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Chapter
World CivilizationsThe Global Experience
AP® Seventh Edition
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World Civilizations: The Global Experience, AP® Seventh EditionStearns | Adas | Schwartz | Gilbert
The Americas on the Eve of Invasion
12
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Figure 12.1 The great Aztec city-state of Tenochtitlan was established on an island in the midst of a large lake. Connected to the shores by causeways, supplied with fresh water by an aqueduct, it housed a population estimated to
be over 150,000. Early Spanish observers compared its canals to Venice and were
fascinated by its markets and gardens. To the Aztecs it was the center of political and spiritual power, or as they called it, “the foundation of
heaven.”
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Chapter Overview
I. Postclassic Mesoamerica, 1000–1500 C.E.
II. Aztec Society in Transition
III.Twantinsuyu: World of the Incas
IV.The Other Peoples of the Americas
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TIMELINE 900 C.E. to 1450 C.E.
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Postclassic Mesoamerica, 1000–
1500 C.E.
• Teotihuacan collapses, 700s
– Toltec culture
• The Toltec Heritage
– Rule extended to Yucatan, Maya lands, c. 1000
– Commercial influence to American Southwest
Possibly Mississippi, Ohio valleys
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Figure 12.2 Toltec political and cultural influence spread from its capital at Tula in northern Mexico to places as far south as
Chichén Itzá in Yucatan. The colossal statues of warriors shown here served as columns that
supported the roof of a great temple.
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Postclassic Mesoamerica, 1000–
1500 C.E.
• The Aztec Rise to Power
– Toltec collapse, c. 1150
Caused by northern nomads?
– Center moves to Mexico valley
Lakes used for fishing, farming, transportation
– Aztecs in, early 14th century
Begin as mercenaries, allies
1325, found Tenochtitlan
Dominate by 1434
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Map 12.1 Central Mexico and Lake TexcocoAn aquatic environment at the heart of the
Aztec empire.
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Postclassic Mesoamerica, 1000–
1500 C.E.
• The Aztec Social Contract
– Transformation to hierarchical society
– Service of gods pre-eminent
Sacrifice increased
Source of political power
– Moctezuma II
Head of state and religion
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Postclassic Mesoamerica, 1000–
1500 C.E.
• Religion and the Ideology of Conquest
– Spiritual and natural world seamless
Hundreds of deities
Three groups
• Fertility, agriculture, water
– Tlaloc
• Creator gods
• Warfare, sacrifice
– Huitzilopochtli
– Aztec tribal god
– Identified with sun god
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Figure 12.3 Human sacrifice was practiced by many Mesoamerican peoples, but the Aztecs
apparently expanded its practice for political and religious reasons. This image shows Aztec
priests cutting out their victims’ hearts and then rolling the bodies down the steps of the
pyramid.(Ms. Magliabechiano: sacrificio umano azteco.
Biblioteca Nazionale Firenze. Scala/Art Resource, NY.)
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Postclassic Mesoamerica, 1000–
1500 C.E.
• Religion and the Ideology of Conquest
– Nezhualcoyotl
– Sacrifice
Motivated by religion or possibly terror
– Cyclical view of history
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Figure 12.4 This Aztec stone calendar is about 12 feet across and 4 feet thick, and it
weighs about 24 tons. It was unearthed accidentally by construction crews in Mexico
City in 1790.
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Postclassic Mesoamerica
1000–1500 C.E.
• Feeding the People: The Economy of the Empire
– Agriculture
Chinampas, man-made floating islands
• High yield
Farming organized by clans
– Markets
Daily market at Tlatelolco
• Controlled by pochteca, merchant class
Regulated by state
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Aztec Society in Transition
• Society increasingly hierarchical
• Widening Social Gulf
– Calpulli
Transformed from clans to groupings by residence
Distribute land, labor
Maintain temples, schools
Basis of military organization
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Aztec Society in Transition
• Widening Social Gulf
– Noble class develops from some calpulli
Military virtues give them status
Serf-like workers on their lands
– Social gaps widen
Imperial family at head of pipiltin
– Calpulli of merchants
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Figure 12.5 In the militarized society of the Aztec empire, warriors were organized into regiments and groups distinguished by their uniforms. They gained rank and respect by capturing enemies for sacrifice. Note the
symbolic gripping of the defeated captives’ hair as a sign of military success.
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Aztec Society in Transition
• Overcoming Technological Constraints
– Women have various roles
Can own property
No public roles
– Elite polygamy
Most monogamous
– Lacked the wheel, suitable animals for power
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Aztec Society in Transition
• A Tribute Empire
– Speaker
One rules each city-state
– Great Speaker
Rules Tenochtitlan
Prime Minister powerful
– Subjugated states could remain autonomous
Owe tribute, labor
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Twantinsuyu:World of the Incas
• Tihuanaco, Huari (c. 550-1000 C.E.)
– After 1000, smaller regional states
• Chimor (900-1465)
– North coast of Peru
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Twantinsuyu:World of the Incas
• The Inca Rise to Power
– Cuzco area
Quechua-speaking clans (ayllus)
Huari
Control regions by 1438, under Pachacuti
– Topac Yupanqui
Son of Pachacuti
Conquered Chimor
Rule extended to Ecuador, Chile
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Twantinsuyu:World of the Incas
• The Inca Rise to Power
– Huayna Capac
Furthers conquests of Topac Yupanqui
1527, death
• Twantinsuyu (empire)
– From Colombia to Chile
– To Bolivia, Argentina
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Map 12.2 Inca ExpansionEach ruler expanded the empire in a series of
campaigns to increase wealth and political control.
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Visulizing the PastArcheological Evidence of Political
PracticesChan-Chan covered more than 2 square miles. It contained palace compounds, storehouses, residences, markets, and other structures.
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Visulizing the PastArcheological Evidence of Political
PracticesCity of Chan-Chan.
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Twantinsuyu:World of the Incas
• Conquest and Religion
– Split inheritance
Power to successor
Wealth, land to male descendants
Result is continual conquest
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Twantinsuyu:World of the Incas
• Conquest and Religion
– Religion
Sun god supreme
• Represented by ruler (Inca)
• Temple of the Sun at Cuzco
Local gods survive
• Huacas
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Twantinsuyu:World of the Incas
• The Techniques of Inca Imperial Rule
– Inca
Rules from Cuzco
Governors of four provinces
Bureaucracy
Local rulers (curacas)
– Unification
Quechua
Forced transfers
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Twantinsuyu:World of the Incas
• The Techniques of Inca Imperial Rule
– Military
System of roads, way stations (tambos), storehouses
– State
Redistributive economy
Mita
• Building, irrigation projects
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Twantinsuyu:World of the Incas
• The Techniques of Inca Imperial Rule
– Gender cooperation
Ideology of complementarity of sexes
Also seen in cosmology
• Inca's senior wife links state to moon
– Yanas
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Map 12.3 The Ancient Cities of PeruThe Inca system of roads, with its series of tambos, linked major towns and cities and
allowed rapid communication and troop movement.
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The "Troubling" Civilizations of the Americas
• Inca socialism and despotism
• Cultural clash with the west
– Violent customs
Ritual torture, human sacrifice
– Moral judgment
– West has history of sacrifice but deems it "barbaric" in Aztecs
• Cannibalism
– Possibly due to lack of cattle, sheep
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Twantinsuyu:World of the Incas
• Inca Cultural Achievements
– Metallurgy
– Knotted strings (quipu)
Accounting
– Monumental architecture
– Organization of labor
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Figure 12.6 This Inca sculpture, made of gold, portrays one of the mamaconas, or
“chosen women,” who served as concubines to the Inca emperors. The wool of her cloak is
woven in a classic Inca design.
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Twantinsuyu:World of the Incas
• Comparing Incas and Aztecs
– Similarities
Built on earlier empires
Excellent organizers
Intensive agriculture under state control
Redistributive economy
Kinship transformed to hierarchy
Ethnic groups allowed to survive
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Twantinsuyu:World of the Incas
• Comparing Incas and Aztecs
– Differences
Aztecs have better developed trade, markets
Metallurgy
Writing systems
Social definition, hierarchy
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The Other Peoples of the Americas
• Great variety elsewhere
• How Many People?
– Larger densities in Mesoamerica, Andes
– Compared
China, India: 75–150 million
Europe: 60–70 million
Americas: est. 60–70 million
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Table 16.1 Population Estimate for the Western Hemisphere, 1492
Sources: William M. Deneven, The Native Population of the Americas in 1492 (1976),
289–292; John D. Durand, “Historical Estimates of World Population,” Population and
Development Review 3 (1957): 253–296; Russell Thornton, American Indian Holocaust
and Survival (1987).
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Table 16.2 World Population, c. 1500Sources: William M. Deneven, The Native
Population of the Americas in 1492 (1976), 289–292; John D. Durand, “Historical Estimates
of World Population,” Population and Development Review 3 (1957): 253–296;
Russell Thornton, American Indian Holocaust and Survival (1987).
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The Other Peoples of the Americas
• Differing Cultural Patterns
– Caribbean islands
Some similar to Polynesian societies
– c. 1500
200 languages in North America
Mississipian mounds abandoned
Anasazi descendants along Rio Grande
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Figure 12.7 Taos Pueblo, in the foothills of what is now New Mexico. The pueblos of the Rio Grande Valley were based on agriculture and the concentration of population in urban
areas. This reflected a number of the traditions of the older Native American cultures of the
southwestern United States.
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The Other Peoples of the Americas
• American Indian Diversity in World Context
– Two great imperial systems by 1500
Mesoamerica and the Andesweakened
Technologically behind Europeans