The Enlightenment c. 1650-1750

Age of Reason

Enlightenment

• Philosophers of the time took note of scientific methodology successes using reason to explain natural law. Thought they could do the same with human nature.

• Government – 2 philosophers would come to dominate the field of political philosophy.

ENLIGHTENMENT (1700’s)• Logical way of thinking about human concerns

(combines science and philosophy)– “Philosophes” thinkers during the Enlightenment– Centered in Paris, France – most autocratic and powerful

country in Europe

• Rationalist – God created the world, but gave people free-will

• Secularist – Separation of Church and State emphasized– Push for religious tolerance during this era

• Popular Sovereignty – People create and control the government – State is only legit if the people consent to it

Thomas Hobbes• All humans are naturally selfish

and wicked and needed governments to keep order.

• People should hand over their right to a strong ruler.

• Strong ruler should have total power (absolute monarch).

• Hobbes coined the phrase “Social Contract” in his book “Leviathan”

• Leviathan is a sea monster, which he said is what a powerful government is like.

Thomas HobbesLived through the English Civil War• “Leviathan” (1651)– Explained Hobbes Political

Philosophy– Social Contract among rulers

and subjects• Absolute Ruler <–> Subjects

– Give up Ind. Rights for protection and social order

– Believed people act out of self interest only• Without rulers it would be a

dog eat dog world– Basic distrust of humanity– Supported Absolute Monarchs –

as long as they aimed to be just

Enlightenment Philosophers

• Social Contract – people gave up certain rights in favor of a strong ruler in order to get law and order (e.g. Hitler)

• John Locke– Locke almost the opposite of Hobbes’ viewpoint– People’s behavior is shaped by experiences, not by

predestination at birth.• Improvement of bad people possible by learning from

negative experiences.

John Locke

• Favored self-government which stemmed from 3 natural rights: life, liberty and property (pursuit of happiness)

• Government is designed to protect those rights and its failure to do so allows citizens to rebel against it and replace it.

• Government’s power comes from the consent of the people!!

John Locke• “Two Treatises of Government”

(1689)– Also believed in a social contract• Looked at it differently though• Rulers had to protect people’s

natural rights– Life, Liberty and Property

• Natural Rights were superior to government laws– Rulers could be overthrown if natural

law was not upheld– Absolute rulers who denied rights

were no better than a tyrant and deserved to be overthrown

• Influences the basic components of the of a very famous US document

The Philosophers

• These were social critics of the 18th century, mainly French– They tried to use reason to solve social problems– Believed absolute monarchism and divine right to be immoral– Objected to privileged few (clergy, nobility) and became deists

• Deists believe in God but reject organized religion and rituals while only accepting religious teachings explained through scientific understanding. Christ was a teacher, not Son of God.

• Many Philosophers were atheists

François-Marie Arouet (Voltaire) “Philosophical Letters” 1733

• Attacked French monarch, nobles, and clergy with political satire– Jailed several times – had to

flee to Sweden– Staunch defender of personal

freedoms• “I may not approve what you

say, but I will fight to the death to defend your right to say it.”

• Voice of the Enlightenment– Espoused personal, intellectual

and religious freedoms over all else

Philosophers

• Jean Jacques Rousseau• Well known philosopher whose book “The

Social Contract” proposed an ideal society in which all people used a form of direct democracy, and no ruler. Will of majority would be law. (“general will”)

• Like Locke, he believed people to be basically good.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

• “Social Contract” (1762)• Believed that humans were naturally

good– Thought that government, education and

politics corrupted them– One of the first to look at humans in their

natural state of being – before civilization…– One of the first Enlightenment philosophers

to suggest a Direct Democracy over a Constitutional Monarchy (Profound impact on French Revolution and US Declaration of Independence

• Popular Sovereignty– Government gains their legitimacy

from the people– People must choose their government– People must create and control their

government

Philosophers• Baron de Montesquieu• Admired English system of law based on checks on

ruler and limited monarchy• In his writings he specified that separation of

powers between executive, legislative, and judicial branches of government could guarantee citizens’ rights.– Separation of powers would prevent any person or group

from gaining control of government, thus safeguarding the people’s liberty.

– Proposed “checks and balances”

Baron de Montesquieu

“The Spirit of the Laws” (1748)• Tried to describe the perfect

government– Believed that Great Britain had

the best form of government• Preferred Constitutional Monarchy

over a Republic or Direct Democracy

– Three Branches that shared power• Could balance each other out with

a system of checks on each others power

• Funnily enough he was actually wrong about England’s government

• Yet his idea influenced US government

Enlightenment leads to Revolution

• Revolution scares most monarchs because it– Threatens them directly– Ruins economy– Upsets status quo– Weakens them politically

• As Enlightenment spread its ideas across Europe, some Monarchs embraced reforms which were reflective of their Age of Reason spirit(i.e. Catherine the Great {Russia}, Frederick II {Prussia}

Enlightened Despots

• Known as “Enlightened despots” who agreed to less censorship, religious toleration, and improved education

• Motivation was to keep revolution at bay and reign secure

American Revolution

• Philosophers published ideas widely in Europe criticizing governments, promoting revolution and attacking social injustices– Church believed ideas to be corrupt, undermining

proper authority and irreligious• Where their ideas took root was in the

American colonies!

American Revolution

• (1) Colonies facing crisis after 1763 (French and Indian War ended) as Britain taxed colonies to help pay war debts

• Colonists pretty mad about it since they had nothing to say about it

• King George III’s government could care less.• Colonists had colonial governments which the

crown ignored

American Revolution

• (2) Stamp Act (1765) was a tax on all printed material and led to “taxation without representation”, was against English law.– Repealed one year later

• (3) Townsend Acts of 1767 again taxed colonists over goods (e.g. glass, lead, paints, paper and tea)– Repealed them 3 years later fearing revolt (except

for tea) Boston Tea Party 1773

American Revolution

• (4) Intolerable Acts passed by Britain to punish colonies until tea paid for which directly led to first revolt

• (5) First shots Lexington and Concord in 1775 made it “point of no return”

• (6) Declaration of Independence (written by Jefferson), 1 year later, used Locke’s theory of natural rights as its basis and stated:

American Revolution

• Declaration of Independence stated:– Life, Liberty, and pursuit of happiness– People have right to remove a government which

oppresses it– Rights are natural (inalienable) cannot be taken

away. (Natural Rights come from God)• (7) Revolution spread to southern colonies

and fought for next 5 years.

American Revolution

• (8) Key battles: Lexington/Concord (opening shots)Saratoga (kept colonies from being split;

French aid 1778-turning point of war) Yorktown (final British surrender)

• (9) Colonies now on own, must make new government out of 13 independent states– Articles of Confederation 1st attempt at centralized

government but states kept it weak– Had no money, open to attack, no power to enforce

laws in states.

American Revolution

• (10) U.S. Constitution 1787 made a stronger government along federal lines– Federal means power sharing between central

government and states– Montesquieu’s ideas on separation of powers

along with English checks and balances used to craft document

American Revolution

• (11) Bill of Rights – guaranteed freedoms which reflected Enlightenment ideals of individual freedom

French Revolution

• Question: Who is most likely to support a Revolution?

• Question: Why would a government threatened by Revolution refuse to meet the Demands for change?

• (1) In France, the American Revolution had not gone unnoticed by the common folk– Unhappiness with absolute monarchy and privileged

nobility and clergy was starting to mount among the lower classes.

French Revolution

• (2) The Old Regime was divided into 3 classes called ESTATES– 1st estate: clergy (1%)– 2nd estate: nobility (2%)– 3rd estate: all others (97%)

• (3) First Estate: although clergy were powerful with wealthiest clergy originating among nobility; didn’t pay taxes. Lower clergy resented “non concern” for peasants exhibited by higher clergy

French Revolution

• (4) Second Estate: Owned 25% of French land, all high government offices, controlled the armed forces, and many connected to king.

French Revolution

• (5) Third Estate: Owned 50% of French land, but their parcels were too small to support families.– Agricultural reforms and distribution of tax

burdens on land owners was medieval. Clergy paid no taxes on remaining ¼ of French land.

– Taxes: Paid to Government and king and may be as high as 50%. Louis XIV and XV had left enormous debt.

French Revolution• Third Estate Continued:– Bourgeoisie: were the middle class who lived

comfortably and were educated, but no political connections.

– Liked the idea of reforms coming from Enlightenment thinkers like Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Locke. (e.g. Equality and Liberty)

– 3rd Estate divided into 3 groups• Upper – Merchants• Middle – Artisans• Lower – 90% are peasants

French Revolution

• (6) Louis XVI did not see, or was not told, of the resentment and did nothing to become an Enlightened Despot.– Inherited a poor government and couldn’t get

nobility and clergy to accept taxes on their land (refused outright)

– For first time in 170 yrs. French Monarch calls for a meeting of Estates-General to get approval for a tax plan on 1st and 2nd Estates.

French Revolution

• Louis XVI continued:– Estates-General did not meet together (tradition)

where 3rd Estate through sheer numbers could prevail. Nobles continued to meet apart from 3rd Estate.

– Third estate is eventually locked out• Declares itself the “National Assembly” • Meets at indoor Tennis Court (Tennis Court Oath)

– Agrees to keep meeting until a constitution is written– Marks the beginning of the Revolution

– Louis agrees to let all three estates meet together

Phase 1 = National Assembly (moderate)

• (7) Third Estate calls itself the National Assembly and vows to keep meeting until they can produce a French Constitution

• TENNIS COURT OATH

Start of Real Trouble for

King

• Louis moves troops to Paris and Versailles– People storm Bastille prison in

response and loot it for weapons and then destroy it

– Bastille Day (July 14th 1789)• Gen. Lafayette forms

people’s army– National Guard – formed

under new flag• “Great Fear” spreads

through France– Peasants storm manors and

monasteries

"Liberty leading the People" by Eugene Delacroix

French Revolution

• (8) National Assembly announces end of feudalism in France and its accompanying serfdom is banned.– Nobles now start fleeing France in great numbers– Things and positions reserved for the nobility are

now open to all levels of citizens

French Revolution

• (9) Declaration of the Rights of Man is pronounced by National Assembly which said:– Government belongs to people– Government’s aim should be to protect natural

rights of liberty and equality– No one can be deprived of property without legal

means employed and payment made• Very similar to U.S. Bill of Right and English Bill

of Rights

Declaration of the Rights of Man • Created in August 1789– “Men are born equal and

remain equal before the law”

– Free Speech, Press, and Religion

– Guaranteed right to participate in gov’t

– Right to Fair Trial• “Liberty, Equality, and

Fraternity”

Louis is forced into Paris• Louis and the Nobility hold a banquet at Versailles– Praise King and insults NA– Group of Women storm Versailles and force King and royal

family back to Paris

French Revolution• (10) Louis now is forced to cooperate with National

Assembly as it dismantles absolute monarchy in France. It also:– Forces Church under state control, confiscates its lands

and makes bishops and priest positions open to election– Seized lands of nobles who fled and proceeded to divide

country into departments governed by elected officials– Adopted a constitution in 1791 limiting the king’s power

and creating the Legislative Assembly.– This was the first stage of French Revolution

Constitution of 1791

• Limited the power of the King• Set up three branches of gov’t (Executive,

Legislative and Judicial)• National Assembly dissolved and Legislative

Assembly set up• Louis XVI accepts reforms but tries to flee

Paris (caught in disguise)– People wanted a Constitutional Monarchy but

now start to discuss a republic

French Revolution

• (11) Louis XVI’s reign was coming to an end, as would his life at the hands of French Revolutionaries in about 18 months.

Phase 2: National Assembly RADICAL phase

• Radicals take over Assembly and set up National Convention (abolish monarchy and declare France a republic)

• Execute King Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette• Committee of Public Safety (Robespierre)• Reign of Terror (40,000 executed)

Goodbye Louis XVI• National Convention

brought Louis XVI to trial and sentenced him to death– July 21st 1793 – Louis

XVI is sent to the guillotine

• Scares European Monarchs and alarms entire world– Thought that revolution

had become too radical

“The Reign of Terror”• Attempt to suppress all

opposition to the Revolution• Lasted from Sept. 1793 to July

1794• Committee of Public Safety

– Led by Maximilien Robespierre– To stop foreign threats

(conscription)– To try “enemies of the Revolution”

in France• Counter Revolutionaries try to

fight back– Leader of Jacobins (Jean-Paul

Marat) is murdered– Things are getting real ugly in

France

The Guillotine “National Razor”• Jacobins start to execute not only the nobility but

anyone suspected of treason• 20,000 to 40,000 people executed• Spring of 1794 – “Jacobin” Georges-Jacques Danton

wanted the Reign of Terror to stop– France had started to force back foreign powers– Robespierre has Danton and his followers put to death

• Robespierre was arrested and put to death – signifies the end of Reign of Terror (July 1794)

• People are disillusioned and confused

The Directory (1794-1799)• National Convention makes new constitution in

1795– Two-house legislature • Upper house selects five directors to run country (executive

branch)• Eliminates Universal Manhood Suffrage

• Was not too successful– Five directors fight among each other constantly– Conditions slightly improved in country but many still

suffered– Set up path for military dictatorship… Napoleon

Bonaparte

Napoleon Bonaparte

• General Bonaparte helps overthrow the Directory• Consulate set up with Napoleon as “First

Consulate”• Napoleon names himself “Consulate for Life” and

then “Emperor of the French”• Economic and religious reforms • Napoleonic Code established• Military victories create French empire• French defeat at the Battle of the Nations

Legacy of Napoleon

• Unsuccessful attempt to “unify” Europe under French control

• Napoleonic Law Code introduced many to basic Enlightenment principles– Equality before the law– Religious toleration– Merit being basis for advancement

• Spread of Nationalism….

Napoleonic Code

• The code forbade privileges based on birth, allowed freedom of religion, and specified that government jobs should go to the most qualified.

Liberal vs. Conservative Ideas 1800sLIBERAL

• 1. Male property owners

• 2. protect basic rights/property

• 3. REPUBLIC (constitution and separation of powers)

• 4. Laissez-faire• 5. Freedom of

religion

CONSERVATIVE

• 1. Monarch/nobles• 2. stability and order• 3. Monarchy• 4. controlled by nobles• 5. Established church

1. WHO should rule

2. Goal of Gov’t

3. FORM of Gov’t

4. Economy5. Religion