THE EFFECTS OF, LINED PAPER, PROMPTING, … · individuals practiced for hours each day to perfect...

THE EFFECTS OF, LINED PAPER, PROMPTING, TRACING, REWARDS, AND FADING TO INCREASE HANDWRITING PERFORMANCE AND

LEGIBILITY WITH TWO PRESCHOOL SPECIAL EDUCATION STUDENTS DIAGNOSED WITH DEVELOPMENTAL DELAYS,

AND FINE MOTOR DEFICITS

* Special education teacher in Northern California.** Ph. D., Professor, Department of Special Education, Gonzaga University, Spokane.

*** Lecturer, Department of Special Education, Gonzaga University, Spokane.**** M.Ed, Spokane Public Schools, Gonzaga University.

ABSTRACT

This study was designed to examine the effects of tracing and fading prompts to improve the handwriting of two

preschoolers both diagnosed as Developmentally Delayed (DD) and one of whom had fine motor goals. The study took

place in a self-contained special education public preschool classroom located in the Pacific Northwest. The results

showed an increase in legibility of writing for both participants as well as an increase in independence when writing their

letters. This report suggests that providing traceable prompts and methodically fading those prompts based on student

performance was effective and applicable when teaching preschool children diagnosed with Developmental Delays to

write their names.

Keywords: Tracing, Fading, Prompts, Developmentally Delayed, Fine Motor, Preschool Children, Self-Contained

Preschool, Handwriting.

ERIN SMITH * T. F. MCLAUGHLIN ** JENNIFER NEYMAN *** LISA RINALDI ****

By

INTRODUCTION

Handwriting is a skill humans have used throughout history

to communicate, document, and learn. At one point in

history, handwriting was even viewed as art, and

individuals practiced for hours each day to perfect their

handwriting into art (Leo, 2006; Richard, 2011). Modern

technology has allowed for handwriting to receive less

instruction in today's classrooms and curriculums.

However, technology should not be allowed the

opportunity to replace handwriting for several reasons. To

begin with, punching buttons to make a shape that

represents a sound hinders children's reading

development because children are not “using a

multisensory pathway to remember the shapes and

names of the letters they will need as they learn to read”

(Graham, 1999; Richard, 2011). Instead, children should

still be taught to neatly and correctly form letters so they

are familiar with the letters and all they represent

(Graham, 1999). Furthermore, technology should not be

seen as a replacement or substitute for handwriting

because many standardized tests contain a written

portion in which the handwriting of the individual taking

the test is considered in the scoring and value of the ideas

presented (Leo, 2006; Nilsson, 2004). Research also

revealed that students who are able to write legibly

produce better compositions because they do not have

to focus on the letter they are struggling to produce;

instead, they can focus on generating a thought or an

idea and presenting it in an elegant way (Nilsson, 2004).

School work completed and written legibly receives

higher grades than does work written with illegible letters or

words (Graham, 1999). Finally, individuals are asked often

for their name, phone numbers, addresses, and emails

and when these names and modes of electronic

communication are not hand written properly, the

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23li-manager’s Journal o Psychology, Vol. No. 4 ln Educational 6 February – April 2013

electronic contact is lost. Including handwriting in a

student's routine from an early age is a way of preventing

such loss, preparing students adequately and completely

for formal tests, and helping them prepare more fully for

reading. As helpful and beneficial as technology is, it

cannot fully take the place of handwriting. Consequently,

it seems only logical to introduce and begin refining such

a necessary, lifelong skill as early as preschool and then

regularly throughout grade school (Park, Weber, &

McLaughlin, 2007).

For beginning writers, there are three components to

handwriting that are necessary to learn and simple to

evaluate: size, slant, and formation of the letter (Nilsson,

2004). Research has shown that tracing is an activity that

strengthens handwriting by helping children recognize the

shape a letter takes while also practicing appropriate size

of the letter and correct formation of the letter (Wistrom,

2011). Tracing letters is an ideal gateway to mastering size,

slant, and formation of letters. Tracing also provides

children with the opportunity to further refine their fine

motor skills and concentrate on forming artistic letters

(Leo, 2006). It has also been shown that tracing improves

handwriting for children as young as preschool (Caletti,

McLaughlin, Derby, & Rinaldi, 2012). The place for young

children to begin preparing for reading, formal test, and

interactions without technology is by learning to write their

name.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of

tracing and fading the prompts provided by tracing on

the legibility of two preschool students' writing of their

names in a self-contained preschool classroom. An

additional purpose was to replicate our current

handwriting research in the same preschool setting with

different participants (Catelli et al., 2012).

Method

Participants

Participant 1 was a 5 ½-year-old male preschooler

diagnosed with a developmental delay and who also

exhibited severe behavioral and social disabilities. He

attended a public preschool and was enrolled in a self-

contained classroom. The Individualized Education Plan

(IEP) goals established for Participant 1 were in the pre

academic domain and the behavioral domain.

Participant 1 was referred to special education after being

asked to leave several day cares and other preschools

due to disruptive and destructive behavior. There was a

history of learning disabilities on the maternal side of

Participant 1's family. The mother and her siblings had IEPs

with preacademic and academic goals throughout their

schooling.

Participant 1 has also been tested using the Woodcock-

Johnson-III (WJ-III) (Woodcock, McGrew, & Mather, 2008)

and the BATTELLE Developmental Inventory-II (BDI-2)

(Newborg, 2004). His scores on the WJ-III were low and

documented his need for special education in the

preacademic domain. Participant 1 was able to

demonstrate more strength on the BDI-2. He showed

strong Adaptive skills and Personal-Social skills as

demonstrated by his scores of 0.47 and 1.0 standard

deviations below the mean respectively. His Motor

Development was struggling minimally and only due to

one area, perceptual motor. His fine and gross motor skills

were developing at an appropriate rate, and his current

skills are age appropriate. Participant 1 earned a score of

1.47 standard deviations below the mean in

Communication. Although there was room for

improvement, this was not an area of concern for his lead

teacher. The fifth and final skill set, Cognitive skills, was

Participant 1's weakest skill set. He scored 2.27 standard

deviations below the mean. Participant 1 was receiving

specialized instruction in this area to increase his skills and

abilities so integration and success could be a part of his

future.

Participant 2 was a 4 ½-year-old girl who was diagnosed

with a Developmental Delay (DD) and ASD. She was

referred to a self-contained public preschool to receive

therapy in the communication and fine motor domains.

One of her IEP goals was to write the first three letters of her

name by June 2012 and then her whole name by

February 2013 with the guidance and extra instruction

provided by an occupational therapist (OT).

Setting

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24 li-manager’s Journal o Psychology, Vol. No. 4 ln Educational 6 February – April 2013

This study took place in a self-contained special

education preschool classroom at a public elementary

school in the Pacific Northwest. It has been the setting for

several recent research projects involving handwriting

(Caletti et al., 2012; Chandler, McLaughlin, Neyman, &

Rinaldi, 2012; Coussens, McLaughlin, Derby, & McKenzie,

2012; Ehlers, McLaughlin, Derby, & Rinaldi, 2012). Both

participants were enrolled in the afternoon session of a

half-day public preschool program. When the study

began there were eight students in the afternoon. By the

conclusion of the study there were a total of ten students in

the session, including the participants. The classroom

served a wide range of disabilities including Down's

Syndrome, Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), Attention

Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), Developmentally

Delayed (DD), sensory impairments and delays, social

delays, speech delays, and the blind. The data were

collected after the students arrived in the classroom and

checked-in and was to be completed before engaging

in free play. These data were collected at a table located

near the door of the classroom that was oriented in such a

way that made the children look at the door with their

backs to the classroom where free play was taking place

for those who had completed their tasks. This was done to

eliminate some distraction caused by classmates

engaging in free play and also to engage all children in

an entry task that would help prepare them for the

increased structure and demands of kindergarten.

Dependent Variables and Measurement Procedures

The dependent variable recorded was the rating of

handwriting. Three parts to each student's handwriting

were scored: size of the letter, slant of the lines or curves

within appropriate letters, and formation of the letter. If size

of letter was appropriate one point was awarded. The

letter had to stay within the lines on the paper yet touch, or

bump, the top and/or bottom lines. For slant, one point

was awarded when the lines were steady and at

appropriate angles to form the intended letter. Formation

of the letter earned a point if the letter written by the

student was judged. Formation was defined as

resembling the intended letter without clarification by the

student or the need for a reference such as the faint

outline of the letter being traced. At the beginning of each

session, the participants were reminded to trace the lines

or write the letters they had nearly mastered and to finish

the sheet so they could earn as many points as possible.

The participants and their classmates had the opportunity

to earn up to 69 points per session by tracing or writing 23

letters. The students were allowed to proceed to the next

level or a new letter, when they earned 55 points or more

for three consecutive days. Data were collected twice a

week for approximately three weeks and four times a

week for approximately seven weeks.

Experimental Designs and Conditions

A combination multiple baseline and reversal design was

used for the duration of this study (Barlow, Nock, & Hersen,

2008; Kazdin, 2011). Below are descriptions of each

condition.

Baseline

Baseline data were collected by having Participant 1 and

Participant 2 write their first name on a piece of white

coloring paper. They were not provided with a visual aid,

verbal prompting, or hand-over-hand assistance. The

researcher scored the final product considering the size,

slant, and formation of each letter. Baseline was in effect

for differing numbers of sessions for Participants 1 and 2.

Lined Paper

After baseline data were collected, the participants were

asked to write their names on lined paper. The letters

produced were scored the same way as in baseline; size,

slant, and formation were considered for letters written.

However, points were not awarded for letters not written.

These scores were used to determine which letter and the

stage at which each participant began to trace their

name.

Lined Paper and Tracing 1.

The researcher drew each letter of each participant's

name 24 times through 7-9 stages in which the prompts

for the participants were faded. The first stage was the

letter written with wide, solid lines. The next stage was the

whole letter written with thin solid lines. The third stage was

the use of wide dots, and the fourth stage was thin dots all

to be connected by the participants. After the fourth stage

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the number of dots to be connected were faded until the

eighth or ninth stage, depending on the complexity of the

letter. Next, the participant was presented a full sheet of

blank lined paper on which to write the letter. The first letter

of every page, including the pages designated for the

student to write the letter without prompts, had a model of

how the final letter should look. To progress to the next

stage or graduate to the next letter, the participants had

to earn 55 of the 69 possible points for two consecutive

data days.

Lined Paper and Tracing 2

Participant 2 was presented with smaller segments of the

writing sheet. She was then required to trace or write eight

letters per session instead of 23 letters. During this phase,

Participant 1 continued to receive the whole sheet with 23

letters and one model.

Results

Both participants demonstrated an increase in awareness

and ability to write the first letters of their names (See

Figures 1 and 2) from the beginning to the end of the

study. This increased awareness and increased ability to

write the letters allowed both participants to acquire more

points when writing their names at the end of the study

(See Figures 3 and 4). Participant 1 earned 1 out of 18

points during baseline 1 for writing his entire name on white

paper. Participant 2 earned 0 out of 18 points for writing

her name on white paper during baseline 1. During

baseline 2, Participant 1 earned 2 out of 18 points while

Participant 2 earned 6 out of 18 points for writing their

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Figure 1. The Percentage of Points Earned by Participant 1 During Four Baselines and the First Six Stages of Tracing

the First Letter of his Name

Figure 2. The Percentage of Handwriting Points Earned by Participant 2 During Baseline, Two Prompting

and the Two Tracing Phases

Figure 3. The Percentage of Points Earned by Participant 1 when asked to Write his Whole First Name after Intervention Began

Figure 4. The Percentage of Points Earned by Participant 2 when asked to Write her whole First Name after Intervention began

names on lined paper. By the end of the study, baseline 5

for Participant 1 and baseline 4 for Participant 2,

Participant 1 earned 6 out of 18 points for writing his entire

name on lined paper, and Participant 2 earned 5 out of 18

points for writing her entire name on lined paper.

Participant 1 earned 59, 39, 63, and 64 out of 69 points for

stage 1 intervention for the first letter of his name. For stage

2 of the same letter, he earned 62 and 56 out of 69 points.

For stage 3 of the same letter, he earned 59, 52, and 63

out of 69 points. For stage 4 of the same letter, he earned

65, 63, and 65 out of 69 points. For stage 5, he earned 65,

63, and 63 out of 69 points. For stage 6 of the same letter,

he earned 63 and 66 points.

Participant 2 earned 24, 27, 40, 54, 58, 49, and 50 out of

69 points for stage 1 of the first letter of her name.

Modifications were made to her practice sheets and she

earned 16, 20, 16, 21, 20, 22, and 20 points out of 24

points for stage 1 of the first letter of her name. While

continuing the modifications, Participant 2 earned 20, 21,

17, 18, 20, and 22 out of 24 points for Stage 2 of the first

letter of her name.

Discussion

The results of the study indicate that tracing letters and

then fading the prompts for those traceable letters was

developmental ly appropr iate. Each indiv idual

participant improved in their ability to write his or her

name. Providing students with and without disabilities with

starting dots and the opportunity to trace letters to learn

size, slant, and formation, and then to fade those prompts

appropriately was supported by previous research (Park et

al., 2007).

Despite the demonstrated success, greater success

could be obtained, especially for Participant 2, if the study

lasted several more weeks or if daily practice was

implemented so more letters could be mastered. Neither

participant was able to complete their entire first name

within the time line for data collection.

One of the greatest strengths within this study was the

reinforcement system used for Participant 1. Hand drawn

stars were awarded for each letter, and Participant 1

worked diligently to earn the maximum amount of stars for

every letter he wrote. The large quantity of stars he earned

in the beginning stages made him very proud of his work

and motivated him to maintain such high quantities of

stars throughout the study. This steady, consistent

eagerness to succeed allowed Participant 1 to progress

through several letters of his name as well as learn the

control and discipline required for writing quality letters.

This mastering the ability to write letters leads to a second

strength within the study: the participant's learned the

invaluable skill of writing their names. The ability to write

one's name legibly and reliably is a necessary skill each

individual with the potential to write should be able to do.

It is a skill used daily in childhood to claim one's work and a

skill used in adulthood when distributing contact

information, writing a check, or taking notes while at work.

A third strength within this study was the ease with which it

can be replicated and implemented in other preschools

for both disabled and nondisabled children. The materials

needed were affordable and easy to find. Furthermore,

entire classes can benefit from such a set up, the teacher

is not restricted to a small group of participants.

Several weaknesses within the study took place. One of

the largest weaknesses within the study was the time

restraint. There was not enough time from the initiation of

the study, mid-school year to the conclusion-the end of

the researcher's school year-for the participants to benefit

from having the opportunity to practice letters seen later in

their names or to begin work on their last names. Also,

while the study was taking place, the researcher's time

with the participant's was limited, therefore limiting the

researcher's ability to provide all of the necessary verbal

prompting and direct instruction that would have allowed

for possible faster progress and therefore practice with

more letters of their names and the alphabet. Another

weakness within the study was that all of the letters traced

by the students were drawn by the first author. There were

some slight and some more significant inconsistencies

between letters on each page, potentially confusing the

participants as to how to properly trace or write the letter.

Furthermore, the participant's were both held to a certain

standard that required them to form letters with consistent

precision. It was not best for them to have inconsistent

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letters to trace or write when their prompt was inconsistent.

Another weakness lies within the time it takes to create the

work sheets and the quantity of worksheets per letter.

Drawing a letter to look the same 24 times per sheet is tiring

for the instructor. Having to then create seven to nine

stages per letter requires a time commitment not

available to many instructors in today's school system.

There were also days when the researcher found it

especially difficult to gather and maintain the

participants' attention, especially Participant 2. She often

wanted to play with her peers, one boy in particular, and

when she could not because she had not finished her

work, she rushed and did a poor job thus slowing her

progress. With better timing of the activity in the day or a

more controlled atmosphere, some students were not

feeling as though they were missing out on the fun

activities, and could have potentially delivered better

results for the students who found reinforcement from free

play.

The main goal of this study was to increase the

participants' skills at writing their names so they would be

better prepared to fulfill the tasks required of them next

year in kindergarten. The data gathered during and

presented in this study suggests that both participants will

be better prepared for kindergarten due to their

demonstrated increased handwriting skills. This analysis

replicates previous research on handwriting with

preschool children with disabilities (Carlson, McLaughlin,

Derby, & Blecher, 2009; Cosby, McLaughlin, Derby,

Huewe, 2009; Coussens et al., 2012; Lebrun, McLaughlin,

Derby, & McKenzie, 2012; Park et al., 2007). Furthermore,

these outcomes suggest that students with disabilities can

be taught and obtain skills that are often thought to be too

difficult or too strenuous for them to learn and maintain

and are therefore reserved only for children in general

education (Hoard, Williams, & Lepper, 2010). In an effort to

continue to strengthen the skills of these students,

continued research should be conducted to determine if

the acquired skills are maintained over time and across a

variety of classroom settings.

References

[1]. Barlow, D., Nock, M. K., & Hersen, M. (2008). Single

case research designs: Strategies for studying behavior

change (3rd ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

[2]. Caletti, E., McLaughlin, T. F., Derby, K. M., & Rinaldi, L.

(2012). The effects of using visual prompts, tracing, and

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Erin Smith is a Special Education Teacher in Northern California.

T. F. McLaughlin, Ph. D. is a Full Professor in the Department of Special Education at Gonzaga University. He teaches courses in research, ADHD, behavior disorders, and supervises student teachers. His areas of interest include ADHD, Academic Interventions, Applied Behavior Analysis, Special Education, Teacher Education and Special Education.

Jennifer Neyman is a Lecturer in the Department of Special Education Gonzaga University Spokane. She teaches courses on special education law, introduction to assessment, classroom management, and autism. Her areas of interest include functional assessment, consulting in the schools, academic interventions, severe behavior disorders, teacher training.

Lisa Rinaldi, M. Ed teaches pre school special education in the Spokane Public Schools and a master teacher for Gonzaga University. She is a special education student. Her classroom has served as the setting for a large number of action research projects.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

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