 139, 164, 165American Society for Testing and Materials

    (ASTM), 27, 130

    American Sociological Society, 203Anderson, R., 84, 376Angleton, J., 156Anti-Money Laundering, 262anti-terrorist efforts, 336, 339, see also

    terrorism, response toal-Qaeda movement threat, 3468biometric systems, role of, 10911combating terrorist groups, private sector

    contributions, 3524conflict in Iraq damaging consequences

    of the, 336crime maps, 110effective strategy to dismantle the

    al-Qaeda network, 34654mass media, role of, 3489measures, 355prerequisite for an effective strategy,

    346public support, tasks, 34752rights and wrongs of the invasion of Iraq,

    336terrorist finance, push against, 270UKs Joint Terrorism Analysis Centre

    (JTAC), 336War Against Terrorism, 336, 339

    ANZUS, 334Architectural Liaison Officers (ALOs), 101

    areas of training, 417Arts Plaza, 401Ashton, Kevin, 462, 480Association for Payment Clearing Services,

    276Association of Certified Fraud Examiners

    (ACFE), 204, 2062004 Report to the Nation, 206first Report to the Nation on

    Occupational Fraud and Abuse, 206Association of Chief Police Officers (ACPO),

    27, 565Atomic Energy Commission, 520Australian National Health and Medical

    Research Council (NHMRC), 248Auto ID Centre, 462

    creation of the Electronic Product Code(EPC), 465

    funding by major retailers, 465network labs, 479

    658

    Index

  • MIT, University of Cambridge, Universityof Adelaide, Keio University, FudanUniversity, University of St Gallen,479

    AXA group, 553Axelrod, A.D., 414

    Babney, D.A., 315Bakken, G., 138Bamfield, Joshua, xvi, 14, 485Bamford, J., 171Bank of Credit and Commerce

    International, 262, 277Bank of England, 26Bank Protection Act 1968, 165Barnard, R., 83Baron, R.A., 243Barr, R., 191Battle of Midway, 1942, 153Baumgartner, M.P., 214Bay of Pigs scandal, 1961, 151Beaver, K., 518Beccaria, C., 95Beck, Adrian, xvi, 14, 462Bell, Alexander Graham, 37Bell-LaPadula model, 373, 374Beng, X., 315Bennet, T., 295, 445, 447, 453Benson, M.L., 214Bertalanffi, L., 655Business Impact Analysis (BIA), 5423Bichler-Robertson, G., 293Billings, R., 534biometric systems, see under anti-terrorist

    efforts; access control; terrorism,response to

    Blacks Law Dictionary, 123Blake, W., 138Blakely, E.J., 94Block, C.R., 109Boutros-Ghali, Boutros, 47

    An Agenda for Peace, 47Bow Street Patrols/Runners, 31, see also

    police/policingBowers, K.J., 289, 296Bowie, V., 231Bradley, W., 138Braithwaite, J., 272Brantingham, P.J., 107, 126, 312Brantingham, P.L., 107, 126Brink, W.P., 38, 39, 424British ALOs, 107British Chambers of Commerce (2002)

    report, 290

    British Chambers of Commerce (BCC), 297British Crime Survey (BCS), 283, 289British Home Office Research Units, 104British intelligence service, 171British Retail Consortium, 297British Security Industry Association (BSIA),

    the National Security Inspectorate(NSI), 27, 130

    British security services, 172British Standards Institution (BSI), 27British United Provident Association

    (BUPA), 179Brough, M., 387, 3923Brown, D., 387, 3923Buck, A., 289, 296Buckle, A., 313Buerger, M.E., 194Buikema, C., 576Burgess, E.W., 96burglars/burglary, see commercial burglary;

    domestic burglaryBurns International Detective Agency, 163Bush, George W., 171, 334, 340Business Continuity Management (BCM),

    14, 53841applicability to wide range of events,

    556identifying potential weaknesses, 14,

    532potential risks from suppliers, 544structure, 532

    business frauds, see frauds/business frauds;financial crimes; white-collar crimes

    Business Impact Analysis (BIA), 541Business Impact Evaluation (BIE), 544Business Improved Districts (BIDs), 41Butler, G., 293, 295Button, Mark, xvi, 15, 563

    Cadbury-Schweppes, 548, 550Caime, G., 305Calder, James D., xvi, 11, 146Calder, W.D., 171Cameron, M.O., 308Campbell Collaboration, 442Canadian Corps of Commissionaires, 578Canadian Union of Public Employees

    (CUPE), 249Canter, D., 138Cardone, Caroline, xvii, 12, 302Carnegie Mellon University, 376Carneiro, R.L., 21Carrington, F., 138Carter, D., 55

    Index 659

  • CASPIAN (Consumers Against SupermarketPrivacy Invasion and Numbering), 477,479

    CCTV, 90, 318, 386, 43846, 44858big brother effect, 453civil liberties threats, 14, 441, 4505crime prevention measure, 454effectiveness, 290, 4423help to the police, 4478impact on vehicle crime, 442potential threat to privacy, 454psychological deterrence, 222reduced levels

    of shoplifting, 453vehicle crime in car parks, 444

    regulations to guide use, 455two major concerns, 438

    Cecil, J., 140Central and West Lancashire Chamber of

    Commerce and industry, 290Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), 151,

    155, 1578, 1689, 171analytical function, importance of, 157,

    159, 162centralized R & A branch, 147Directorate of Intelligence (DI), 147,

    169role of, 151Sherman Kent School for Intelligence

    Analysis, 168and US bureaucracy, 154

    Central Intelligence Group, 151Central Saint Martins Design School in

    London, 189Centre of Criminology at the University of

    Toronto, 167CERT (computer emergency response

    team), 376, see also under computer (IT)security

    Chainey, S., 448, 450, 454Challinger, Dennis, xvii, 15, 586Chandler, Raymond, 433Chaney, J., 140Charman, E., 446, 453Charter of the Congress for New Urbanism,

    102Checkland, D., 655China, 33, 34City States of Renaissance Italy, 42Civil War, 186165, 152, 162, 424Clark, J.P., 204, 2089, 211, 21315, 220

    Theft By Employees, 208Clarke, R.V., 98, 104, 188, 191, 223, 296Clinard, M.B., 203

    Clutterbuck, R., 60Kidnap and Ransom: The Response, 60Kidnap, Hijack and Extortion: The Response,

    60Coalition Against Terrorism, The, 334Coca-Cola, 533, 542, 547, 5516Code of Hammurabi, 121Confederation of European Security

    Services (COESS), 385, 399, 582Cohen, L.E., 105, 180, 210Cohen, M., 192Cold War, 456, 341

    arbitrary equilibrium created, 46the balance of nuclear terror, 46Berlin Wall, breakdown, 46end of the, 46era of, 36, 45, 48threat perception of, 56

    Coleman, A., 103Colquhoun, Patrick, 31commercial burglary, 28990, 2912, 295,

    see also domestic burglaryawareness campaign, need for, 297burglar alarms, 288comparisons with domestic burglary, 295exploring patterns to, 2923extent of, 26496five research findings, 295forcible entry, most common type of,

    281intruder alarms, 288perceptions of different sub-groups, 284reduction initiatives/proactive initiatives,

    296Hotel Burglary Reduction initiative,

    289, 291Industrial Watch, 288Small Business and Crime initiative,

    290Safer Cities programme, 288Small Retailers in Deprived Areas

    initiative, 288, 2901Small Business Strategy of the Safer

    Merseyside, 289risks, 292three sets of criteria, 296Victim Support, 291

    Commercial Victimization Survey (CVS),282

    computer (IT) security, 367, 371, see alsocybercrime/cyber-security

    -based mapping using GIS, 107block cipher, deployment, 360, 364computer crime, 40, 59, 203

    660 Index

  • firewalls, applications of, 370logical access control, 3724Orange Book, US Department of Defense,

    371systemic measures to protect information

    and computer leaks, 59viruses, 40, 367vulnerabilities and attacks

    Aleph One, 375CERT web pages, details on, 376Internet worm, 375principle of least privilege, 376variety of criminals, 40

    Concealable, Removable, Available,Enjoyable, and Disposable (CRAVED),105, 305

    Congress of Vienna, 1815, 46, see alsonational versus corporate security

    Cooke, W., 37 Cornish, D.B., 188, 209Cornwall Business Crime Survey (CBCS)

    2001, 283corporate crimes, 203, 2623, 261, 266,

    270, see also financial crimesapathy to victims, 287blue-white collar crime, 263capital flight and money-laundering, 262corporate governance, strong focus on,

    261data security, 263definition of, 204differentiation between crimes, examples

    of, 262financial crime risks, analytical

    perspectives on, 2635frauds, risk analysis of, 264money laundering, 263, 26670neglect of financial crime, 262risks from outsourcing, 263white-collar and organized economic

    crimes, 261, 263, see alsofrauds/business frauds; white-collarcrimes; financial crimes

    corporate security, 54, 57, 5960, 137, 586,592, 600, 6023, 611

    all staff, fulfill a security function, 15assets needing protection, 611bad corporate security, 5957corporate crime control, 270corporation, definition of, 586corporate managements view of, 588cyber security, 45, see also computer (IT)

    security; cybercrime/cyber-securityEFTPOS facilities for customers, 605

    embedding security in the corporation,605

    funding of, 6001future risk assessment activities, 593global security function, new model for,

    607level of security, determinants of, 612major failures, list of, 588measuring value of, 598measuring devices, 606mainstays of, 599management, 590opportunity cost, definition of, 517outsourcing considerations, 602perceptions of invasion of employee

    privacy, 590policy, 589preventive impact, evaluation of, 599prioritizing threats, 592programs, 55range of activities, 591research, 53role of, openly acknowledged, 587return on investment (ROI), 517, 600risk assessment process, 5923, see also

    risk managementsecurity management plan, 611strategy for protection of assets, three

    components of, 612three pillars, 607training programs, 9upgradation, 517visibility of, 587

    Cortese, V., 386, 399, 402Covello, V., 77Coyle, R.G., 655Crampton, Jason, xvii, 13, 358Cressey, D., 203, 208Crime and Disorder Reduction Partnerships

    (CDRPs), 184, 290crime prevention, 104, 127, 148, 189, 190,

    195, 220, 425, 469aim of, 273applications, 978, 100appropriate situational preventive

    response, 187benefit denial devices (BDDs), 222boundary definition/markers, 1002costs of crime, 192crime reduction initiatives, key

    prerequisites of, 287, 292criminogenic environment, dealing with,

    189designing-out crime, 18990

    Index 661

  • crime prevention continueddiffused and anticipatory benefits, 1912displacement and deflection, 1901electronic article surveillance (EAS)

    systems, 222, see also EASfive nodes, 193good customer service, a deterrent, 16historical background, 424horizons of response, 148and law enforcement, 4245market effects, 192no crime remedy is forever, 195preventive audit survey (PSA), 221public-private partnership, 276risk-focused crime prevention, 1803strategies, 408, 610situational, techniques of, 182, see also

    situational crime preventiontheory, practice, applications, 979three major emphases, 410three proactive steps, 221

    Crime Prevention Through EnvironmentalDesign (CPTED), 93, 97, 1024, 189,318, 61213

    application to target hardening, 610, 614-based security strategies, 103crime prevention, three overlaying

    strategies of, 613crime theories, 1045evolution of design of built environment,

    189, 61314natural access control, natural

    surveillance, 613strategies, nine fundamental, 102terrorism prevention, 110, see also

    anti-terrorist efforts; terrorism,response to

    WV reduction, related to, 250crimes, 12, 181, 1945

    benefits of, 187categories

    blue-collar persistent offenders, 265business people, 264lites, 264individuals, 265professional criminals, 265counterfeiting, 34websites, hijacking/phishing, 265

    crime control mainstream, 261detection monitoring, 49

    Crime Liability Monthly, 121deception by agents/new technologies,

    265foreseeability, 11, 127, see also

    foreseeability

    hotspots, 194occupational crime, 204repeat victimization, 193technological advances, benefited from,

    49Type 1 UCR index property crimes, 206

    crimes and organizations, 203, 2056, 222employee theft and staff dishonesty, 203,

    2057external threats e.g. shoplifting, 222four primary sources, 206inventory shrinkage, 206, see also

    shrinkage/shrinkage reductionwhite collar crime, 203, see also

    white-collar crimecriminal behavior, 97

    causes of, 96, 111criminogenic factors, 265motivation for, 213Sutherlands theory, nine propositions,

    215techniques of neutralization, 216

    criminal justice, 179, 183, 355, 395, 424,434, 630

    criminal prosecution, symbolicsignificance of, 271

    effectiveness, 278faster reaction time, 264functions, 149ineffectiveness, 102policies, 270suppression of al-Qaeda network, 340,

    see also terrorismsystem costs, 184system role, 347

    criminology/criminological, 12, 219aspects of, 17980crime pollution theory, 183

    categorization of approaches, 185Goldsteins hierarchy, 185

    crime science, distinct discipline of, 12,179

    deterrence, two primary dimensions of,219

    displacement, intermediate notion of, 140rational choice theory, 186subdiscipline of victimology, study of, 135tax breaks and incentives, 184

    crisisdefinition, 534three stages of, 5367typology, 541

    crisis management, 52, 543, 566business impact evaluation (BIE), 544defining characteristics of, 5345

    662 Index

  • description of, 533disaster management approach, 532effectiveness, 542

    contingency/crisis plans, 555frame of reference, 538response, 556

    examples, 535, 54756case analysis of Perrier and Coca-Cola,

    553Coca-Cola contamination crisis, 5513Ford Explorers tyres, 535Perrier contamination crisis, 54751

    global continuity plan, absence of, 550stakeholders primary and secondary

    groups, 542supply chain analysis, interruptions in,

    5434symbolism, 535three stages of a crisis, 538

    Cromwell, P.F., 294, 311Crowe, T., 98cryptographic security

    asymmetric algorithms, 3603cryptographic algorithms, 13, 35960,

    362, 364, 376, 378cryptographic methods, 368cryptosystems, asymmetric, 363keyless algorithms, 360roles and capabilities of the attacker, 362

    Culligan, J.J., 575Culver, R., 496Curtiss, J., 156, 171cybercrime/cyber-security, 182, see also

    computer (IT) securityadversaries, insiders and outsiders, 80applications, attacks, 85cybercrime countermeasures, 40cyber-systems, entry control, 834outside threats, 80response, semi-automation of, 82threat types, 80typical DBT statements for, 80types of, 40worms, severe threat posed by, 367

    Dabney, D., 314Dalton, D.R., 586, 588, 599, 602, 606Davies, S., 453Davis, Jason L., xvii, 12, 203Davis, M.G., 414design basis threat (DBT), 79, 825

    evaluation of effectiveness, 87identification of characteristics of, 81sufficient information for design

    decisions, 80

    defense in depth (DID), 15, 610, 61213,615, 625

    application of security technology, 15security design, 610, see also security

    designsecurity functions, 613target hardening and CPTED, 614

    de Waard, J., 3845Decker, S., 449Dedicated Cheque and Plastic Crime Unit,

    276Defense Advanced Research Projects

    Agency (DARPA), 83Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA), 57, 151Deng, X., 31415Denial of Service (DoS), 3589, 367denial techniques, 318, 320Design Council, The, 189di Beccaria, Cesare, 31Diffie, W., 362Dijk, J.J.M. Van, 284, 288DiLonardo, R.L., 598Director of Central Intelligence (DCI), 157Director of National Intelligence (DNI), 157Directorate of Intelligence (DI), 157disaster management, see under crisis

    managementdisplacement/deflection, 190, 274, 290,

    336, 450, 466, 642definition, 191domino effect, 180effects similar to, 192fallouts of situational crime prevention,

    312Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS), 367Ditton, J., 213, 440, 4423, 4456, 450, 454Dixon, J., 440, 447, 454Dombroff, M., 138domestic burglary, 294, see also commercial

    burglaryaccess through subterfuge, 281alley-gating, reduction strategy, 293emotional effect on victims, 287fencing and disposal, 295repeat victimization, 286

    domestic security, 148, 166community, 149domestic security, US

    1971 Rand Report on private security,166

    evidence-based approach andmethodology, 148

    Hallcrest Report, 167linked to national defense, 166management, 147

    Index 663

  • domestic security continuedmeasure the progress of, 170organizations, 165profession, 149various forms of, 166

    domino effect, see underdisplacement/deflection

    Donald, I., 294Donovan, William Wild Bill, 1535Downes, D., 171, 156Drapeau, A.S., 493, 503Drucker, P., 502

    EASI (Estimate of Adversary SequenceInterruption), see under securitysystems, analysis

    Eck, J. E., 319, 414Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC),

    47Efficient Consumer Response Europe, 479

    collaboration between retailers and theirsuppliers, 479

    ECR report: Automatic ProductIdentification and Shrinkage: Scopingthe Potential, 479

    electronic article surveillance (EAS), 319,598

    barcode/tags, 463International Article Numbering

    Association (EAN International), 463source tagging

    automatic billing, 480cost considerations, 480level of reliability, 473visibility and deterrence, 473

    systems, false alarms, 472Uniform Code Council (UCC), 463Universal Product Code (UPC), 463

    Electronic Numerical Integrator andComputer (ENIAC), 40

    Elig, G., 576Elkind, T., 414Elliott, Dominic, xviii, 14, 532employee theft/dishonesty, see also retail

    crime; shoplifters/shopliftingbusiness failures, major proportion of, 12criminal opportunities reduction, 223culture of dishonesty, three categories,

    207, 215definition, 204deterrence, two primary dimensions, 218external economic pressures, 20810fallouts of, 207guilt neutralizing techniques, 217

    impact of location factors, 223level of employee involved, 206, 214limiting loss, four preventions, 220nine factors considered before

    committing a crime, 209non-criminal sanctions, 205property deviance and production

    deviance, 205rational choice theories, 2078, 212, 312reduce opportunity levels, 211responses to, 2203routine activities/activity theory, 210,

    see also routine activities theory(RAT)

    scale of, 209social desirability, 211surveillance, 318, see also surveillancetheft opportunities, 210theft, a form of debt collection, 213theories of, 2078, 21011, 21215three types of property, theft of, 218two major forms of, 205workplace deviance, 21314

    English East India Company, 42Enron, 261entry control

    equipment for authorized personnel, 528technologies/systems, details of, 834vetting for fraud, 274

    environmental criminology, 106, 126analytic geometry/behavioral geography

    of offender and offence occurrences,107

    criminal behavior and social economicenvironments, 95

    security strategiesaccess control principles, 93definitions, 901environmental studies, future

    directions of, 108key points, 11112security design, environmental cues

    and messages in, 93site selection and layered defenses, 92

    Environmental Design Research Association(EDRA), 91

    EPC Global Inc, 465Erikson, B., 311, 394Escamilla, T., 83, 85EU Working Time Regulations and the

    National Minimum Wage, 398European Agency for Safety and Health at

    Work (EASHW), 249European Commission, 230

    664 Index

  • Faigman, D., 137Farrell, Graham, xviii, 12, 179Farrington, D.P., 99, 313, 319, 442, 444, 599Fast Moving Consumer Goods sector

    (FMCG), 462, 479Fayol, H., 486Fed-OSHA, 248Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), 42,

    57, 151domestic law enforcement and

    intelligence roles, 151Office of Intelligence, 168

    Federal Emergency Management Agency(FEMA), 92

    Felson, M., 105, 180, 1823, 210Ferrara, J., 308Feuerverger, A., 41314Feyerabend, P., 655Fielding, Henry, 31Figlio, R., 600Financial Action Task Force, 269, 275, 278financial crimes, 266, 276, see also

    corporate crimes; frauds/businessfrauds; white-collar crimes

    blue-collar frauds, 270concern with macroeconomically

    relevant phenomena, 262forms of

    bribery, 261fraud, white-collar or blue-collar,

    2612, 272, see also white-collarcrimes

    mis-selling of financial servicesproducts, 261

    money laundering, 263, 266major fraud policing, two strategic

    directions, 271manipulation of trust, 263responses to, 148, 2702state role in protection, 272

    Fisher, Bonnie S., xviii, 12, 229Fisher, R.J., 51112, 576Fitzgerald, K.J., 537flea markets, 479Flood, R.L., 655Focault, Michael, 451Follett, M., 486forensic criminology/science

    broadest definition, 118generic term for criminalistics, 118predictor of future behavior is past

    behavior, 124present and future scope, 119and psychology, 124

    forensic securityevidence, forensic, 119expert, 137introduction to, 118topics of concern for the, 137and premises liability litigation, 1203specialists, 120, 129, 135

    manage the defense of a lawsuit, 120standards of care pertaining to security,

    129studies, 136

    foreseeability, 11, 1239, 133, 136, 138, see also under crimes

    balancing test, 128definitions of, 123elements in determining, 125forensic point of view, 140four tests of, 124, 139General Security Risk Assessment, 125issues impacting upon, 127reasonable behavior, 129relevant time frame, 125special relationship and foreseeability, 129specific harm test, 124specific location of a property, 126three-way test of security adequacy, 128threshold assessment, 128totality of the circumstances test, 1268

    Fosdick, R., 172Francies, D.B., 317Francis, J., 564frauds/business frauds, 7, 1213, 204, 261,

    2646, see also financial crimes; white-collar crimes

    arising out of transnational businessexpansion, 263

    against companies, 273blue-collar frauds, 270and corruption, objectives and methods

    of prevention, 264counterfeiting, 345, 265, 271, 475, 592credit fraud, 277Internet frauds, 49major frauds, 262, 271prevention and reduction, 270, 272profile of perpetrators, 274refund frauds, 415telemarketing frauds, 273vendor frauds, 206

    French, P., 496Frost and Sullivan, 623

    Gaffney, M.A., 292Galbraith, J., 488

    Index 665

  • Galford, R., 493, 503Garcia, Mary Lynn, xviii, 14, 509Garrick, B.J., 51213Gartin, P.R., 194Gelthsthorpe, L., 445, 447, 453Geneva Convention, 340geographic information systems (GIS), 90,

    1078, 110George, Bruce, xix, 15, 563Gerden, R., 578Geyer, F., 655Gandhi, Indira, 655Ghone, G., 305Gill, Martin, xix, 1, 438global position radio-navigation system

    (GPS), 90technology, 108

    Goldsmith, V., 138Gotbaum, B., 402Government Communications

    Headquarters (GCHQ), 151Gras, M.L., 451Great Depression, 424Green, G., 51112Greenberg, J., 21314Grillot, Suzette, xix, 11, 45Grimshaw, R., 580Groscup, 140Group 4 Securitas and Securicor

    (now merged into Group 4 Securicor),36

    group/team crime, 294, 307offender profile, 294organized retail crime, or ORC, 307ram raiding, 294

    Guthrie, R., 344

    Hackett, Sir John, 29Hagan, F., 140Haimes, Y.Y., 510Hakim, S., 289, 292, 296Hamil, W., 575Hales, C., 486Halibozek, E.P., 486, 489, 496, 591Hall, E., 96Hall, P., 94Hallcrest Report, 403, 425

    national survey in the United States ofthe views of police chiefs, 403

    Hannagan, T., 493Hardin, G., 533Hargreaves, S.P., 655Harriott, John, 31Harris, D.K., 214

    Harrison, M., 374Hart, James, 353Hart, John, 344, 433Hauser, J., 40Hayes, Read, xix, 1213, 302, 408Hayman, S., 454Health and Safety at Work Act 1974, 246Health and Safety Executive (HSE) in

    Britain, 231Hearden, I., 294Hellman, M., 362Hemmens, C., 575Hemming, M., 4478Henderson, C., 118Henley, E.J., 510, 519Hermann, C.F., 534Hersey, P., 502Hess, K., 512Hillenkoetter, R.H., 154Hillier, 101

    Space Syntax theory, 101Hirschi, T., 274, 314Hoffman, V.J., 394, 403Hollinger, Richard C., xx, 12, 203Holmes Edwin T., 37Homant, R., 134, 138Home Office crime reduction programme,

    273Homel, R., 127, 264Homes, E.T., 37Honess, T., 446, 453Hoogenboom, R., 435Hoover, J. Edgar, 42, 152, 154Horning, D.N.M., 218Horvath, F., 576House, R.J., 503Huddersfield Crusade of the 19th century,

    33human intelligence (HUMINT), 567Hummer, D., 403Hyde, D., 569, 578

    Illuminating Engineering Society of NorthAmerica, 130

    Inbau, F., 119informal sector, 16, 42

    called dogs of war, 42Contemporary mercenaries, 42organized protection rackets, 16private military contractors, 42

    information security management, 13, 149,359, 377

    Information Technology (IT), 37Institut des Sciences, 385

    666 Index

  • Institute of Management andAdministration, 120

    Institute of Real Estate Management, 129Intelligarde International, 404intelligence, 56, 1501, 153, 157, 1607,

    16970analysis, importance of, 154, 158, 161,

    168corporate intelligence gathering, 56highly developed by the British, 151human interpretation in, 161Korean War surprises, 154national and domestic security

    organizations, 170R & A, 147systems adequacy, oversight of, 146

    intelligence analysis and theoryconstruction, 156

    Curtiss, Joseph, 156Downes, Donald, 156Knollenberg, Bernard, 156Mendenhall, Thomas, 156Pforzheimer, Walter, 156Yale Library Project, 156

    intelligent CCTV, 61921Advanced Exterior Sensor (AES) system,

    620multiple video camera surveillance

    systems, 620AMETHYST (AutoMatic Event

    auTHentication sYSTem) system, 621

    Institutional and Municipal ParkingCongress, 130

    International Article NumberingAssociation (EAN International), 463,465

    International Association for HealthcareSecurity and Safety, The, 130

    International Association of Campus LawEnforcement Administrators, 130

    International Association of ProfessionalSecurity Consultants, 125

    International Commercial Crime Survey(ICCS), 236

    International Council of Nurses (ICN), 236International Council of Shopping Centers

    The, 129International Covenant of Economic, Social

    and Cultural Rights, 229International Crimes against Businesses

    Survey (ICBS) 1994, 282, 285, 292International Crime Victim Survey (ICVS),

    281

    International Crime Victimization Survey,234

    International Governmental Organizations(IGOs), 47

    International Institute of Security in 1968,37

    International Labor Organization (ILO), 230International Monetary Fund (IMF), 262International Security of Security

    Management Association, 37Internet, 49, 265, 365, 375, 455Ireland, 32Irish Republic, 350Islamic terrorists, 516

    Jacobs, Jane, 102Jago, A.G., 503Janis, I.L., 495, 546Jefferson, T., 95, 580Jeffrey, C.R., 96, 102, 106Johansen, J.A., 655Johnson & Johnson, 479, 545, 5556Johnston, L., 23, 2857, 424, 580

    The Rebirth of Private Policing, 424Joint Combat and Tactical Simulation code

    (JCATS), 87Joint Military Intelligence College, 168Judge Learned Hand, 128

    Kahn, D., 171Kakabadse, A., 501Kakabadse, N., 501Kakalik, J.S., 397, 569, 576Kaplan, S., 51213Katz, J., 310Kaufer, S., 140Kaye, D., 137Kennedy, Daniel B., xx, 11, 118Kennedy, John F., 151Kent, S., 156, 161Kitchen, T., 96Klemke, L.W., 308, 414Knollenberg, B., 156, 172Korean American Grocers Association, 250Kovacich, G.L., 486, 489, 496, 591Krafka, C., 140Kruissink, M., 293, 295Kuhlan, F., 344Kuhlman, R., 138Kumamoto, H., 510, 519Kyoto protocol, 184

    Labich, K., 502Langer, W., 156

    Index 667

  • Langton, L., 505Leclair, C., 578Leonard, V.A., 172Leven, Gustav, 547, 550, 554Levi, Michael, xx, 12, 261Licu, Elena, xx, 12, 229Lim, B., 317Lincoln, Abraham, 35Loader, I., 9, 580Lock Museum of America in Terryville,

    Connecticut, 26Lojek, C., 529Lombroso, C., 95Lomell, H.M., 441Long, S., 578loss prevention, 408, 417

    display and design responses, 31718personnel, 119, 31618, 412, 416reduction, 320strategy, 316system techniques, 222

    Loveday, K., 4489Lynch, 106Lyon, D., 452

    Magill, C., 294Maguire, M., 294Makkai, T., 272Mangione, T.W., 213MANPAD attacks, 354Manunta, Giovanni, xxi, 15, 629Manunta, Roberto, xxi, 15, 629Mars, G., 214Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 40Masuda, B., 2212Mattman, J., 140Matza, D., 216, 311Mawby, Rob I., xxi, 12, 281May, D., 414Mayhew, Henry, 303Mayhew, P., 182McCahill, M., 441, 449, 4512

    The Surveillance Web, 4512McCrie, F.M., 42

    Security Operation Management, 42McCrie, Robert D., xxi, 93, 11, 21McDermid, V., 425McGee, A., 582McGoey, C., 138McGuire, P., 138McKay, H.D., 96McLeod, R., 404McManus, M., 4034Mellor, D.H., 655

    Mendenhall, T., 156, 171Meredith, W., 541Merton, R.K., 311Metropolitan police (bobbies), 33, 42Metropolitan Police Bill


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